Sociology of Education Final

Chapter 23: Invisible Inequality: Social Class and Childrearing in Black Families and White Families

"Concerted Cultivation" is used by both white and black middle class families. Both working classes viewed success as spontaneously unfolding. Middle class children used their reasoning abilities to get parents to acquiesce to their desires, and were crammed full of activates. In working class families, parents establish boundaries. Also taught children to be skepitcal of authority figures, institutions, and law enforcement. Whites and blacks in middle class displayed similar styles, where race did not play a large factor. Same with working class. Race was not a large factor.

Downsides to the ADA

"professional plaintiffs"- People who find small violations of ADA law and sue to receive monetary damages Sharp drop in employment of disabled people right after law was passed (now back to pre-law numbers)

Teachers' Unions

(Can protect individual teacher rights) (If a school tries to get rid of a poorly performing teacher, unions can block them being fired) Why am I talking about unions in the middle of a lecture on schools of choice? (They're very powerful bargaining chips) First, what do you already know about teachers unions? (Developed in mid to late 19th century in an attempt to professionalize teaching, in concert with normal schools.). Did this work? (no) (Do you know any doctor or lawyers unions?) Gained the legal right to negotiate contract on behalf of teachers in 1950's. What did this lead to? (Teachers unions are trying to eliminate merit pay, because it takes away collective bargaining power)

Examples of questions on early SAT

-Epilepsy is carpenter as stuttering is to 1) tongue, 2) minister, 3) cure, 4) stammering, 5) fluttering Which three of the following words are most closely related? 1) bean 2) potato 3) carrot 4) beet 5) lettuce 6) cabbage

My argument at the beginning of this week

-Gradually, students have lost rights and schools have increased responsibility over the course of the 20th century -Perhaps an exception: students covered by IDEA

First "public" Schools

-In 1647, Massachusetts Bay Colony collected taxes from every family and used this money (partially) to establish schools in every town, standardizing the curriculum across schools. -A manifest purpose in reading the bible -a latent purpose in developing a work force -Curriculum was set by local school boards set up by colony govt (religion is no problem and protestant) compulsory attendance for ages 4-16 (Today it is 5-16) -The purpose of school is Academics + civic socialization (Responsibilities and duties to the State) -Predictably, Religious schools start to pop up as alternatives, although few in number and small in size. -Public schools start to spread throughout the rest of the colonies as population grows.

Any Surprises

-Racial stratification strikes again - Asians do the best, then whites, then Hispanics, then native Americans and blacks -of course, we know that having a college degree has large effects on future income and wealth, so we've just reproduced racial inequality through schools. - But how do we compare nationally? In the 2008 math scores, males scored higher, by country, In the 2008 reading scores, females scored higher, by country. -high and low income schools in America have much different resources -kids spend little time in schools - Data on all of America, broken up only by race. - Minorities tend to be in low income schools -Americans high-income schools' statistics look somewhat close to Sweden -low income schools pull down the overall average of America's education schools -the problem is not with our schools. It's with how unequal America is.

American public schools

-With revolution and foundation of American govt came systematized public schools, but still local and state control and funding Jefferson proposes two types of schools: for the "learned" and the "laborers". This doesn't really go anywhere until much later when we set up tracking -Effects of this? Curriculum, compulsory ages, funding levels vary wildly by local district and state -New York Model- hundreds of poor pupils sitting and memorizing, one teacher. Emphasizes obedience and self- discipline. -Rich pupils attend family funded schools with different pedagogical models. -1820- first public secondary school opens in Boston; MA passes law to make all grades free and open to all in 1827. -1830's- laws were passed, particularly in Southern States, so that only whites may be taught to read and write. -Mid 19th century- what's happening? -As population explodes and moves to urban areas, what's going to happen to public schools (in size, structure, purpose?) -Size: increase, more students staying to later grades Structure: very poor, are factory labor, but working and middle class are in schools ad continuing to later grades -Purpose: provide semi-skilled labor force.

History of American schools

-taught by local minister -school fees donated by students -curriculum set locally -agriculture, math, reading, religious centric -student usually left around 6th grade

Major Types of Learning Disabilities

1) Auditory Processing Disorder- difficulty processing differences in sounds. Effects on learning? Lectures are useless. Must have transcribed notes. 2) Dyscalculia- Difficulty understanding math or math concepts, including time. Effects? Cannot deal with basic percentages/fractions in most classes, difficulty seeing how much time is left in a class. Accommodations include extra time on exams. Treated with cognitive behavioral therapy with includes slow and minimal exposure which gradually increases over time. 3) Dysgraphia- poor fine motor skills and handwriting, including spelling and writing/thinking at the same time. Effects? 4) Dyslexia- difficulty decoding written language 5) Non-verbal- significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and lower social/motor/spatial skills.

Chapter 27: Straddling Boundaries: Identity, Culture, and School

1) black and Latino students who share similar SES status vary in their approaches to the resistance of the "acting white" phenomenon. Straddlers, students who demonstrate multiple cultural competences and deployed varied cultural tools and resource to struck the most effective balance among the various cultural spheres in which they participated. 1) variation exists even among those who have bicultural identities. Biculturalism is not just a fixed midway point on the identity spectrum between sole identification with one's ethnic culture environments, strategically alternating and turning cultural codes on and off while others appear to be more 'blended' and identity with their multiple social identities simultaneously. 2) students who are labeled as acting white vary in achievement levels. Black youths are more optimistic than white youths. The resistance to acting white is mainly about the assertion of particularistic cultural styles that are not perceived to be incongruous with achievement and mobility. 3) students contention with acting white has a broader sociological meaning than the ones that are generally ascribed to it in the literature on the sociology of education. For those in this study, resistance to acting white connotes more than anything else their refusal to adhere to the cultural default setting in the US society that is seen as normative or "natural"- white American middle-class tastes for speech and interaction codes, dress, and physical appearance, music, and other art forms. "Acting white" also signifies group members' proclivity to associate mainly with students from outside their ascribed racial or ethnic group. 4) High achieving minorities may be more likely to be exposed to styles that are deemed white. A correlation is suggested between high achievement and accusation of acting white, if it exists, it may be mediated by students' placement in school and these placements' influences on the racial and ethnic composition of students' friendship networks. When blacks are proportionally represented, there is no accusation of acting white, if they're not, accusations exist. This varies between schools depending on the demographics and relationships between blacks, whites, and Hispanics.

