Sociology Exam II

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differential association theory

Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our associations with deviant peers

stigma

Erving Goffman's term for any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction

labeling theory

Howard Becker's idea that deviance is a consequence of external judgments, or labels, that modify the individual's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person

structural strain theory

Robert Merton's argument that in an unequal society the tension or strain between socially approved goals and an individual's ability to achieve those goals through socially approved means will lead to deviance as individuals reject either the goals or the means or both

deviance

a behavior, trait, belief or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction

criminal justice system

a collection of social institutions, such as legislatures, police, courts, and prisons, that create and enforce laws

white collar

a description characterizing workers and skilled laborer in technical and lower-management jobs

blue collar

a description characterizing workers who perform manual labor

caste system

a form of social stratification in which status is determined by one's family history and background and cannot be changed

upper class

a largely self-sustaining group of the wealthiest people in a class system; in the US, they constitute about 1% of the population and possess most of the wealth of the country

simplicity movement

a loosely knit movement that opposes consumerism and encourages people to work less, earn less, and spend less, in accordance with nonmaterialistic values

socioeconomic status (SES)

a measure of an individual's place within a social class system; often used interchangeably with "class"

wealth

a measure of net worth that includes income, property, and other assets

status

a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations

saturated self

a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources

relative deprivation

a relative measure of poverty based on the standard of living in a particular society

status inconsistency

a situation in which there are serious differences between the different elements of an individual's socioeconomic status

open system

a social system with ample opportunity to move from one class to another

closed system

a social system with very little opportunity to move from one class to another

achieved status

a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others

embodied status

a status generated by physical characterisitcs

master status

a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess

meritocracy

a system in which rewards are distributed based on merit

feudal system

a system of social stratification based on a hereditary nobility who were responsible for and served by a lower stratum of forced laborers called serfs

social class

a system of stratification based on access to such resources as wealth, property, power, and prestige

crime

a violation of a norm that has been codified into law

outsiders

according to Howard Becker, those labeled deviant and subsequently segregated from "normal" society

positive deviance

actions considered deviant within a given context but are later reinterpreted as appropriate or even heroic

in-group orientation

among stigmatized individuals, the rejection of prevailing judgments or prejudice and the development of new standards that value their group identity

definition of the situation

an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance. This consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals

dramaturgy

an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance

rehabilitation

an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty

retribution

an approach to punishment that emphasizes retaliation or revenge for the crime as the appropriate goal

deterrence

an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes

incapacitation

an approach to punishment that seeks to protect society from criminals by imprisoning or executing them

self-fulfilling prophecy

an inaccurate statement or belief that, by altering the situation, becomes accurate; a prediction that causes itself to come true

ascribed status

an inborn status; usually difficult or impossible to change

total institution

an institution in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones (ex: military, prisons, cults)

absolute deprivation

an objective measure of poverty, defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or health care

UCR (uniform crime report)

an official measure of crime in the US, produced by the FBI's official tabulation of every crime reported by more than 17,000 law enforcement agencies

George Herbert Mead

another member of Chicago school of sociology prep stage / play stage / significant other / game stage / generalized other / dual nature of the self symbolic interactionism

just-world hypothesis

argues that people have a deep need to see the world as orderly, predictable, and fair, which creates a tendency to view victims of social injustice as deserving of their fates

everyday class consciousness

awareness of one's own social status and that of others

cooling the mark out

behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact

bourgeoisie

capitalists who owned the means of production (Marx)

structural mobility

changes in the social status of large numbers of people due to structural changes in society

heterogamy

choosing romantic partners who are dissimilar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership

homogamy

choosing romantic partners who are similar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership

thomas theorem

classic formulation of the way individuals define situations, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" (W.I. Thomas, influenced Erving Goffman)

middle class

composed primarily of "white collar" workers with a broad range of incomes; 30% of US population

white-collar crime

crime committed by a high-status individual in the course of his occupation

violent crime

crime in which violence is either the objective or the means to an end, including murder, rape, aggravated assault, and robbery

victimless crime

crime without a victim

property crime

crimes that did not involve violence, including burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson

Charles Horton Cooley

early member of Chicago school of sociology early 1900s looking-glass self theory

role-taking emotions

emotions like sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or many other people and respond from that person or group's point of view

culture of poverty

entrenched attitudes that can develop among poor communities and lead the poor to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their lot

autoethnography

ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer

role conflict

experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations

expressions given

expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances

copresence

face-to-face interactions or being in the presence of others

primary deviance

in labeling theory, the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant

secondary deviance

in labeling theory, the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant

feral children

in myths and rare real world cases, children who have had little human contact and may have lived in the wild from a young age

backstage

in the dramaturgical perspective, places in which we rehearse and prepare for our performances

region

in the dramaturgical perspective, the context or setting in which the performance takes place

frontstage

in the dramaturgical perspective, the region in which we deliver our public performances

front

in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation

innovators

individuals who accept society's approved goals but not society's approved means to achieve them

ritualists

individuals who have given up hope of achieving society's approved goals but still operate according to society's approved means

retreatists

individuals who reject both society's approved goals and the means by which to achieve them

rebels

individuals who reject society's approved goals and means and instead create and work toward their own (sometimes revolutionary) goals using new means

stereotyping

judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people

hypogamy

marrying "down" in the social class hierarchy

hypergapy

marrying "up" in the social class hierarchy

working class (lower-middle class)

mostly "blue collar" or service industry workers who are less likely to have a college degree; 30% of US population

upper-middle class

mostly professionals and managers who enjoy considerable financial stability; 14% of US population

intergenerational mobility

movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next

expressions given off

observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal

working poor

poorly educated workers who work full-time but remain below the poverty line; 20% of US population

passing

presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to

deviance avowal

process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates her own labeling process

theories of the self

psychoanalysis (Freud) looking-glass self (Cooley) mind, self, and society; prep, play, game stages (Mead) dramaturgy (Goffman)

tertiary deviance

redefining the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon

expressions of behavior

small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others

agents of socialization

social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place

feeling rules

socially constructed norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation

Karl Marx

sociologist bourgeoisie vs. proletariat economic social inequality

Howard Becker

sociologist labeling theory primary / secondary / tertiary deviance

Max Weber

sociologist wealth/prestige

pilfering

stealing minor items in small amounts, often again and again

Robert Merton

structural strain theory (1938/1976) innovators / ritualists / retreatists / rebels position in social structure affects deviance and conformity

theories of deviance

structural strain theory (structural functionalism, Merton) social control (conflict theory) differential association theory (symbolic interactionism) labeling theory (symbolic interactionism)

Erving Goffman

symbolic interactionism "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life" (1956) dramaturgy / thomas theorem

agency

the ability of the individual to act freely and independently

dual nature of the self

the belief that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me" (Mead)

capital punishment

the death penalty

social stratification

the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy

impression management

the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics

digital divide

the experience of unequal access to computer and internet technology, both globally and within the US

personal front

the expressive equipment we consciously or unconsciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearances and manner, to help establish the definition of the situation

preparatory stage

the first stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others

social control

the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion

residential segregation

the geographical separation of the poor from the rest of the population

the self

the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from other individuals

slavery

the most extreme from of social stratification, based on the legal ownership of people

vertical social mobility

the movement between different class statuses, often called either upward mobility or downward mobility

intragenerational mobility

the movement between social classes that occurs during the course of an individual's lifetime

social mobility

the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes

looking glass self

the notion that the self develops through our perception of other's evaluations and appraisals of us (Charles Cooley)

horizontal social mobility

the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class

nature vs. nurture

the ongoing debate / discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits

generalized other

the perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior

(particular) significant other

the perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes (stage 2, play stage)

underclass

the poorest Americans who are chronically unemployed and may depend on public or private assistance; 5% of US population

social construction

the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists

emotion work (emotional labor)

the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion

socialization

the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society

role exit

the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy

resocialization

the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life

disenfranchisement

the removal of the rights of citizenship through economic, political, or legal means

play stage

the second stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other

role

the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status

prestige

the social honor people are given because of their membership in well-regarded social groups

apartheid

the system of segregation of racial and ethnic groups that was legal in South Africa between 1948 and 1991

cultural capital

the tastes, habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, and other cultural dispositions that help us gain advantages in society

desistance

the tendency of individuals to age out of crime over the life course

social reproduction

the tendency of social classes to remain relatively stable as social class status is passed down from one generation to the next

role strain

the tension experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role

game stage

the third stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children play organized games and take on the perspective of the generalized other

social inequality

the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society

cyberbullying

the use of electronic media (web pages, social networking sites, e-mail, instant messengers, and cell phones) to tease, harass, threaten, or humiliate someone

hidden curriculum

values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling because of the structure of the educational system and the teaching methods used

proletariat

workers who owned only their own labor (Marx)


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