Sociology 2
Social Institutions: Education
Hidden Curriculum = discussed earlier as an agent of socialization. Do you remember it conceptually? This could serve as a way of double-checking your process. If you did not master this concept, answer the four conceptual questions regarding it, and place it into Anki when it first appeared, that indicates you need to change your study habits.
Q10. Using U.S. culture as an illustration, identify at least two historical examples of both a) subcultures and b) countercultures.
The dominant culture includes the way the majority of people in the culture thinks and acts. Subculture refers to cultural patterns that set apart some segment of a society's population. An example of a subculture is marathon runners. Counterculture refers to cultural patterns that strongly oppose those widely accepted within a society. An example of counterculture is ISIS or the Islamic State in Iraq.
Q5. Provide a conceptual definition for each of the following: a) capitalism, b) socialism, c) monarchy, d) democracy, e) authoritarianism, f) totalitarianism, g) oligarchy, h) plutocracy, and i) egalitarianism.
a) Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned. In an ideal capitalist economy, there are three distinct features: Private ownership of property Pursuit of personal profit Competition and consumer choice The United States is considered to have a capitalist economy; although it isn't pure capitalist because of the large role the government plays in regulating the economy. b) Socialism is an economic system in which the means of production are collectively held. In an ideal socialist economy, there are three distinct features: Collective ownership of property Pursuit of collective goals Government control of the economy The largest countries with socialist economies include Cuba, Venezuela, North Korea and China. c) Monarchy is a political system in which a single family rules from generation to generation. There are 26 monarchies in the world today. Of the monarchies in Europe, all are considered to be constitutional monarchies with the royal families being figureheads with the actual governing power vested in elected officials. d) Democracy is a political system in which power is given to the people. It is unrealistic for all citizens to have a voice, so most nations claiming to be democracies are actually representative democracies where elected officials act on their behalf. The United States along with most high- income nations are democracies. e) Authoritarianism is a political system that denies the people participation in government. Authoritarian governments control the lives of the people and there is no freedom of speech. An example of a contemporary authoritarian government is Iran. f) Totalitarianism is the most extreme type of authoritarianism and is a political system that is highly centralized and extensively regulates people's lives. The government has economical, political, social and cultural control. In other words, the reach of the government is endless. An example of contemporary totalitarianism is North Korea. g) Oligarchy is a social system under the control of a small elite. The iron law of oligarchy (Robert Michel) claims all large, complex societies become oligarchies because of the following: People prefer to let others make decisions for them. The system is so complex that people can't possibly know enough to intelligently participate in the decision-making. Those in power tend to stay in power and are unwilling to give any of that power up. The United States can be seen as an oligarchy. f) Plutocracy is a social system where the wealthy rule, in other words power by wealth. It refers to the disproportionate influence the wealthy has on the political process. Many claims have been made about the United States being a plutocracy particularly since the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 2010 in the Citizen's United v. Federal Election Commission that the government may not keep companies or unions from spending money to support or denounce candidates in elections. This opened the door to wealthy companies to influence elections. i) Egalitarianism is a social system where equality of all people in political, economic and social life exists. Although a noble belief, in reality this does not occur anywhere in the world, nor has it in history.
The Social Construction of Gender
Construct = Something developed or created rather than directly observable or measurable. Constructs are thought of as more subjective than objective, more theoretical than empirical. The term is used frequently in both psychology and sociology. A social construct is a construct created by a society.
Racialization
ascribing a racial or ethnic identity to a group that does not self-identify as that race or ethnicity.
Globalization:
integration of individual economies and cultures into a more unified global economy and culture. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO GLOBALIZATION: Free trade between nations, economic interdependence, ease of travel, and access to technology (i.e., the internet) tend to blur national boundaries and encourage globalization.
Sexual Orientation
Heterosexual = attracted to the opposite sex Bisexual = attracted to both or either sex Homosexual = attracted to the same sex
Understanding Social Structure:
Macrosociology vs. Microsociology Macrosociology = large groups and social institutions Microsociology = small groups or individuals Six Major Sociological Theories: Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactionism Social Constructionism Exchange Theory Rational Choice Theory
Social Changes in Globalization:
Civil Unrest and Terrorism CIVIL UNREST: Civil unrest can result from globalization because some theorists propose that globalization creates global inequality by making the entire world a single capitalist market. Globalization can also make previously isolated groups aware of their relative deprivation compared to others around the world, leading to uprisings. TERRORISM: Globalization may be impeded by the threat of terrorism. Free flow of people, goods, and money is needed for globalization, but leaves countries more susceptible to terrorism. Terrorism may also be exacerbated by globalization, as technology increasingly puts images of Western modernization in the face of traditional Muslim societies that find them offensive. Technology is part of globalization and is often used by terrorists for recruitment and radicalization.
Q21. Differentiate between the concept of health disparity and healthcare disparity.
Health disparity refers to the higher burden of illness, injury disability or mortality experienced by one population group relative to another. Healthcare disparity refers to differences between groups in health care coverage, access to care and quality of care.
Patterns of Social Mobility:
Intergenerational vs. Intragenerational Social Mobility Intergenerational = change in social class by one or more members of a family between generations. Intragenerational = change in social class by an individual within their lifespan. Vertical vs. Horizontal Mobility Vertical = a change in social status or class (e.g., poor individual marries into a rich family). Horizontal = a change in position within a class that does not result in a change in social status (e.g., a working-class man gets a new job with a small pay raise; the job comes with no new status or significant increase in wealth).
Social Epidemiology:
Epidemiology = A branch of medicine focused on the incidence, prevalence, and wide-spread control of diseases and other factors relating to public health. Incidence vs. Prevalence Morbidity vs. Mortality
Diversity in Family Forms
NUCLEAR FAMILY --> DIVERSE FAMILIES: The traditional nuclear family of mother, father, and children is decreasing in frequency across many cultures. Other increasingly common family forms include: single parents, cross-generational families (e.g., grandparents or great grandparents are generally expected to live in the same house), polygamist parents, and same-sex parents.
The Illness Experience:
The ways in which individuals define and adapt to a perceived lack of good health. Illness = A person's subjective experience of a health problem. Disease = A medical professional's scientific definition of a health problem based on signs and symptoms.