Herd Immunity and Why it Matters in Schools

100% vaccination rate is impossible because some people have health issues that prohibited vaccinations, or are too young to get the vaccine. Also, vaccines aren't 100% perfect, either. These people depend on "herd immunity"- the fact that the disease is less likely to pass through the (vaccinated) herd and will eventually die out because it doesn't have enough hosts. Public schools required proof of vaccination for attendance, BUT parents can exempt children out for medical or personal belief reasons. (Write about vaccinations in schools for term paper)(Can school nurses give out vaccines in addition to HPV vaccines?)

Methods of research for school-prison-deporation-pipleine

130 recent immigrant secondary students (30 Houston) 55 teachers (10 Houston) Interviewed both students who were considered recent immigrant as well as teachers who worked with those students Interviews with administrators who run the schools and LEO's when possible.

Scopes "Monkey Trial"

1925, Tennessee Butler Act: "it is unlawful to teach human evolution" John Scopes, a HS science teacher, deliberately incriminated himself to provide a test case, funded by ACLU Modernists (evolution not incompatible with religion) vs Fundamentalists (evolution incompatible with religion) Scopes eventually found guilty, but conviction was overturned on a technicality. Succeeded in drawing attention to these laws, but......

Continued history of standardized testing

1937, scantron invented to grade them (explosion in numbers and uses- now used to lower grades and in regular classrooms) What happened to the number of people applying and attending higher ed in the mid 20th century? Exponential growth. Therefore, what happened to the number of people taking standardized exams and their importance? 1946 SAT prep emerges (Stanley Kaplan in NYC) now a multi-billion dollar industry 1959 ACT emerges as alternative to SAT for state schools. Higher level kids take SAT and lower level kids take ACT

Homeschooling Case Law

1960's and 70's saw resurgence in homeschooling, in two (very, very different) camps: highly religious and highly liberal. States scrambled to come up with ways to regulate it- to highly varying degrees Most lenient: students take a test at the end of year. If on par with local schooled students, family is left alone. Most severe: families must submit curriculum, lesson plans, etc. and most children are forced to be in school if not judged equal to regular school plans Varies from highly regimented curricula (highly teacher-centered) to unschooling by the state Modern day homeschooling could be done through "click and mortar" school that have teachers sitting in a building somewhere, interacting with students over the internet Majority of students are NOT homeschooled for 12 years 2011 3.4 percent of Americans were homeschooled, more than likely have gone up to 4.5%

Do schools owe students safety from guns?

1990, pres. Bush sings gun-free schools act, which bans guns from school grounds and a certain radius around them. Lopez, a Texas High school senior says this violates his constitutional rights. Who wins? Lopez! (in 1995) US v. Lopez says that federal government can't do this-only states So, every state quickly passes the federal law, hence the reason that guns aren't allowed within 100 feet of the CDRC we went to on Tech's campus

Sex education and evangelical chirstianity: what do (some) parents really want?

20 evangelical parents from 5 local churches

Sex Ed Today

2008, 25 states reject funding for Abstinence Only in favor of comprehensive 2016, President Obama defunds abstinence-only sex education

Student Loan By School Type

4 year-private loans are taken out at the highest frequency, steadily rising since 2001 4 year private for-profit is the second highest, rising and decreasing since 2001 4 year public is the 4th highest, steadily rising since 2001 2-year public is the lowest loans taken out.

First, remember Maslow's Hierarchy of needs

5)Physiological 4)safety 3)love/belonging 2)esteem 1)self actualization= this is why learning is stochastic

From nationally representative poll in 2015 of 800 undergrads (By McLaughlin group)

63% of college students favor professors using them, 23% oppose. 72% of students surveyed support disciplinary action for anyone using "racist, sexist, homophobic, or otherwise offensive language" Yet...87% believe there's educational value in listening to views that they may disagree with

ADA in schools? Nope

A separate law was passed at the same time to give students special in schools (since students are not employees, they wouldn't have been covered under the ADA) Called the Individual with Disabilites Education Act (IDEA), passed in 1990, same definition of disability, but different definitions of "reasonable" accommodations Definitely applicable in k-12, but applies differently in higher education

Real questions from my Ped PRAXIS

A student is acting up in class. Which of the below is not a good behavioral management technique? A) have a parent conference B) pull the student into the hallway c) begin a sticker chart or similar reward system D) strike the student

Some accompanying disorders ADHD

ADHD- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and its sibling, ADD, ADHD is predominantly male and ADD predominately female First identified in 1902 as "an abnormal defect of moral conttrol in children" First, recognized as mental disorder in 1960's by APA, included in DSM Ritalin is invented in 1950's starts used on these kids About 11% of kids diagnosed

Student Loans Facts

About 2/3rds of college students take out some vorm of student loans We hit 1.2 trillion in student loans debt last year (us GDP? 15$ trillion) Average student loan debt? 29,550 Public 24,040 Private 32,535 Texas- 59% with loans, averaging 26,250 (public and private)

What percent have a college degree?

About 32% of the American population has some sort of a college degree (AA,BA,BS) (An AA doesn't change income anymore) Does a degree from an online college do anything but put you into debt? (1% of people enrolled in for profit colleges receive degrees and still have to repay student loans) However, less than 85% of the American population is functionally literate (has 4th grade skills). Ergo? Something's gone terribly wrong

About the videos in lecture

About school accreditation Amanda went to a charter school (she had a learning disability) that her father enrolled her in, and it turns out the school was not accredited (generally effects people of lower SES and/or minority groups) About public vs. private schools Argued that private schools do not inherently put out better student performance than public schools. When race and class are controlled, the students who scored the highest were high-income Caucasian students. Network closure: High SES has a more closed network (PTA, social occasions, fundraisers) parents can helicopter the students while low SES has a more open network (These parents do not have time for such events).

What do schools have today for with this money

All Schools: Curriculum and instruction (includes salaries, textbooks, supplies) Infrastructure (repairs to the building, water, and other utilities) Some student activities Insurance and other professional bills

ACTHouston

Alternative Certification of Houston Online school, meets 6-8 weekends in person, in one year you receive teacher certification Remember, NCLB states that a teacher must either be certified or "in the process of becoming certified" Sign up on this website, pay the 4000$ fee, and you're good (Do you really think anyone fails this?!)

Overall conclusions about schools of choice,public schools,

Any time you have a school of choice enter the equation, the people who know enough on how to navigate the application process do better. Who are those people? They tend to be middle class and higher, thus possibly removing those students from the regular school population. This causes the regular public school to suffer Public schools have fought back by creating magnet programs for the whole district (reserving a certain number of seats in each school in the hopes that there will be cross pollination). But, schools of choice may create better results, thus helping society? Hmm...

Trends in Teacher Certification

Apparently, there's no correlation between teacher status and student achievement...according to this study. Flaws in study? This is also counter to other studies that indicate that respect for teachers matters a great deal in teacher retention and student achievement...so, what happened? They asked the wrong question. Teacher status does not equal respect for teachers. There is a clear correlation between teacher pay and student achievement.

