Sociology Exam II
differential association theory
Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through our associations with deviant peers
stigma
Erving Goffman's term for any physical or social attribute that devalues a person or group's identity and that may exclude those who are devalued from normal social interaction
labeling theory
Howard Becker's idea that deviance is a consequence of external judgments, or labels, that modify the individual's self-concept and change the way others respond to the labeled person
structural strain theory
Robert Merton's argument that in an unequal society the tension or strain between socially approved goals and an individual's ability to achieve those goals through socially approved means will lead to deviance as individuals reject either the goals or the means or both
deviance
a behavior, trait, belief or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction
criminal justice system
a collection of social institutions, such as legislatures, police, courts, and prisons, that create and enforce laws
white collar
a description characterizing workers and skilled laborer in technical and lower-management jobs
blue collar
a description characterizing workers who perform manual labor
caste system
a form of social stratification in which status is determined by one's family history and background and cannot be changed
upper class
a largely self-sustaining group of the wealthiest people in a class system; in the US, they constitute about 1% of the population and possess most of the wealth of the country
simplicity movement
a loosely knit movement that opposes consumerism and encourages people to work less, earn less, and spend less, in accordance with nonmaterialistic values
socioeconomic status (SES)
a measure of an individual's place within a social class system; often used interchangeably with "class"
wealth
a measure of net worth that includes income, property, and other assets
status
a position in a social hierarchy that carries a particular set of expectations
saturated self
a postmodern idea that the self is now developed by multiple influences chosen from a wide range of media sources
relative deprivation
a relative measure of poverty based on the standard of living in a particular society
status inconsistency
a situation in which there are serious differences between the different elements of an individual's socioeconomic status
open system
a social system with ample opportunity to move from one class to another
closed system
a social system with very little opportunity to move from one class to another
achieved status
a status earned through individual effort or imposed by others
embodied status
a status generated by physical characterisitcs
master status
a status that is always relevant and affects all other statuses we possess
meritocracy
a system in which rewards are distributed based on merit
feudal system
a system of social stratification based on a hereditary nobility who were responsible for and served by a lower stratum of forced laborers called serfs
social class
a system of stratification based on access to such resources as wealth, property, power, and prestige
crime
a violation of a norm that has been codified into law
outsiders
according to Howard Becker, those labeled deviant and subsequently segregated from "normal" society
positive deviance
actions considered deviant within a given context but are later reinterpreted as appropriate or even heroic
in-group orientation
among stigmatized individuals, the rejection of prevailing judgments or prejudice and the development of new standards that value their group identity
definition of the situation
an agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance. This consensus allows us to coordinate our actions with those of others and realize goals
dramaturgy
an approach pioneered by Erving Goffman in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance
rehabilitation
an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty
retribution
an approach to punishment that emphasizes retaliation or revenge for the crime as the appropriate goal
deterrence
an approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes
incapacitation
an approach to punishment that seeks to protect society from criminals by imprisoning or executing them
self-fulfilling prophecy
an inaccurate statement or belief that, by altering the situation, becomes accurate; a prediction that causes itself to come true
ascribed status
an inborn status; usually difficult or impossible to change
total institution
an institution in which individuals are cut off from the rest of society so that their lives can be controlled and regulated for the purpose of systematically stripping away previous roles and identities in order to create new ones (ex: military, prisons, cults)
absolute deprivation
an objective measure of poverty, defined by the inability to meet minimal standards for food, shelter, clothing, or health care
UCR (uniform crime report)
an official measure of crime in the US, produced by the FBI's official tabulation of every crime reported by more than 17,000 law enforcement agencies
George Herbert Mead
another member of Chicago school of sociology prep stage / play stage / significant other / game stage / generalized other / dual nature of the self symbolic interactionism
just-world hypothesis
argues that people have a deep need to see the world as orderly, predictable, and fair, which creates a tendency to view victims of social injustice as deserving of their fates
everyday class consciousness
awareness of one's own social status and that of others
cooling the mark out
behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment, often referred to as civility or tact
bourgeoisie
capitalists who owned the means of production (Marx)
structural mobility
changes in the social status of large numbers of people due to structural changes in society
heterogamy
choosing romantic partners who are dissimilar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership
homogamy
choosing romantic partners who are similar to us in terms of class, race, education, religion, and other social group membership
thomas theorem
classic formulation of the way individuals define situations, whereby "if people define situations as real, they are real in their consequences" (W.I. Thomas, influenced Erving Goffman)
middle class
composed primarily of "white collar" workers with a broad range of incomes; 30% of US population
white-collar crime
crime committed by a high-status individual in the course of his occupation
violent crime
crime in which violence is either the objective or the means to an end, including murder, rape, aggravated assault, and robbery
victimless crime
crime without a victim
property crime
crimes that did not involve violence, including burglary, larceny-theft, motor vehicle theft, and arson
Charles Horton Cooley
early member of Chicago school of sociology early 1900s looking-glass self theory
role-taking emotions
emotions like sympathy, embarrassment, or shame that require that we assume the perspective of another person or many other people and respond from that person or group's point of view
culture of poverty
entrenched attitudes that can develop among poor communities and lead the poor to accept their fate rather than attempt to improve their lot
autoethnography
ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer
role conflict
experienced when we occupy two or more roles with contradictory expectations
expressions given
expressions that are intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances
copresence
face-to-face interactions or being in the presence of others
primary deviance
in labeling theory, the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant
secondary deviance
in labeling theory, the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant
feral children
in myths and rare real world cases, children who have had little human contact and may have lived in the wild from a young age