Gender Differences:
Differences are less clear than for socioeconomic status. In developed countries, women have longer life-expectancy than do males. Negative female health disparities are less-pronounced in developed countries. However, in patriarchal societies were women are considered inferior they are more prone to abuse, have less access to healthcare, and have lower life expectancies. Men are more prone to heart disease, diabetes, asthma, and various other chronic illnesses. Men are more prone to death from injury, or as casualties of war.
Evolution and Human Culture (Cultural Evolution)
Culture speeds up human evolution! The existence of culture creates new selective pressures that drive natural selection. For example, the rate of human evolution increased dramatically when Homo sapiens sapiens transitioned from a hunter-gatherer culture to an agricultural society. The more concentrated agriculturalists had more problems with disease, resulting in selection for disease-resistant genes. Similarly, a decrease in meat and an increase in grains and vegetables in their diets created selective pressures that drove the evolution of digestive enzymes and other alleles that conferred an advantage. It is cultural CHANGE that most directly drives evolution. The more dramatic the cultural change, the more likely that change is to speed up evolution.
Culture:
Elements of Culture Beliefs (e.g., religion, politics) Language Rituals (e.g., ceremonies, religious rites of passage, symbolic acts) Symbols (e.g., flags, emblems) Values (e.g., individualism, patriotism, communalism, Judeo-Christian values in the U.S.)
Organization of Social Movements
Loose Organization: At the overall "movement" level, a social movement usually has little organization. There is rarely a centralized, recognized organization that officially represents or speaks for the movement as a whole. "Leaders" of social movements are often unofficial or even self-appointed. Social Movement Organizations (SMOs): These are formal organizations (often non- profits) that constitute a sub-component of the movement. For example, "Environmentalism" is a movement in the U.S that includes many SMOs: The Sierra Club, Earth Share, The Nature Conservancy, etc. Members of individual SMOs often disagree about strategy and tactics, or have slightly different objectives within the broader movement.
CLASS DIFFERENCES:
Socioeconomic Class is strongly correlated with overall health, access to healthcare, and healthy behaviors both in the U.S. and worldwide. The poorest people are the most sick. The wealthiest people are the most healthy, in terms of overall health. The poor, and poor countries as a whole, are susceptible to more diseases and disease outbreaks than are wealthy persons or countries—including diseases such as smallpox or malaria that have been essentially eradicated among wealthier people and nations. The poor are less likely to be vaccinated. The poor have less access to healthcare than do the wealthy. This can be a complete lack of geographical access (e.g., no hospital anywhere near a village in Mozambique), or lack of the resources necessary to purchase healthcare (e.g., hospital next door, but unable to pay for care and/or cannot afford health insurance). The poor engage in unhealthy behaviors at a much higher rate than do the wealthy (e.g., smoking, drug use, unprotected sex).
Racial Formation
racial categories are not permanent or easily defined, but are constructed by various forces in history and society. Racial identities can be created, strengthened, and destroyed, and are always fluid.
Three Major Perspectives on Globalization:
Hyperglobalization Perspective = globalization is a major new epoch in human history, national boundaries will be dissolved. CAUSE = economic logic of a global economy. Skeptical Perspective = current globalization is fragmented and regionalized. The peak of globalization occurred in the 19th century and nationalism is now on the rise. CAUSE = N/A, because globalization isn't really occurring—it is a myth. Transformationalist Perspective = globalization may be occurring, but the degree to which it is, and its eventual outcomes is undetermined. CAUSE = no single cause is known.
Religion and Social Change:
Modernization = A societal transformation away from a traditional, rural, agrarian society, and toward a secular, urban, industrial society. Secularization = A societal transformation away from close identification with religious values or institutions, and toward non-religious, secular values or institutions. Fundamentalism = Religious movements focused on "returning to" or "preserving" pure, original, or unchanged values, teachings or behaviors. This is often a direct reaction to social change, especially modernization and secularization. Fundamentalists tend to have stronger levels of commitment, be more absolute in their beliefs, less tolerant of opposing views, and in some cases resort to extremism or terrorism.
Push and Pull Factors in Migration
Immigration = movement into a nation or region Emigration = movement out of a nation or region. Push = aspects of a society that encourage emigration (out). Examples could include low wages, low standard of living, lack of employment, religious persecution, or war. Pull = aspects of a society that attract immigrants (in). Examples could include higher wages, a higher standard of living, employment opportunities, or political freedom.
Q1. For Rational choice theory, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Rational choice theory sees all actions as fundamentally rational and people ascertain the costs and benefits of any action prior to acting. Actions are rationally motivated, despite appearing otherwise. It is related to social exchange theory including the same sort of cost benefit analysis, but differs with its emphasis on the individual acting rationally. There are three components to rational choice theory: 1) Individualism 2) Maximization of goals 3) Self-interest An example of applying this theory can be used to explain voting behavior in the United States. Rational choice theory claims that voting behavior is governed less by race / ethnicity, age, gender, social class or party loyalty than by rational calculations of self-interest. In other words, which political candidate is most likely to benefit my family and me? An example of applying this theory facilitates an understanding of criminal behavior. Criminals think about themselves and how to achieve their goals. They rationally choose to follow the laws or break them following a cost benefit analysis. If the benefit of money, status and the thrill of the act outweigh the risk of being caught by the authorities, the criminal will likely break the law.
Religion
Religion vs. Religiosity Religion = Formal beliefs, doctrines, or values taught or associated with a specific church or group. Religiosity = A more broad term encompassing any guiding belief or behavior by an individual regarding ultimate or transcendent issues (e.g., the purpose of life, death, life after death, morality, ethics). Types of Religious Organizations Churches Sects Cults
TeacherExpectancy Q2. Which examples illustrate hidden curriculum and why? Which are examples of teacher expectancy? a) Students learn that most knowledge and learning comes via reading textbooks. b) Teachers are to be given the utmost respect as dominant authority figures. c) Johnny is absent and the teacher believes his parents have probably taken him out of school for a family event or vacation; Pablo is absent and the teacher believes he has skipped class to hang out with friends. d) Students are expected not to speak out of turn. e) One student scores an 80 percent on an exam and is told: "You can do better, Sarah, I know you can." Another student earns the same score and is told: "Excellent work David, you did it." f) The higher level of performance by boys in one particular science class may not be based on actual aptitude differences between the boys and girls in that class.