Trends of Student Loans Across Time

As state appropriations to universities declines, Pell grants (grants to low income students from fedral government) increased Veterans' benefits increased (where does it come from?) Federal government State financial Aid stayed flat What does this remind you of? Primary and secondary education. Increasing federal control over higher education. Could decreased freedom of curriculum. The cost of federal education is being borne more by individual students and less by the state by the process of tax dollars while the state pulls back and federal implications increase

Industrial Revolution

As the population exploded in the mid 19th century and people moved to cities, the relative anonymity and lack of social connections with teachers meant that there needed to be some way to determine officially who could teach School boards came up with certification exams, which verified prospective teachers' knowledge and skills. (This is all in public schools.) 5 opening in the district? Top 5 scorers, EXCEPT: Women had to be unmarried. Once married, forced to quit (this continued well into the 20th century- why?)

By race (student loans)

Asians are least likely to borrow money for college (a bit more than 50% do) followed by whites/Hispanics (pretty much a tie in terms of % or borrow). Blacks are most likely to borrow from college (about 80%) Of Asians who borrow, they also have the lowest debts (about 21k) followed by Hispanics and then whites. Blacks have the highest student loans balances. What are the implications of this? Perpetuation of inequality gaps.

History of Higher Education in America

At the beginning, this is really the history of the Ivy League Originally formed as minister training schools in the 1700's, these eight schools (known as the "Ancient Eight") only became known as the Ivy League in the 1950's when football divisions started. (they're their own football league) Have endowments bigger than most countries GDP's (after financial aid, the average ivy league student pays 15,000$ a year) Modeled after Cambridge and Oxford in England (all centered in Urbanized, protestant areas, shipping areas for ports of entry)

History of Autism

Aut-self, so word literally means those who are self-interested Thus, word sed first in 1908 to describe patients who were socially withdrawn Leo Kanner 1943, in America studied children who he diagnosed as austistic and began to try different therapies to cure them Simultaneously, in Germany in 1944, Hans Asperger starts working with higher-functioning patitns the diagnosed with Asperger's Syndrome. WWII sets back research significantly l 1960's and 70s, autism and schizophrenia often confused, emphasis on medical cures wth lobotomies, electric shock and LSD 1980'S start to understand that behavioral therapies are much more effective, autistic kids begin to attend public schools and receive therapy there, especially with IDEA in 1990. Aspergers split into different disorder in DSM IV, but has now been collapsed back into autism disrder in DSM V.

What are the factors that correlate?

Autonomy- countries where teachers are allowed to design their own curriculum and team teach with other teachers get the bets results (and highest job satisfaction levels), but only when they also have...Selectivity of Schools of Education- countries that have higher standards of admission for would-be teachers in college have the most respect for teachers (unsurprisingly) and also some of the highest student achievement levels. *teachers in America are not currently professionals*

Quality of Teaching Force

Average GPA by major? Differs by university slightly, but pattern is clear (from low to high): Engineering, math/computer science social sciences, humanities, education. (Ascending order) What is it at Texas Tech? Average GPA for education majors is a 3.55 Next figures are from Eric Hanushek's work on teacher quality (referenced in Waiting for Superman, which you need to watch over Spring Break)

Results from Grit Post-It Note Study

Average grit score was 3.65 (2 to 4.66) Male average: 3.5 Female average: 3.76 (this was stat sig-barley) Threw out age because it was too narrow a range to have any statistical power Collapsed race into white and non-white, year in school into lower- vs. upperclass, and parental occupation into working, middle, and upper class. White grit: 3.69 Non-white grit: 3.61 Working class grit: 3.66 Middle class grit: 3.64 Lowerclassmen grit: 3.05 Upperclassmen grit: 3.82

Pros and Cons (Of student loan reforms)

B&H students are more likely than W&A to take out private loans (which tend to have higher interest rates and reforms don't apply). How does this help them? Someone is paying - if loans are forgiven, taxpayers are paying the balance to the bank. Is this fair? Are reforms addressing the student loan problem just enabling the "tuition problem"? Should we focus on that as the problem causing student loans to go so high?

Disciplinary Differences by Race

Bad Boys (Ann Arnett Ferguson- 2001) Public schools and the making of black masculinity. "Adultification"= teachers are more likely to see black boys as older, and rate their misdeeds as more severe than white boys, and especially more than girls. Thus, they're more likely to call in the police. Zero tolerance policies mean this leads to arrest and a criminal record for the student Mismatch between teacher and student behavioral expectations-teachers tend to be white and may not communicate in a way that the students understand.

Criticisms of TFA?

Band Aid Approach- lessens professionalism of teaching Reinforces churning at low income schools Sends the message to teachers that they can be replaced easily Evidence of effectiveness is mixed Is this just rich kids indulging a martyr complex?

Does a school district owe its public school students all its money?

Basically, can state funds be used to support private schools (in any way-through textbooks, etc.)? Nope! Lemon v Kurtzman (1971) found that, to receive public money, schools must: -Have a secular purpose -Can neither advance nor inhibit religion -Cannot cause government entanglement with religion With one big caveat: if a student has a diagnosed disability and can't receive an appropriate education at the local public school, the district must pay for a private school that can suit that students needs.

Moving towards the present- teacher certification

Because teaching is now seen as respectable women's work, intelligent, and educated Baby Boomer females join the profession in droves (what's the other profession they join?) Nursing. What sort of problem does that cause for us today? - "graying out" of the teacher force. Aging and retiring. Sputnik happens (1957) states panic and state raising requirements for teacher certification. As of 1970's, four years of college and some states want continuing education. 1970's and 1980's, states start to require courses in content from university in addition to education courses to get certification (especially in secondary education) States find schools of education are getting a little "Loose" in their entrance requirements, bring back the content knowledge exam! Called the PRAXIS still used today (like SAT II- there's one for every subject area. Also have to take PRAXIS to show mastery of pedagogical techniques.

Some of the tests that came out of NCLB

Benchmarks- every 6 weeks, usually based on core curriculum objectives supposed to have been taught in that period. State tests like STAAR (written by state, normed to state curriculum, usually given at the end of the year) Potential Biases? The states start cheating the exam by dumbing down questions to increase students test scores. -increasingly, middle class and higher parents are not allowing kids to take these tests. Effects? Test scores decrease, decreasing state funds as an additional result. What have standardized tests shown us? We're not seeing a large return on money Finland has, by every metric, the best education system in the world. Nearly 100% graduation and literacy rates, their test scores blow us out of the water Americas Gini is .46 Finland's Gini is .26 Therefore, we have a much more unequal society. Plus, their entire population is a little less than 6 million. That's smaller than the NYC school district.