backstage
in the dramaturgical perspective, places in which we rehearse and prepare for our performances
region
in the dramaturgical perspective, the context or setting in which the performance takes place
frontstage
in the dramaturgical perspective, the region in which we deliver our public performances
front
in the dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation
innovators
individuals who accept society's approved goals but not society's approved means to achieve them
ritualists
individuals who have given up hope of achieving society's approved goals but still operate according to society's approved means
retreatists
individuals who reject both society's approved goals and the means by which to achieve them
rebels
individuals who reject society's approved goals and means and instead create and work toward their own (sometimes revolutionary) goals using new means
stereotyping
judging others based on preconceived generalizations about groups or categories of people
hypogamy
marrying "down" in the social class hierarchy
hypergapy
marrying "up" in the social class hierarchy
working class (lower-middle class)
mostly "blue collar" or service industry workers who are less likely to have a college degree; 30% of US population
upper-middle class
mostly professionals and managers who enjoy considerable financial stability; 14% of US population
intergenerational mobility
movement between social classes that occurs from one generation to the next
expressions given off
observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal
working poor
poorly educated workers who work full-time but remain below the poverty line; 20% of US population
passing
presenting yourself as a member of a different group than the stigmatized group you belong to
deviance avowal
process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates her own labeling process
theories of the self
psychoanalysis (Freud) looking-glass self (Cooley) mind, self, and society; prep, play, game stages (Mead) dramaturgy (Goffman)
tertiary deviance
redefining the stigma associated with a deviant label as a positive phenomenon
expressions of behavior
small actions such as an eye roll or head nod that serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others
agents of socialization
social groups, institutions, and individuals (especially the family, schools, peers, and the mass media) that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place
feeling rules
socially constructed norms regarding the expression and display of emotions; expectations about the acceptable or desirable feelings in a given situation
Karl Marx
sociologist bourgeoisie vs. proletariat economic social inequality
Howard Becker
sociologist labeling theory primary / secondary / tertiary deviance
Max Weber
sociologist wealth/prestige
pilfering
stealing minor items in small amounts, often again and again
Robert Merton
structural strain theory (1938/1976) innovators / ritualists / retreatists / rebels position in social structure affects deviance and conformity
theories of deviance
structural strain theory (structural functionalism, Merton) social control (conflict theory) differential association theory (symbolic interactionism) labeling theory (symbolic interactionism)
Erving Goffman
symbolic interactionism "The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life" (1956) dramaturgy / thomas theorem
agency
the ability of the individual to act freely and independently
dual nature of the self
the belief that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me" (Mead)
capital punishment
the death penalty
social stratification
the division of society into groups arranged in a social hierarchy
impression management
the effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self-presentation and performance tactics
digital divide
the experience of unequal access to computer and internet technology, both globally and within the US
personal front
the expressive equipment we consciously or unconsciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearances and manner, to help establish the definition of the situation
preparatory stage
the first stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children mimic or imitate others
social control
the formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus promote social cohesion
residential segregation
the geographical separation of the poor from the rest of the population
the self
the individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from other individuals
slavery
the most extreme from of social stratification, based on the legal ownership of people
vertical social mobility
the movement between different class statuses, often called either upward mobility or downward mobility
intragenerational mobility
the movement between social classes that occurs during the course of an individual's lifetime
social mobility
the movement of individuals or groups within the hierarchical system of social classes
looking glass self
the notion that the self develops through our perception of other's evaluations and appraisals of us (Charles Cooley)
horizontal social mobility
the occupational movement of individuals or groups within a social class
nature vs. nurture
the ongoing debate / discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits
generalized other
the perspectives and expectations of a network of others (or of society in general) that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior
(particular) significant other
the perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes (stage 2, play stage)
underclass
the poorest Americans who are chronically unemployed and may depend on public or private assistance; 5% of US population
social construction
the process by which a concept or practice is created and maintained by participants who collectively agree that it exists
emotion work (emotional labor)
the process of evoking, suppressing, or otherwise managing feelings to create a publicly observable display of emotion
socialization
the process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society
role exit
the process of leaving a role that we will no longer occupy
resocialization
the process of replacing previously learned norms and values with new ones as a part of a transition in life
disenfranchisement
the removal of the rights of citizenship through economic, political, or legal means
play stage
the second stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children pretend to play the role of the particular or significant other
role
the set of behaviors expected of someone because of his or her status
prestige
the social honor people are given because of their membership in well-regarded social groups
apartheid
the system of segregation of racial and ethnic groups that was legal in South Africa between 1948 and 1991
cultural capital
the tastes, habits, expectations, skills, knowledge, and other cultural dispositions that help us gain advantages in society
desistance
the tendency of individuals to age out of crime over the life course
social reproduction
the tendency of social classes to remain relatively stable as social class status is passed down from one generation to the next
role strain
the tension experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role
game stage
the third stage in Mead's theory of the development of self wherein children play organized games and take on the perspective of the generalized other
social inequality
the unequal distribution of wealth, power, or prestige among members of a society
cyberbullying
the use of electronic media (web pages, social networking sites, e-mail, instant messengers, and cell phones) to tease, harass, threaten, or humiliate someone
hidden curriculum
values or behaviors that students learn indirectly over the course of their schooling because of the structure of the educational system and the teaching methods used
proletariat
workers who owned only their own labor (Marx)