The hidden curriculum is a concept that describes the unacknowledged, unarticulated curriculum students are taught in school that contribute to how the educational system creates and recreates social inequality. Contrasted to the publicized curriculum that defines what students are supposed to learn and what teachers are supposed to teach. The sociological study of the hidden curriculum draws attention to the unintended consequences of social institutions overall. Sociological studies of teacher expectancy (the impact of a teacher's expectations on a student's performance) have found that student background and socioeconomic status were more important in determining educational achievement than were differences in school resources. a) Publicized curriculum - it is what students are supposed to learn and how teachers are supposed to teach. b) Publicized curriculum - we all have a general understanding that teachers are to be given respect as authority figures. c) Teacher expectancy - Johnny is from an upper-middle class family whose parents travel to educational places. Pablo is from a poor family whose parents do not value education and don't provide adequate supervision for him. d) Publicized curriculum - we all have a general understanding that students are not to speak out of turn while in the classroom. e) Teacher expectancy - the teacher has higher expectancies for Sarah than they do for David based on unknown factors. f) Hidden curriculum - boys have been treated differently than girls in science, technology, engineering and math. Boys have been advantaged by this preferential treatment and therefore more boys have engaged in upper level classes and college majors resulting in more men in those careers than women.
Gender Segregation
The physical, legal, or social segregation of individuals according to sex. EXAMPLES: separate gym classes for boys and girls, different legal treatment of men versus women, or encouraging young women to pursue traditional female careers such as teaching or nursing, rather than traditional male careers such as firefighting or joining the military. GENDER INEQUALITY: A general term describing any aspect of society wherein individuals are treated differently based upon gender. Patriarchy = any societal, political, cultural, or familial structure wherein men are thought to have greater power, authority, privilege, or rights than women. Historically, it is used to refer to the family structure in which the father is established as the "head of the household" with authority over women and children.
Social Exclusion:
The systematic blocking of a segment of society from the rights and opportunities available to others. THE NEIGHBORHOOD EFFECT: Segregation of the elderly, disabled, minorities, or the poverty-stricken into neighborhoods or housing projects can lead to social exclusion and even social isolation—an extreme case where a person has no contact, or nearly no contact, with society.
Medical Model of Disability vs. Social Model of Disability Q6. Provide a conceptual definition that differentiates between the medical and social models of understanding illness and disability. Provide examples of approaches, attitudes, or behaviors reflective of both models.
There are two models for understanding illness and disability - the medical model and the social model. Each has different approaches, attitudes, and behaviors towards illness and disability. The medical model sees the illness or impairment as the problem. The illness or disability is the target of cure and the individuals are the passive receivers of services. Diagnosis and treatment is the primary approach. Often these individuals receive more health care than they need, think one expensive diagnostic test after another. The social model sees the structures within a society as the problem. The ill or people with disability are active participants with working in partnership with others. Prevention and integration rather than treatment is the primary approach. The team approach is emphasized, shifting medical care from expensive medical specialists to less expensive nurse practitioners and physician assistants. This approach benefits everyone, pushing society to evolve.
Mass Media and Popular Culture
Mass Media (MM) = methods or instruments of conveying information that allow for communication with large numbers of people at once (e.g., radio, television, internet). Cultural values influence what the media presents; What the media presents influences cultural values. THINK: CV <-> MM
Government and Economy
Power and Authority Power = the ability to obtain one's desires or goals, even in the face of opposition. Authority = the legitimate, approved use of power by a leader over persons who recognize or have granted that power to the leader. Force, coercion, and tyrannical forms of government such as totalitarianism are examples of power without consent, and are said to have little or no legitimacy. Authority-dependent uses of power, such as democratic forms of government that require the consent of the governed, are examples of power with consent, and are said to have a high level of legitimacy. Comparative Economic and Political Systems Forms of Government/Social Systems to know for MCAT-2015: Capitalism, Socialism, Monarchy, Democracy, Plutocracy, Oligarchy, Totalitarianism, Authoritarianism, and Egalitarianism.
Demographic Structure of Society:
Age, Gender, Race and Ethnicity, Immigration Status, and Sexual Orientation. Aging and the Life Course Gerontology = The scientific study of the biological, psychological, and social aspects of aging. THE LIFE COURSE: A theoretical approach to studying human experience, aging or development. It considers an individual's entire lifetime as a whole and pays particular attention to life transitions and trajectories. Transition = a significant, discrete change or event in one's life (e.g., first day of school, graduation, first marriage, first real job, etc.) Trajectory = a stable, long-term sequence of linked states, roles, or experiences (e.g., education, career, parenthood, etc.)
Social Movement Strategies and Tactics
Strategy Movements must balance various competing factors strategically. Their demands must be dramatic enough to draw attention and inspire support, but not so radical that the general public will dismiss them as unreasonable. The most effective movements have actionable steps supporters can take to further the movement and measurable outcomes. Some tactics, such as disruption or violence could result in imprisonment or legal ramifications that could impede progress of the movement. At the same time, however, legal battles or imprisonment could attract media attention for the movement. Confrontational Tactics Obstruction: Sit-ins, human-chain, blocking access, etc. Property Damage (e.g., PETA burning Animal Science Labs) Violence Peaceful Tactics Candlelight Vigils Mass Demonstrations Cultural Politics (e.g., AIDS quilt, benefit concerts, etc.) Political Lobbying (i.e., Working with elected officials to change policy.)
Malthusian Theory Q14. Provide a conceptual definition for the Malthusian Theory of Population.
The Malthusian Theory of Population was developed in response to a spike in the population growth. Thomas Robert Malthus was an English economist who warned that unbridled population growth would lead to chaos. He calculated that population would increase by a geometric progression (by the series of numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, etc.) and claimed world population would soar out of control. Further, Malthus claimed that food production would increase, but only in geometric progression (by the series of numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.) because of the limitation on farmland. This lead to his conclusion that people would reproduce beyond what the planet could sustain leading to starvation and conflict over limited resources.
Medicalization:
The process by which all human illness, disability, discomfort, or related problems, are assumed to have a medical or clinical cause and/or solution. The healthcare system and healthcare providers have considerable prestige and are viewed as central to solving these issues. Medicalization favors the medical model over the social model of understanding illness or disability. The term most often has a negative connotation.