Chapter 17: Desegregation Without Integration: Tracking, Black Students, and Acting White after Brown

Black students optimism or pessimism about the future, or their ideas about academic success are best understood through an examination of their personal school experiences and meaning-making, rather than through an assessment of the African American community's history or culture. Culture does not drive values and action; it is a resource that individuals draw on to make sense of the world around them. For students in post-desegregation America, that world, unfortunately, includes racial-tracking. The schools structure sustains patterns and makes them a reality with which students contend with racial tracking. Blacks are presented with visual images of racialized achievement that perpetuate black inferiority. This is why blacks associate academic success with whiteness. Annette Lareau and Elliot Weinginer's call for greater attention to "the micro-interactional processes through which individuals comply (or fail to comply) with the evaluative standards of dominant institutions such as schools" is exactly right.

Chapter 16: The Nature of Schooling

Both Headstart and the Coleman Report both initially seemed to provide strong evidence that schools do not mitigate social inequality. The consensus about these earlier studies has now changed: attending high quality preschool programs certainly reduces effects of social inequality on students' later school success, and secondary schools serve to equalize the achievement of students of varying economic backgrounds in winter when they are open (Heynes 1978). In fact,... schooling at any level probably offsets effects of social inequity because home resources are critical for students' development mainly when schools are closed.

Are teachers religious?

Both male and female teachers are more likely than their nonteaching counterparts to report that they regularly attend church. The northeast and northwest are more approving of the supreme court's ban on prayer, while the Midwest and south are oppositional to it. 18-29 year olds are more approving of the prayer ban, while it decreases progressively in the age groups 30-44, 45-59,60-74, 75+

WWII- teacher certification

Bye, bye men. Rise of the emergency certificate (sometimes known as the "provisional certificate") for women to take those teaching jobs while men are gone. Brings back content exam, plus puts an expiration on the certificate. After the war, states find they like this flexibility and never do away with this type of certification. Effect on normal schools? Encouragement of loopholes. Teachers union have lost leverage Teachers can skip certification and go right into teaching.

Labov (1972) Chapter 27

Came up with code-switching Code-switching is the ability to understand and use a verbal and body language different from one's at-home languages. Almost always, the "second" language is that of the powerful in society. Example: Powerful in American society is middle to upper class white English. Someone who isn't in that group would need to speak/act differently in a school or office than how they speak or act at home. Therefore, codeswitching isn't about language- also class and race. Its also on a continuum (everyone does it to some extent- the distance is what matters.)

Types of Schools of Choice

Charter (public) Private (usually religiously affiliated) Homeschooling Magnet "Alternative Schools"

Charter Schools and Other Schools of Choice

Charter schools are publicly funded, have autonomy within reason, can choose teacher salary, (teachers cannot be unionized pros and cons),

How can schools of choice get money?

Charters get it on a per-capita basis- they bargain for a certain PPE from the state and then have to run based on that money. Ideally, they are less expensive than a regular public school... what are the effects of this? Private schools can charge tuition and can also apply for federal funds for things like free lunch or text books. No federal money for instruction. Some states have experimented with a "voucher program" This is where the students gets a voucher at the beginning of the year for a certain PPE and that money is given to whatever (pubic or private) the student attends, thus giving higher levels of choice. Pros/cons?

Education For A Civil Society Peter Levine

Civic education should help to strengthen and sustain a civicl society in which young people participate as citizens and learn the skills, knowledge, and values they need in the broader public sphere dominated by adults. The author criticizes the leading policy reform proposal-require and test civics- because it is basically already in place but tends to push civic education toward content, pedagogy, and assessments that are not especially valuable for civil society. It produces young people who know a fair amount about the three branches of government, but who do not know how to run a meeting. No alternative reform, by itself, can guarantee adequate and fair civic education in American schools. What students experience is affected by a whole range of factors, including academic requirements, opportunities, standards, evaluations, curricula, textbooks, and other materials, local civic associations and teachers' education and certification for civics? The author's colleagues and the author investigated the impact of extant state laws and policies on one hundred thousand students surveyed by the Knight Foundation. They found no statistically significant effects at all. This does not mean that state laws cannot enhance civic knowledge and engagement. But quality is essential: the requirement of a course and test is less important than their effectiveness. Each input must be well designed, thoughtful, ideologically balanced, mutually consistent, developmentally appropriate, and broadly and equitably implemented in all of the diverse and largely self-governing school systems in the United States. In that case, reforming civics is a marathon, not a sprint. It cannot be solved with a single intervention but requires constant attention to the quality of the curriculum, pedagogy, teacher preperation, and assessment. Rather than expect any state or national reform to solve the civic education problem, Americans should change the way that the government continuously addresses civics. At the federal level, an important step would be to move civic education from a sub-office within the Department of Education's Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools to a prominent new office with an empowerment director who could also convene representatives from other federal agencies that are involved with civic learning: the Corporation for National and Community Service, the Corporation for Public Broadcasting, the National Park Service, and others. States and districts should similarly make civic learning a more important priority and should charge the people responsible for it to think of themselves as the stewards of America's future civil society.

Karabel, The Chosen(2001)

Class and Anti-semitisism (main argument of book) which is displayed in this ld drinking song about the Ivies "Oh Harvard's run by billionaires and Yale is run by booze Cornell is run by farmers' sons Columbia's run by Jews"

Salary Matters...Sort of (teacher certification)

Clear link between teacher salary and student achievement, but what's actually driving that? What's causing teacher salary to be higher in those countries?

"The school-to-prison-to-deportation-pipeline in Six American cities"

Collaborative study with Dr. Duke Austin, Dr. Patricia Maloney, and Dr. Juhi Verma Remember that high influx of unaccompanied minors April Mentioned? Examine the experiences of secondary students in not only traditional immigrant destinations like NYC and San Francisco, but also new ports of entry like Houston and three cities in Connecticut. By examining the compounded effect of race and immigration status in those six ports of entry, we can see what we call the SPD pipeline.

Vocabulary for higher education

College- any institution of learning beyond 12th grader (hence, community colleges) Can be 2 year of 4 year Can only give out Associated or Bachelor's degrees University- An Institution made up of two or more colleges 4 years or more Can give out entire range of degrees, including graduate degrees

What about segregation by ability?

Commonly known as tracking Formally defined as separating students by ability in X subjects so that teachers can tailor lessons, exams, etc to those students needs Think of it as on a continuum, there's tracking within classes (reading groups) tracking within schools (honors classes) and tracking within systems (students sent to different types of schools).