IMPORTANT NOTE: Health and Medicine
When you encounter sociology or psychology topics that pertain directly to medicine, pay close attention and give these subjects extra thought. The entire MCAT-2015 development project, and in particular the addition of a social sciences section, was undertaken by the AAMC because of a desire to produce physicians who were more aware of behavioral and societal influences on medicine. Therefore, this section on Health and Medicine as an example of a Societal Institution, and the upcoming section on Health Disparities, are very important!
Poverty
Relative vs. Absolute Poverty Relative = low income compared to other individuals. Absolute = income too low to provide life necessities, persisting for a period long enough to cause harm or endanger life.
Health and Healthcare Disparities:
Socioeconomic Gradients in Health There is a clear and continuous gradient along which health outcomes improve as socioeconomic status improves. This gradient has been clearly demonstrated for differences in: Income Occupation Highest Level of Education
Racial Differences:
Racial disparities follow socioeconomic trends closely. Minorities have poorer health, less access to healthcare, and are more prone to engage in unhealthy behaviors. For example, the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes is 2.5 times higher among African- American males than it is among white males. Race and class are different constructs. However, they are often considered together with regard to health disparities because when racial disparities are adjusted for class, the racial disparities are greatly reduced, or even eliminated.
Q1. For Structural functionalism or functionalism, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Structural functionalism or functionalism sees society as being a complex system made up of interdependent institutions that work together to promote stability and the status quo. Any change is seen as dysfunctional. Members of society have generally reached consensus on what is right and wrong, good and bad. Structural-Functional theory sees social stratification as functional for society and its members by rewarding those who work the hardest or contribute the most to society. Functionalists are interested in the social system as a whole, how it operates, how it changes, and the consequences produced. Functionalism asks four fundamental questions about each of the social institutions 1) How is this institution related to the other institutions? 2) Where does this institution fit within the larger social system? 3) Are there consequences resulting from this institution? 4) Do these consequences interfere with the operation of the social system or do these consequences contribute to the operation of the social system? An example of this theory is studying the family institution. Families perform many functions including nurturing and socializing children, regulating sexual behavior and loving and caring for its members. Deviating from any of these functions produces consequences. For instance, divorce can be financially devastating causing interference with the operation of the social system. A high divorce rate has a ripple effect on other social institutions, including the economy. This is seen as dysfunctional. Another example of this theory is studying the institution of religion. Religion performs many functions including instilling what is right and wrong and good and bad and providing basic philanthropic services (food pantry, soup kitchen, emergency funds). Deviating from any of these functions produces consequences. For instance, if fewer people belong to and attend church and provide financial support interference with the operation of the social system is experienced. This results in a ripple effect on other social institutions, including the family. This is seen as dysfunctional.
Marriage and Divorce
KEEP IT SIMPLE: Focus on the concepts of interpersonal attraction and mate-choice discussed earlier, the diverse forms of marriage (polygamy, polyandry, same-sex), and increasing divorce rates. It is clear that 20th-century divorce rates were much higher than other historical periods. It was thought that divorce rates peaked in the 1970s, but new research from the most recent census indicates that divorce rates may have actually been increasing since 1970. This same study also indicated more older and longer-married couples are divorcing than ever before. MCAT-2015 will avoid specific knowledge requirements for a topic this fluid, but they might expect you to recognize that divorce is far more likely for you than it was for your grandparents.
POPULATION GROWTH AND DECLINE:
Populations are often thought to have a theoretical limit based on resource availability. Demographic Transition shows that populations grow and decline via fertility (birth), mortality (death), or migration (immigration or emigration). Population Projections Generally, population growth is inversely related to industrialization and modernization. Because birth rates are falling world-wide, world population is expected to peak sometime in the next one to two centuries. Limited resources, pollution, and economic pressures are also expected to limit total world population.
Q4. Differentiate between a church, a sect, and a cult.
Religion is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on the sacred. The sacred is all things extraordinary and awe-inspiring. Religion provides a collective way of dealing with life and death and moral decisions. Church is one type of religious organization that is a part of the larger society. It possesses the following traits: Attempts to appeal to everyone Has a formalized worship style Leaders are educated, trained and ordained Long-term established and organized Attracts members that are mainstream Sect is one type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. It possesses the following traits: Holds rigid religious convictions and does not have universal appeal Has a spontaneous and emotionally charged style of worship Leaders are charismatic Less stable than church, typically splitting off from other groups Attracts social outsiders Cult is another type of religious organization that stands apart from the larger society. It differs from sect because it is outside of a society's cultural traditions. Cults can be seen as deviant. One prominent example was the Heaven's Gate cult in California where 39 members committed suicide as a group in 1997. They claimed this was the way to a higher existence.
Social Class:
Segregation of a society into hierarchical classes or divisions (e.g., In the U.S. we often reference the upper, middle, and lower classes)
GLOBAL INEQUALITY:
The same inequalities already discussed, applied to a global scale. For example, countries are stratified according to resources, economic strength, and wealth (Gross Domestic Product or GDP). Discrimination and injustice can happen to a nation within world culture in much the same way it happens to individuals within national culture.
Urbanization:
The tendency of population to move away from rural or agricultural settings and be concentrated in urban settings—usually because of the lure of economic opportunity. Global trade and economic exchange is often centralized in one particular city within each country, resulting in hyper-urbanization of cities such as New York, Tokyo or Hong Kong. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND URBAN GROWTH: As society and the economy become more industrialized, people migrate to the urban centers. SUBURBANIZATION AND URBAN DECLINE: Urban overcrowding leads to sprawling suburbs. As people migrate out of the urban centers what they leave behind becomes depressed, resulting in slums and ghettos. GENTRIFICATION AND URBAN RENEWAL: After an urban area has declined, demand for real estate from buyers wanting to live in the city leads to revitalization projects that convert less- desirable urban areas into high-rent urban apartments and shopping areas. The process is called gentrification because although the area is revitalized, only the wealthy can afford to live there.
World Systems Theory:
Theory emphasizing a global inequality that is similar to the stratified inequality present in individual societies. Core Countries = Dominate and exploit peripheral countries for labor and raw materials. Peripheral Countries = Dependent on core countries, especially for capital. Semi-Peripheral Countries = Feature characteristics of both core and peripheral countries.