Autism

Condition in which individuals have difficulty forming relationships or engaging with other people, especially through language and other abstract concepts. Can range from mild to deliberating (why we call it a spectrum) and can't be cured, although therapy can help a great deal. Usually presents in early childhood (usuaull by age 2) and continues into adulthood No (known) cause, but different brain structures and persistence in families suggests epigenetic causation.

Background of Magnet Schools

Consider these for final paper, are these good or bad for education? Would you keep them or do away with them? Would they be associated with catchment? Does this create segregation and achievement gap?) Magnet schools (or magnet programs within schools) are centered around a certain theme (e.g. academics, STEM, music, etc.) and have entrance criteria for students. Families apply to have their student attend (disadvantages low SES) Some districts have tried to capitalize on the growth of magnet schools by theming each school with a magnet program and then reserving a portion of seats within each school for application. Thus, students outside the neighborhood catchment zone can apply and attend, but are mixing with students who are in that school simply because they lived within the bounds of catchment zone. Pros: Good peer group. More topic focused (allows specialization) More variation in activities. Excellent places for students and teachers-incredible learning and creativity. Students/parents choose these places, so a lot of "buy in" to school culture and needs Cons: "Creaming effect"- removes good students and parents from local schools, so local schools suffer. Tend to be white/asian and higher income. Why? (You have to know how to apply and may need certain scores)

Do private schools do better?

Correlation/causation issue? Data indicates that, after controlling for race and SES, public schools actually outperform privates. The Lubienskis argue that autonomy in private schools actually *hurts* student scores because quality varies between schools so severely. Counter argument? Student learning dos not equal student standardized test scores

Difference between Intelligent Design and Creationism

Creationism- god(s) created the universe/life. Sometimes Judeo-Christian Genesis story is taught along with Flood stories Intelligent Design- the notion that the universe and life is best explained by an intelligent creator, counter to natural selection. So, has ID been challenged?

Certification in Modern America

Currently 1200 schools of education and 600 alternate routes supply more than half a million teachers a year in America Currently, there are 3.6 million teachers in America (second largest occupation segment, behind health care.) About third of teachers enter through alternative certification.

"Alternative" Schools

Designed to provide more structured environment to students whose behavior lost them access to regular public schools. Heard of expulsion? Expelled students go here. Why can't they be removed from the education system all together? ..not much learning happens here Tend to be predominantly minority and male, with a very low student to teacher ratio. Why? Remember Ferguson's book called Bad Boys? That's part of the reason. Pros: Removes threats/distractions to students In regular schools who are behaving appropriately Students may need extra support or attention that regular schools can't provide Cons: Essentially a holding cell for people heading to prison. Could teach deviance to those who might be redeemable. Not so much with the learning

Chapter 28: Digital Divide: Navigating the Digital Edge

Digital Literacy=Digital Equity. Black and Latinos are among the earliest and most resilient adopters of communications technologies. One of the most urgent challenges regarding technology, diversity, and equity is the need to expand digital literacy; the development of young people's capacity not only to access and use digital media but to use digital media in ways that create more enhanced and more empowered expressions of learning, creative expression, and civic engagement. This shifts the focus from access to the skills and expertise that establish more robust and more meaningful learning outcomes. The divide that deserves increasing attention from educators, media researchers, and practitioners is the "digital literacy divide". Tool Literacy is lower-order computing skills and the involvement of teaching students to use some of the most basic computer applications. On the other end of the spectrum, involves high-order computing skills like communication across multiple platforms. Design literacy is the capacity to engage in critical thinking, inquiry and discovery, and real world problem solving. While tool literacy is foundational, design literacy is transformational.

"Ritlain Divide"

Disproportionately, those who are diagnosed with ADHD and receive IEP's/medication are either low-income black children OR high-income white children. Why? Some have suggested that this Ritalin divide is due to an attempt to drug the low-income kids into "proper" behavior and an attempt by the higher income parents to get their kifs any advantage in school

Overall results ( for SPD pipeline)

Do stakeholders believe that there is SPD PIPELINE? Student: "And if I was born as a white American, life would be easier. I think Latino people are hunted by the police and stuff like even for breaking small rules. They send them off to prison then back home" Teacher: "One day, the kid is just not there anymore, you know? The others tell me that he was caught with an open container and now hes on his way back to Guatemala or somewhere. The others see that, so they're scared. They don't know anyone back in their home countries because they've grown up American. I wouldn't want to be shipped to a random place either. So, if they think they have a warrant or something is going to happen at school to make the cops come, they just stop coming to school because they don't want to be found"

What about searches of bodily fluids

Drug Tests! Can't drug tests students unless they're in extracurricular activities 2002's Pottawatomie V Earls found that, since these are not required, schools can have a higher level of surveillance on students. (Same logic that's used in jobs.)

20th century

Early 20th century (particularly in 1914 or so) brings the birth of the standardized test...and the mass expansion of education to assign positions in the draft for WWI Around the 1940's high school completion sky rocketed and continued increasing

Education in America Today

Education in America is constitutionally state-based That is, the far majority of laws and decisions are made by the states or local districts for local schools The federal Department of Education, until about 2000, was mostly tasked with collecting data and dealing with some funding decisions. Current Secretary of Education is Arne Duncan

Trends of Higher Education

Essentially, no difference between high school and associates degree, economically speaking Educational attainment generally correlate pretty directly with waged but what about unemployment over time, does higher education make you unemployable? Macro: not only higher earnings, but less change of unemployment Still on macro: the poor still don't see as much benefit High income with a college degree receives the highest "Bachelors Bump", perpetuating inequality while poorer kids make a smaller "bachelors bump" in earnings.

The achievement gaps?

Everyone in the media is constantly talking about the achievement gap. But, in reality, there's more than one. What are they? Racial achievement gap in standardized tests Racial achievement gap in graduation rates (HS and college) Gender achievement gap in tests and grad rates Gap between low and high income students on tests and grad tests Even internationally- the gap between high performing countries and America. 18% of teachers in low income schools leave, while roughly 14% of teachers leave in high income schools. "Churning effect". (If the achievement gap is above zero, it means whites are doing better than minorities. If the racial gap is below zero, minorities are scoring better than whites.) High school graduation rates follow 1) 91.4 in Asian/Pacific Islander 2) White 81.0 3) American Indian/Alaska Native 64.2 4) 63.5 Hispanic 5) 61.5 black. (Averaged graduation rates 2007-2008 (Total 2010 college graduation rate [within six years of entering])College graduation rates 1) Asians 2) Whites 3) Hispanics 4) N. Americans 5) blacks Average wealth white household has 100,000 Average wealth of Hispanic household 18,000 Average wealth of black household 6,000

Abstinence or Comprehensive

Exhaustive? (every possible answer must be accounted for) Mutually Exclusive? ( No overlap, answer fits only in one category) Does "Abstinence Plus" fix the problem?