INTERSECTIONALITY:
Various forms or systems of oppression, domination, or discrimination interact with one another to create a new form of oppression or experience that cannot be understood by considering each concept individually (i.e., "the whole is greater than the sum of the parts"). Race Gender Age AN EXAMPLE OF INTERSECTIONALITY: The discrimination experienced by a woman, and the discrimination experienced by blacks, is not sufficient to understand the "black female experience." The black female experience is its own form of discrimination that lies at the intersection of racism and sexism.
Division of Labor
a range of social tasks must be completed in any society and there is usually some form of division of those tasks among individuals, usually based on specialization, training or talent. Emile Durkheim theorized that the division of labor is beneficial for society because it increases the reproductive capacity, the skill of workers, and it creates a sense of solidarity. He argues that division of labor helps establish social and moral order within a society.
Subcultures and Counterculture
Subculture = A secondary culture existing within a mainstream culture that has its own set of values and norms, but is generally able to co-exist with mainstream culture. Counterculture = A secondary culture that is antagonistic toward mainstream culture and has the overt goal of changing it. Countercultures are often political in nature because they are focused on enacting change.
Important Concepts Related to Culture: Q9. Provide a conceptual definition of the following terms as they related to culture: a) culture shock, b) culture lag, c) cultural barrier, d) language barrier, e) assimilation, and f) multiculturalism.
a) Culture shock is the feeling of disorientation when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life. It can be felt when traveling within one's own country, but is the most intense when traveling abroad. An example of culture shock is driving in Europe where cars drive on the left side of the road instead of the right side in the United States. b) Culture lag refers to the fact that some cultural elements change more quickly than others causing conflict with the cultural system. An example of this is the use of drones. The technology outpaced the public policy, resulting in policymakers trying to play catch up in creating laws governing the use of these unmanned aerial vehicles. c) Cultural barriers may occur when a person of one culture interacts with someone of another culture. Their beliefs and attitudes, customs and practices may clash. This may result in a barrier to success in the workplace, the classroom, or community at large. An example of this is accommodating religious observances in the workplace. A conflict may arise during the month of Ramadan when the employee is expected to fast (abstain from food and drink) from dawn until dusk. Another source of conflict may arise from the employee's need to pray five times per day. d) Language barrier may occur when a person speaking one language interacts with someone speaking another language. An example of this is attempting to communicate symptoms to an English-speaking physician when the patient only speaks Spanish. e) Assimilation is the process by which minorities gradually adopt practices of the dominant culture. Second and third generation immigrants become less like their first generation family members and more Westernized. f) Multi-culturalism is a perspective recognizing the cultural diversity of the United States and promoting equal standing for all cultural traditions. This stands in opposition to the concept of the melting pot, where everyone becomes like each other.
Family Violence:
General familiarity with these topics will suffice for MCAT-2015. Child Abuse Elder Abuse Spousal Abuse
Social Movements:
A social movement is a large alliance of individuals who share a common interest in creating or blocking social or political change. Relative Deprivation = the experience of being deprived of something to which one feels entitled. It is said to be relative because it usually arises from comparing one's own situation to that of others and feeling that one has less than what one deserves. Relative deprivation is considered a potential cause of social movements and deviance. A person's sense of deprivation causes grievances, which the social movement or deviance seek to resolve.
The Sick Role:
A theory that explains a sick person as having a unique role in society that includes both rights and obligations. Being sick is seen as a temporary form of deviance that prevents the person from being a productive member of society during their illness. Rights of a sick person = exempt from normal social roles and expectations; not responsible or to be blamed for their condition. Obligations of a sick person = attempt to get well as soon as possible; seek help and cooperate with medical professionals.
Demographic Transition
A trend observed in birth and death rates as a society transitions from a pre-industrial to an industrial society. Stage 1: Pre-industrial society; high fertility; high mortality. Stage 2: Still pre-industrial; Decreasing mortality as a result of societal improvements (e.g., sanitation, healthcare, nutrition). Stage 3: Shift from agricultural toward industrial; Decreasing fertility as a result of contraception, women's rights, and smaller family size. Stage 4: Industrial society; low fertility; low mortality. PATTERNS OF FERTILITY AND MORTALITY: The definitions given above for the four population stages demonstrate that across time, as most populations proceed from pre- industrial to industrialized, fertility and mortality are predictable. For example, early, pre- industrial societies have very high fertility and very high mortality, while late, fully- industrialized societies have both low fertility and low mortality.
Demographic Shifts and Social Change:
Demographic shift = a change in the makeup of a population over time as measured by demographic factors such as age, population size, diversity, etc. Theories of Demographic Change Malthusian Theory Fertility and Mortality Rates Fertility Rate (a.k.a., Fecundity) = the average number of children born to each woman in a given population. Mortality Rate = the number of deaths per unit time.
Age Cohorts:
Generational segments of society that share common characteristics or life experiences because of the time period in which they were born: Baby Boomers, Gen-X, Millennials, etc. 85+ COHORT: The 85+ cohort is dramatically increasing in today's society. Because this was formerly thought of as the end-of-life for most individuals, this creates new challenges regarding caring for the elderly, strains on the healthcare system, and so forth. THE BABY BOOMERS: This cohort was created by a large increase in the number of births immediately following World War II. Baby Boomers began retiring in approximately 2010 and will continue at a rate of a quarter-million people per month for the next two decades. This will have dramatic impacts upon Social Security, the healthcare system, the U.S. economy and many other social institutions. Social Significance of Aging Ageism = stereotyping or discrimination based on one's age.
Immigration Status
PATTERNS OF IMMIGRATION: The United States is often said to be a nation of immigrants. Native Americans were the original inhabitants of America, but were quickly overwhelmed by European immigrants. For most of its early history, immigration to the U.S. was predominantly from Europe. The slave trade must also be considered as a form of forced immigration bringing many African and Caribbean slaves to the U.S. Immigration from Mexico and (to a lesser degree) from other Central and South American countries has increased significantly in recent decades. "Illegal Immigration" has become a hot political topic, separating immigrants into "documented" (legal) and "undocumented" (illegal) status based upon whether they entered the country with or without permission and legal documentation.
Educational Segregation and Stratification
SEGREGATION: Students tend to be segregated into groups or classes within a school, or even into different schools, based on race, socioeconomic class, or similar differences. STRATIFICATION = Students tend to be separated into different classes or schools that have stratified curriculum of unequal difficulty. For example, private schools generally have harder curriculum but are mostly restricted to children from upper-income families. In public schools children are often stratified into "remedial," normal, and "gifted or talented" tracks or classes.