More 20th century

Expansion of standardized tests into education creates "tracking" students are segregated by supposed ability. Theoretically, can switch. Normally, tracks are very sticky. Guess where blacks and immigrants went? 1945- The Servicemen's readjustment act of 1944 takes effect. Colloquially known as... the GI Bill Allowed for free or greatly reduced college tuition as well as stipend. Scholars point to this bill as one of the largest "return on investment" in American history. GDP massively increased. Population of people with bachelors increased, so did the amount of high school graduates.

Merton's Strain Theory

Explains why deviants happen. People have goals that they want to get to, and they have means to achieve said goals. If somebody has a culturally accepted goals, and they have the means to get to those goals, we call them a conformist. If somebody has the goals, but doesn't have the means to do so, we call them an Innovator (Such as teachers cheating exams for students). If someone rejects the goals, but has the means to achieve them, we call them a Ritualist. If someone rejects the goals and doesn't have the means to achieve them, we call them a retreatist. Someone who has new goals and new means to achieve them is called a Rebel.

What does Tech spend money on?

Faculty Salaries= 52%. Research development= 6%. Student services= 1% Grad student support= 4% Physical Plant= 4% debt service =5% Departmental services= 8% Employee benefits = 7% HEAF = 13% Other= 0%

So, we're not seeing a large return on money

Finland has, by every metric, the best education system in the world Nearly 100% graduation and literacy rates, their test scores blow us out of the water But...why? We will answer this in coming weeks. Hint: It's not the rich- their schools are doing super well in America.w3 Teachers are taken from the top 10% of college graduates

Free Speech- is it absolute?

First Amendment- Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion... abridging freedom of speech Public schools have been held to be agents of the government, thus can they limit teachers' and students' free speech? Lets trace evolution of case law Vietnam War- American Reaction? Negative. 1960's, protects are in full swing. Three students (two in high school one in middle school) Wore black armbands to school to protest. School forbade it because it was disruptive to student learning.

Basic Background on Immigration

First, know that immigration is different from emigration Immigration- to enter a country Emigration- to exit a country Legal immigrants, illegal (or undocumented) immigrants, refugees, and aslyees Refugee: "Any person who is outside his or her country of nationality and is unable or unwilling to return to that country because of persecution or well-founded fear of persecution" An Asylee is a refugee who is already in the country to which they are applying for admission into host country Economic migrant versus refugee

Professors Research on Moral Education

Focuses on charter schools, 6 schools across America, different states Each does moral education very differently, of course, but I did see a pattern The bigger the mismatch in class between teacher and student, the more formal and strict the character system. Why? Teachers are attempting to replace the at-home norms with middle class ones. Why? They want their students to succeed in college and processional world, which tend to value middle class and higher norms.

Low income schools?

Food (free breakfast, lunch) Health care for students English Language Learners (not generally found in high income schools After school tutoring programs if they're "failing" Dunning Kruger Effect= shows relation between time and confidence in knowledge.

Trends from Previous Slide

For the first time in America history, protestants are not less than 50% of the population Catholics have remained steady at about 22% mostly because of Hispanic birth rates and immigration Unaffiliated, which included atheists and agnostics, has seen the largest growth But, we know that statistics about religious affiliation can be suspect, Do we see any real differences between these groups? Yes.

WHat does the research about civic education show?

For those in developing countries: civic education about their rights as citizens correlates strongly and directly with value of democratic ideals and increased voting rates (Finkel 2002) For those in America: Civic education causes students to be more "group oriented" and less individualistic. That is, more likely to care about societal welfare in addition to one's own. Certain types of Civic Education matter more for American students: Service learning, discussing politics outside the classroom, extracurricular activities other than sports.

Trends from Week One

Generally, the South pays less per pupil However, there's not a very strong correlation between per pupil spending and student test scores However, is that necessarily evidence that funding doesn't matter? No- the school districts with low-income children need to spend more on feeding and taking care of the health care needs of children. Generally, per pupil spending is a bad metric of quality of education. $$ is spent on things other than teacher and curriculum. Previous slide was in 2009 dollars so inflation not at play Overall, per-pupil spending has doubled since 1976, even though standardized test scores have decreased since then. Remember: we spend about 11,000 per students per year in America It costs between 25-30,000 per year to house an inmate What have happened to incarceration rates since 1976

Research on single gender classrooms (pros)

Girls are: more likely to talk in class. More likely to call STEM subjects enjoyable and rate themselves as good at them Boys are: more likely to call school fun if the teacher is male. Score slightly higher on reading tests than those in mixed gender classrooms. More likely to reject gender stereotypes. (Why? Non-exposure to gender typification)

Teachers Unions Continued

Greater standardization of teacher pay, generally based on two critera: -Years of experience and degrees So, why can't teachers in schools of choice unionize? Technically, they can. Practically they don't. Why not? Two reasons: 1) The belief that professionals don't need to unionize because "we're better teachers than those public school teachers" 2) For the same reason that the workers at Wal-Mart don't. (Because they'll get fired) how does this affect students in schools of choice? (Teachers may work towards better performance) (teachers are not provided tenure which may cause them to under-perform). (Countries' without teachers unions {can} approach minimum wage and are typical paid less).

Does a school owe its students diversity?

Grutter v. Bollinger (2003) Barbara Grutter (white female) versus the University of Michigan Law School, challenged affirmative action. SC says that universities have a legit interest in promoting diversity, so these policies are allowed. However.... A 2007 case prohibited this same policy in k-12 schools. Parents involved in Community Schools v. Seattle challenged a policy in which competitive school admission (in the case of a tie on all other metrics) was offered to a student of color. SC held that this was unconstitutional. So, why are k-12 school treated different than universities? Compulsory attendance.

On a macro level

Higher degrees result in higher salaries

Where are those (teaching) positions going?

Higher levels of regulation require more personnel focused on...forms and reports. (similar to whats happening k-12) more funds are going to administrators instead of professors/faculty/teachers

Student loan by debt by race and ethnicity

Hispanics and Whites pull loans at almost the same rate, yet whites pull out more by about 2000$ roughly 80% of African Americans pull out student loans

Trends from previous slide

Historically black churches and Jehovah's witnesses tend to have adherents with the lowest incomes Hindus and Jewish people have the highest incomes Mainline Protestant adherents tend to have higher incomes than Evangelicals and Catholics Is this correlation or causation? As level of education increases, the value of education or a higher spiritual being decreases.

History of sex Ed in America

History of sex Ed in America -Comstock Laws (1870's) outlawed using post office to send information about sex or birth control across state lines. What the effect on sex Ed? Differential sex Ed in different areas. -(these were repealed for married couples in 1964 and for everyone in 1972) -sex itself wasn't really mentioned in schools until turn of the 20th century, when increasing industrialization and trade increased venereal diseases, which were seen as moral failings. -women are seen as the source of morality in the family and gatekeepers for sex (I.e. It's their responsibility to say no.). -progressive era (what is this)? Kicks in around 1890 to 1900 the social hygiene movement -"social hygiene": STD's and other sex problems arise from lack of information, not moral failing. This, to make society "clean", we must educate individuals (usually young women) in schools and churches. - age of consent raises from 7-10 (dependent on state) to 14-18 years of age -syphillis and gonorreha are rampant and affecting innocent wives and children, particularly after WWI -1928, penicillin is invented. -that, combined with better production of contraceptive devices, led to people like Margaret Sanger and Maurice Parmelee, saying that send had a reproductive AND recreation purpose, this MARRIED COUPLES should be able to use contraceptive devices and be taught more about both aspects of sex in school. - many schools follow suit, particularly in urban areas. Also teach about eugenics, specifically that "fit" (white, not poor) should outbreed non-fit (we all know who these people are.) Sanger also said non-for should be provided with contraceptive devices to help this along. -1930's and 40's, normal schools begin introducing courses on human sexuality, which were then taught in schools with a particular emphasis on anatomy. -After WWII, and the increase in STD's, emphasis also on seeing medical personnel regularly for "cleanliness check-ups" - ironically, first real push back on sex Ed came in the 1960's... Which sort of makes sense. Why? Attributed to hippies movement -culture of free love plus "the pill" (1964) meant that sex was now more acceptable to have outside the bounds of marriage -1970's-two competing forces - Title X 1974 (federal) mandates funding and education about sex Ed for hard to reach groups and funding for birth control education for everyone - Conservative Christians gain in number and power, push towards "abstinence only" or nothing at all in schools, temporary win until.... - 1980's AIDS and HIV. By mid 1990's, every state has standards on sex Ed that include safe sex practices. -1994, surgeon general Jocelyn Elders says masturbation might be alternative for young people to not engage in risky sexual practices. People lose their minds. -1996, Clinton's welfare reform act kicks millions off welfare rolls and enacts time limits in receiving benefits. Also, authorizes 250$ million for abstinence-only sex ed. -bush presidency refunds comprehensive sex ed, and increased funding for abstinence only. -what does that look like?

Campus Carry (because this seems the most logical place to put it)

House senate bill 11 is effective on August 1st, 2016 and allows those with appropriate handgun license to concealed carry a handgun into campus buildings Other details: essentially, campus carry allows for those with a concealed handgun license to bring the gun into buildings. With some exceptions, a person has to be 21 to get a CHL (exceptions military and LEOs) Before this law, individuals (with a few exceptions, like LEOs) couldn't bring handguns into any TTU buildings and within a certain radius of protected buildings, like hospitals and daycares Challenges: handguns still prohibited by state law within a certain radius of schools and daycares Texas Tech ran a survey: 83% of faculty oppose 61% of students oppose

Student Loans?

How can they close the gap? It's really hard to graduate college if you cannot pay for it First federal intervention in paying for higher education came with the G.I. Bill, in 1944. Which provided tuition benefits and a small stipend to returning WWII serviceman This is widely considered one of the best pieces of legislation of the New Deal, enabling the mass expansion of higher educaiton in America, as well as the economic boom of the 1950's and 1960's. Following the success of the GI Bill, the federal government started offering direct student loans for college to everyone in 1958. The program was so popular that the Treasury Department started getting nervous about making direct loans of so much money So, in 1965, they switched to guaranteeing student loans made by private banks to students. Basically, if you default, the government pays Effects of this? Mass expansion of higher education, which is good for the economy. But also... Tuition rates EXPLOAD

Chapter 5: Human Capital

Human Capital: Activities that influence future monetary and psychic income by increasing the resources in people. These investments are referred to as human capital. These investments can include schooling, on-the-job training, medical care, migration, and searching for information about prices and incomes. By raising the level of skills, knowledge and health, income (both monetary and psychic) is increased. The First Element of Morality: The two stages of childhood include parental development/nursing school, and elementary school. Where children are taught simple ideas and sentiments, while morality is gradually introduced. If beyond the second period of childhood, morality has not been taught, it never will be learned.

IDEA requirements in k-12

IDEA has three major requirements of schools 1) Individualized Education Plan (IEP) - Students with disabilities receive extra support and sometimes different standards for grades. That support and standards must be spelled out at the beginning of the year on one of these, AND agreed to by the parent. 2) Free and Appropriate Public Education (FAPE) -Students with disabilities cannot be charged extra money for an education that fulfills their needs. 3) Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) -Students must be mainstreamed as much as possible.

The effects of immigration

Immigrant students experience a cultural mismatch between teacher and parental expectations concerning the capacity and proper focus of the student Immigrant families may experience disruption in the parent-child relationship when children have to act as the interpreter Immigrant students may fall behind in regular academic classes because of placement in ELL Immigrant parents hold high expectations of educational achievement, but are unaware of their child's navigation difficulties Limited knowledge on institutional norms. Recent immigrant youth and parents rely on the interaction and communication of stakeholders When it comes to accessing information for attaining higher education Expectations of progress in school may be hindered due to the cultural mismatch and language barrier So the student may not participate in norms and educational requirements. What about the teachers and administrators? Unaware of the issues that are taking place

Overall school-prison-deportation pipeline

Immigration status (and English ability) is the achievement gap that everyone forgets about (why are we not talking about these unaccompanied minors?) The effects of immigration status on graduation rate differ by race, indicating that treating all immigrants as one group in school is a really bad idea. Some research (tatum and ogbu) has indicated that self-segregation by race and immigrant status is caused by the minority students feeling picked on and the non-minority students feeling excluded My research indicates that teachers are aware of the SPD pipeline and act strategically to either keep kids in school despite it, or use its threat to get rid of kids. Sanctuary city status appears not to matter.

Whos teaching?

In 1975, there were more tenure-line teachers, and less adjunct professors, this flipped in 1993, and 2011. In 1969, 78.3% tenured and tenure track and 21.7% of non-tenure track this flipped in 2009 to 33.5% and 65.5%

What about profane language?