Sex vs. Gender Q12. Differentiate between the concepts of sex and gender.
Sex and gender are terms often used interchangeably. Upon closer inspection, these words are defined quite differently sociologically speaking. Sex is a biological matter. Human beings are grouped into two sexes: Male and female. Biological differences can be found between these two groups in chromosomes, anatomy and hormones. Gender refers to the personal traits and social positions that members of a society attach to being male or female. Gender is seen by sociologists to be socially constructed through socialization. Parents dress boys differently from girls and encourage different activities depending on the gender of their children. Mass media portrays men and women differently in television shows and movies. This has an impact on what is learned about what boys should do differently from girls.
Q1. For Conflict theory, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Conflict theory sees social life as characterized by inequality where groups and individuals compete for scarce resources. This results in various levels of wealth, power and prestige across society. Social inequality effects everyday interaction at the micro level and more macro phenomena (race and ethnicity, social class, sexuality). This perspective is interested in how inequality is reproduced. Typically, those who are advantaged want to stay advantaged, whereas those disadvantaged continue to struggle to get more for them. Conflict theory asks three questions: 1) How is society divided? 2)How do the advantaged members protect what they have? 3)How do the disadvantaged members attempt to challenge the status quo in order to promote change? An example of this theory is analyzing the American educational system and how inequality is reproduced generation to generation. Young people from advantaged backgrounds are tracked toward college. Young people from disadvantaged backgrounds, on the other hand, are tracked toward vocation. This results in perpetuating financial instability among the disadvantaged because vocational jobs are typically low paying. Another example of this theory is analyzing the distribution of power among men and women. In our society we see a clear difference in how men are seen as having power over women in several domains - the home, the workplace and the mass media. Conflict theory brings this information into our awareness with the intention of promoting social change.
Race and Ethnicity
The Social Construction of Race Race = NOT genetic or directly measurable. It is inferred or determined subjectively based on a certain set of phenotypic traits, such as facial features and skin color. Ethnicity = groups people according to culture, religion, language, or national origin.
Class Consciousness and Social Capital Q20. Provide a conceptual definition for the following terms related to social class: a) class consciousness, b) false consciousness, c) cultural capital, d) social capital, e) social reproduction, f) power, g) privilege, and h) prestige.
a) Class-consciousness is a social condition in which members of a social class are aware of themselves as a class. This particularly applies to members of the working class. b) False consciousness is a social condition in which members of a social class are unaware of themselves as a class. This produces distorted perceptions of the reality of class and its consequences. c) Cultural capital consists of ideas and knowledge people draw upon as they engage in social life. Examples of cultural capital include being able to speak in public to using the correct utensils at the dinner table. d) Social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation between individuals and groups. An example of social capital is the individual who belongs to a fraternity or sorority and upon graduation is hired by an alumnus from the same fraternity or sorority. e) Social reproduction is the process through which entire societies and their cultural, structural and ecological characteristics are reproduced. It includes economic institutions, religious institutions, language, varieties of music and other cultural products. f) Power is one of the most important concepts in sociology. It is defined as the ability to control others, events or resources. In other words, to make happen what one wants to have happen despite opposition or obstacles. Sociologists are interested in how power is distributed within social systems, from societies to intimate relationships to everything else in between. g) Privilege consists of some groups of people have advantages when compared to other groups. Advantage can be financial and/or emotional. Sociologists explore privilege, as it exists in race, ethnicity, gender, age, sexual orientation, disability and social class. h) Prestige is honor or deference attached to a social status and distributed unequally as a dimension of social stratification. Prestige is distributed according to three factors: possessions, qualities and performance. Occupational prestige is of interest to sociologists. Research shows consistency over time and place with how people rank occupations.
Family Three forms of Kinship Q3. Differentiate between primary, secondary, and tertiary kins.
Kinship is based on the recognition of the relationships derived from descent and marriage. Everyone in society is a kin and has a kin. Kinship is both voluntary and involuntary. Sociologists and anthropologists recognize kinship as important for regulating behavior and interrelationships. There are three levels of kinship that are recognized: Primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary kin is a person belonging to the same nuclear family as ego. There are eight primary kin: father, mother, brother and sister (all from the family of origin); husband, wife, son and daughter (all from the family of procreation). Secondary kin is the primary kin of ego's primary kin. There are 33 potential kinds of secondary kin. Father's father; father's mother; father's brother; father's sister; father's wife or step-mother; father's son or step- brother; father's daughter or step-sister; same seven categories for mother's mother; brother's wife; brother's son; brother's daughter; same four categories for sister; wife's brother; wife's father; wife's mother; wife's sister; son's wife; son's son; son's daughter; daughter's husband; daughter's son; daughter's daughter. Tertiary kin is the primary kin of the secondary kin. There are 151 possibilities including eight great grandparents, eight first cousins, the spouses of all uncles, aunts, nieces and nephews, plus others.
Social Class and Socioeconomic Status Q19. Based upon how sociologists use the terms, differentiate between the related concepts of social class and socioeconomic status.
Social class is an important concept in the study of social inequality and stratification. It refers to a social distinction and division resulting from the unequal distribution of rewards and resources including wealth, power and prestige. Socioeconomic status refers to the composite ranking based on various dimensions of social inequality. It is indicated by occupational prestige, educational attainment, income and wealth.
Q1. For Social constructionism, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Social constructionism is also known as phenomenology or phenomenological sociology. It is the study of human experience in everyday life. The theory is interested in how individuals perceive, think and talk about social life. Central to the theory is the concept of the social construction of reality - how individuals assign meaning to perceptions and experiences through interaction. Consequences follow from the construction of reality. Another central concept is the life-world. This is the everyday routines and experiences that are taken for granted. These routines and experiences are the source of individual experiences and they help to shape groups and societies. An example of using this theory provides an understanding of how the United States became involved in the war in Iraq in 2003. Reality was constructed for all of us, including our President and Vice President, that Saddam Hussein had weapons of mass destruction. Serious consequences followed from this social construction of reality, including many lives lost and injuries sustained from engaging in war. We came to another construction of reality when it was discovered there were no weapons of mass destruction after all. Another example of using this theory provides a framework for explaining why Leelah (Josh) Alcorn committed suicide. Leelah was a transgender teen from Cincinnati, OH. Her construction of reality was feeling alone and afraid. On several occasions she told her few friends of being rejected and bullied because of her sexuality. Leelah wrote a note on social media that was released after her death that said, "The only way I will rest in peace is if one day transgendered people aren't treated the way I was, they're treated like humans with valid feelings and human rights". She continued, "My death needs to mean something". The consequences of her social construction of reality resulted in her tragic death.
4) With respect to globalization, which pair of statements is LEAST likely to be made by a hyperglobalist and a transformationalist, respectively. A) Nationalism is growing; The power of nation states is uncertain. B) Nationalism is growing; The long-term power of nation states is certain. C) The influence of global economics is growing; Globalization is in decline. D) The influence of global economics is growing; Globalization is in flux.
Solution: Hyperglobalists believe that globalization is increasing rapidly and the power of nation states is waning. The direct opposite of those views would be that globalization is in decline and that nationalism is growing. Transformationalists believe that global and national power are changing, but the outcomes and meanings of those changes are unclear. The direct opposite of those views would be that globalization is growing and its eventual dominance over nationalism is certain. Answers B includes these direct opposites in both cases and is therefore the correct answer to this LEAST question.
Q16. Graph birth-rate, death-rate, and total population vs. time for a society progressing from pre-industrial to fully industrialized.
Time One in the graph represents pre-industrial society. Time Two represents agricultural society. Time Three represents industrial society. Time Four represents post-industrial society. Time Five represents speculation for the next stage of society.
Meritocracy:
A society where advancement or opportunity is based on merit (i.e., ability, accomplishment). The term also refers to societies where government leaders are selected based on merit, as opposed to class (aristocracy) or pedigree (monarchy).
Q15. Provide a conceptual definition for the terms "total," "crude," and "age-specific," as they apply to fertility and mortality rates.
Counting births and deaths is the business of demographers, but is also important to sociologists. Total, crude and age-specific are different measurements of fertility and mortality rates. Fertility refers to the incidence of childbearing in a country's population. Mortality refers to the incidence of death in a country's population. Total fertility rate refers to the average number of children a woman gives birth to in her lifetime. Crude birth rate refers to the number of live births in a given year for every 1,000 people in a population. This measurement is entitled crude because it includes both women and men in the population. In addition, it ignores differences among various groups in the population. Asian Americans have very low birth rates when compared to the Amish but are combined together in the crude birth rate. Age-specific fertility rate refers to the number of births during a specific year or reference period per 1,000 women of reproductive age in single or five-year groups. The term Total mortality rate would refer to the number of deaths the average person suffers in their lifetime, and because this rate does not vary it is not a term commonly used to describe mortality rates. Crude mortality rate refers to the total number of deaths per year per 1,000 people. This measurement can be misleading as it depends upon age and gender specific mortality rates and the age and gender distribution in the population. Also, the number of deaths per 1,000 can be higher in developed nations as compared to lower developed nations because in developed countries there are a higher proportion of older people. This is due to lower birth rate and lower mortality rate in the developed countries compared to lower developed nations. Age- specific mortality rate is the total number of deaths to residents of a specified age or age group in a specified geographic area (country, state, county, etc.) divided by the population of the same age or age group in the same geographic area for a specified time period (usually one year) multiplied by 100,000.
Cultural Transmission and Diffusion Q11. Differentiate between cultural transmission and cultural diffusion. How does the transmission of language between generations relate to cultural transmission and diffusion?
Cultural transmission, also known as cultural learning, is the way a group of people within a society or culture learns and passes on new information. Cultural diffusion is the spread of cultural beliefs and social activities from one group to the next. Language is crucial to every culture. It is made up of words and rules (syntax) for how the words are appropriately arranged. Language is important because that is how we are able to create the meaning of the experiences we have. Language is how we create and express reality. Cultural transmission is the primary way one generation passes along language to the next generation. Sociological and anthropological research on smaller, less well-known languages describes the process by which these languages become endangered and eventually dormant. Parents cease to use the second language in communication with their children and eventually only the written record of the language remains. The cultural transmission of language ceases. Cultural diffusion is responsible the melting pot of words in the English language. It contains a mixture of words from many other languages from around the world. For example, siesta is commonly used when referring to taking a short nap in the middle of the day. Another example is rendezvous, meaning to meet. Looking at other countries, we can see cultural diffusion at work, too. American slang is introduced to foreign countries after hearing it in American movies or television shows.
Material vs. Symbolic Culture Q8. Provide a conceptual definition for, and compare and contrast, material vs. symbolic culture.
Culture is a key concept in sociology. It is defined as the ways of thinking, acting and the material objects that together form a people's way of life. There are two forms of culture: material culture and non-material or symbolic culture. Material culture includes all of the physical artifacts created by members of society. There is a wide variety of material culture, ranging from simple to complex. Anthropologists and archeologists are principally interested in studying material culture. Examples include chairs and tables, as well as smart phones and tablets. Non-material culture or symbolic culture includes the ideas created by members of society. Sociologists are principally interested in studying non-material culture. Symbols, language, norms, values and beliefs are all types of non-material culture.
Q1. For Exchange theory, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Exchange theory explains that people act rationally to get what they need by exchanging goods and services with others. Relationships continue with others (or not) based on a simple calculation of rewards minus costs equal outcome. If the outcome is either neutral or positive, meaning the individual gets more from the interaction that it costs, the relationship is likely to continue. If, however, the outcome is consistently negative, this theory predicts the relationship is likely to end as the relationship costs more than the individual benefits from it. An example of applying this theory facilitates an understanding of why some people stay married and others divorce. Those who stay married perceive they get and much as they give or get more from the relationship than they give over the years. Those who get divorced perceive they give more than they receive over the years. Rewards include love and support, physical affection, and financial support. Costs include conflict and financial support. Another example of applying this theory helps explain why some employees stay employed at the same company for a period of years and others quit. Those who stay employed perceive they get as much as they give or get more from the work experience than they give over the years. Those who quit perceive they give more than they receive over the years. Rewards include money in the form of a paycheck and other benefits such as health and life insurance, paid vacation and sick leave and general working conditions. Costs include long working hours, under compensation and poor working conditions.
Q7. Differentiate between incidence and prevalence and between morbidity and mortality.
Incidence is a measure of disease that allows the determination of a person's probability of being diagnosed with a disease during a given period of time. In other words, incidence is the number of newly diagnosed cases of a disease. An incidence rate is the number of new cases of a disease divided by the number of persons at risk for the disease. Prevalence is a measure of disease that allows us to determine a person's likelihood of having a disease. Therefore, the number of prevalent cases is the total number of cases of disease existing in a population. A prevalence rate is the total number of cases of a disease existing in a population divided by the total population. Morbidity is another name for illness. Prevalence is a measure used to determine the level of morbidity in the population. Mortality is another name for death. Mortality rate is the number of deaths due to a disease divided by the total population.
Spatial Inequality:
Inequality in some variable between persons living in geographic locations. RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION: physical separation of individuals with different characteristics or backgrounds into different neighborhoods. This is usually according to race, ethnicity, or socioeconomic status. Neighborhood Safety and Violence Most poor, inner-city neighborhoods are also more likely to be plagued by crime and therefore be less safe than communities inhabited by those of a higher socioeconomic class. This is a prime example of spatial inequality. ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE: A state in which the benefits and burdens of interacting with the environment are equally distributed among all people independent of race, ethnicity or class. For example, wealthy segments are sometimes thought to primarily benefit from use of environmental resources (inexpensive energy, personal cars or planes, ample resources for business), while those of lower socioeconomic status may primarily bear the burdens of using those resources (air pollution, polluted public water supplies, harm to agriculture, dangerous public transportation systems).
1) Social media is of interest to sociologists because it has become its own social structure, developed its own social norms, and even has its own language. The cooperative way in which "social media" was created by companies like Facebook and Twitter, combined with users, mass media, and other social participants, is an example of: A) social deviance B) social constructionism C) symbolic interactionism D) social exchange theory
Solution: Social constructivism refers to the cooperative construction of realities between people and is thus Answer B is the best answer. Answer A is incorrect, information in the stem does not suggest social media is displaying deviant behavior. Answer C is incorrect, symbolic interactionism refers to how an individual alone interacts with objects to construct a reality. Answer D is incorrect, social exchange theory majorly deals with cost benefit analysis of choices, not group constructs.
2) The Sick Role Theory explains illness as a temporary period of deviance during which a person is not a productive member of society. Which finding, if accurate, would most directly challenge this sociological perspective on illness? A) An economic report showing that the use of sick days by employees costs the U.S. economy nearly two billion dollars annually in lost productivity. B) A survey of hospital patients indicating that during hospitalization most patients experience decreased feelings of attachment to family and a decreased sense of societal responsibility. C) Government health data demonstrating that nearly 15% of all illnesses become chronic and never full remit during a person's life span. D) An epidemiological study reporting that 1 out of every 7 patients visiting the doctor are feigning an illness they do not have.
Solution: The Sick Role explains illness as a mixture of rights and responsibilities of the patient. It is most notable for the concept that the patient is being deviant during the illness. Chronic illnesses are not explained well by this theory because they never end. The Sick Role theory would therefore predict that anyone with a chronic illness is ALWAYS a societal deviant. It is also difficult to reconcile the "obligation" of a patient to get well as soon as possible if their illness is chronic. For these reasons, Answer C is the best answer. Answers A and B are both false because they support the idea that sick people are not productive members of society. Answer D is false because the theory takes this into consideration. If a person were faking illness, the theory suggests that they have an "obligation" to seek treatment and get well as soon as possible.
3) One sociology text makes reference to "The Social Construction of Race." This approach to studying race suggests that race is: A) measurable B) empirical C) easily identified D) opinion
Solution: This question requires recall of the meaning of the term "construct." A construct is something that is created, rather than measured or observed. In simple terms, they tend to be subjective ideas that we create over time. They are loosely defined and often built upon opinion, attitude, and perspective. Answer D reflects the concept of construct because an opinion is less defined and more subjective. Answers A and B are nearly the opposite of a construct by definition because they suggest a strictly measurable or scientific (empirical) entity. Answer C is false because the loosely defined nature of a construct makes it difficult to precisely define or identify.
Q1. For Symbolic interactionism, provide the following: a) A conceptual definition of the theory. b) The unique ways in which this theory explains or accounts for social or group behavior. c) Two real-life examples that illustrate each theory or approach.
Symbolic interactionism sees society as the product of everyday interactions among Individuals. Unlike functionalism and conflict theories that take a macro approach, symbolic interactionism is a MICRO level theory meaning that its focus is on social interaction in specific situations. It focuses on three main principles: 1) Humans act toward things on the basis of the meanings they have for them. 2)The meanings arise from the interactions with others. 3)The meanings are changed through interaction. Symbolic interaction asks three questions: 1) How do individuals experience their day-to-day life? 2) How is their reality shaped by their interactions? 3) How does reality change from person to person and situation to situation? An example of using this theory helps us understand why teens continue smoking cigarettes despite their knowing the detrimental health effects. Research shows that teens think smoking is cool, they will escape the dangers of smoking and their peers will think more positively about them. Another example of this theory helps us understand how individuals confined to wheelchairs manage their emotions. Research shows anger and humor are two ways individuals coping with being wheelchair bound.
The Intersection of Race, Ethnicity and Immigration Q13. Graduate degrees are now offered at many universities in "Race, Ethnicity and Immigration." Propose multiple ways in which the concepts of race and ethnicity impact or influence the study of immigration.
The concepts of race and ethnicity are often times confused. Race is a socially constructed category of people that share biologically transmitted traits that members of society consider to be important. Meanings of race differ from place to place, time to time and between various categories of people. Ethnicity is a shared cultural heritage. People identify themselves and others with a common ancestry, religion and language that give them a distinct social identity. Examples of ethnicities found in the multi-ethnic United States include Hispanic, Latino, Irish and German. Migration is the physical movement of people within and between social systems. This movement has an effect on the area that loses migrants (emigration) as well as the area that receives migrants (immigrants). The study of race, ethnicity and immigration has become popular in graduate schools across the United States. The majority of the programs study social structures and processes that shape patterns of inequality related to race, ethnicity, nationality and citizenship. Having an awareness of these factors and their influence on migration helps to inform social policy.