In 1983, Matthew Fraser made an obscene speech (sexual, profanity, etc) with one redeeming feature..... He nominated a fellow student for student government office at the very end, just as the principal had security pull him off stage. Principal stopped the speech and suspended him for 3 days Supreme Court says no- schools have the right to monitor and punish "vulgar" language (1986) What is considered vulgar? The court is silent.

Milwaukee Voucher Experiment

In 1990, Milwaukee allowed students to use vouchers to pay for tuition at any school within the city (program is still on-going.) (High SES people took advantage of this because they understood) Currently, 26,000 students enrolled in more than 100 private schools, 150$ million a year to those schools. Reason this out: what do you need to be able to pick a good school. 1) research (you need a PHD to look into federal records of schools) 2) Looking at what schools feed into other schools Small private schools appeared out of nowhere, some not accredited, to take in this money (to get tax dollars, capatalist idealogy) Performance is bifurcated- white private schools doing super well, predominantly B&H Catholic and evangelical schools not so much.

What do the students learn in civic education?

In Texas, Social Studies Standard C.3 deals with civic education: "Students should be able to explain and analyze the importance of civic engagement" *Social Studies isn't a high-stakes testing, IT SHOULD BE PUT THIS IN YOUR PAPER* Examples of performance indicators: A) Identify three examples of civic responsibility in American History B) Explain why high levels of civic participation are necessary in democracies C) Examine the impact of civil disobedience in different societies and over time

Chapter 40: Adolescent Masculinity, Homophobia, and Violence Random School Shootings, 1982-2001

In a brilliant passage in Asylums, Erving Goffman (1961) touched on the interplay between structure and agency, between repression and resistance: "Without something to belong to, we have no stable self, and yet total commitment and attachment to any social unit implies a kind of selflessness. Our sense of being a person can come from being drawn into a wider social unit; our sense of self-hood can arise through the little ways in which we resist the pull. Our status is backed by the solid buildings of the world, while our sense of personal identity often resides in the cracks. (p.320) It is our task, as researchers concerned with gender and education, to understand how those structural forces shape and mold young men's identities and to explore the seams of resistance, where they might carve out for themselves a masculinity that is authentic, grounded, and confident.

History of teacher certification-continued

In the early 20th century, states (rather than districts) took over the certification process. Teacher took classes at a normal school, applied to the state, and received credential for k-12, all subjects. No upkeep required. Smith Hughes Act) 1917) - for a school to get federal funds, teachers must have subject-specific and level-specific certificate.

International

Increase status of teachers (how to measure this???) Global Teacher Status Index- gives people in various countries a list of professions and asks them to order them in terms of respect. Predict: in what types of countries is teaching respected the most? What's the relationship between self-reported teacher respect and student achievement? Status and respect are two different measurements

Back to History (Higher Education)

Industrialization kicks in during the 19th century. Small colleges begin to proliferate beyond the East Coast to train young men in becoming better skilled farmers of industrialists. Women (very few black people) start entering higher education, particularly at normal schools (1982, more women then men start graduating from college) Some of these colleges eventually become universities, particularly after the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Acts of 1862 and 1890

History of Mental Disabilities

Intellectual Disability= Any condition that makes the person unable to learn or have significant limitations in everyday living -Previously medical terminology= idiots, retarded, feeble-minded (We don't use these terms now) Learning Disability= Any condition that makes the person unable to learn in the same way as a "Neurotypical" person. Some common types:

Chapter 25: Black Students' School Success: Coping With the "Burden of 'Acting White'"

It is suggested that black students' academic efforts are hampered by both external factors and within-group factors. We have tried to show that black students who are academically successful in the face of these factors have usually adopted specific strategies to avoid them. Although we recognize and have described elsewhere in detail the external, including school factors which adversely affect black adolescents' school performance, the focus...is on the within group factors, especially on how black students respond to other black students who are trying to "make it" academically. It is recognized that the role of external forces-societal and school forces- create academic problems for students, but also black students Reponses to other black students who are trying to make it also is an important determining factor in the outcome of their education. Blacks will divert to "black activities" like team sports, or portray behavior as a "hoodlum" or "class clown" to mask academic success, while they could do better if they could save energy by avoiding these behaviors. 1) to change students perceptions of what is available to them as adult workers in the labor force. 2) minimize the exacerbation of the extant achievement problem of black adolescents who are expected to master the technical skills taught and condoned in the school context but who are, nonetheless, unable to find employment in areas where they demonstrate exemplary expertise.

Epperson v Arkansas (1968)

It wasn't until 1968 that it became legal to teach evolution in schools Relied on First Amendment to say that a state cannot prohibit the teaching of human evolution in schools. Right after this, states reacted by requiring the teaching of creationism next to evolution, but... teaching creationism quickly became illegal. Huh?

Still making our way through the 20th century

Jim Crow laws are in full effect. Black schools are poorly funded and run. 1954- Brown v Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas 1974- Milliken v Bradley ( states that you cannot have segregated schools, but you CAN have segregated neighborhoods and force school to take people from certain neighborhoods without exceptions) What does this encourage? Neighborhood segregation. And in fact, America is currently more segregated by neighborhood today than in the 1950's.

Chapter 33: Teaching and Women's Working- A Comparative Historical Analysis

Jobs that are labeled "feminine' are' transformed' and given less pay and upward mobility. When compulsory attendance increased costs, one way schools combated this was hiring women and paying them lower wages. Women sought teaching as a way to avoid low paying, or unpaid labor, in factory positions. "women's 'patience and nurturing qualities' combine with low pay made them excellent candidates for teaching" Teaching offered an alternative for women outside of traditional laundering, sewing, cleaning, or factory-work. In the 19th century elementary teaching was seen as a limited job before women were encouraged to get married, have children, and stay in the home, perpetuating the payment of low wages towards teachers and particularly women. Women were still excluded from other occupations and thus held onto education as a means of retaining power. Class played a significant role in this. Women were tested over domestic skills. Women were fired for getting married or getting pregnant.

History of teacher certification

Jog your memory- what were schools like in colonial times? Minister taught the class What were their qualifications? They could read and write Why would there NOT need to be a certification tests? He was local so he was respected in the community. Plus religious aspect of colonial America.

The Numbers of American Education

K-12 budget of public schools is just over 1$ trillion, essentially 1 out of every 15 dollars is spent on schools Compulsory attendance between 6 and 16 (although may differ slightly by state) Total enrollment: 81.5 million (bigger than every European country except Russia) Primary School: 37.9 Secondary School: 26.1 Tertiary (AKA higher education): 20.5

Why might charters be especially able to help lower-income kids?

Karl Alexander has an answer to this question called the "Summer Learning Gap" The achievement gap widens over time from lower-income not having the same summers as middle and higher income children who are enrolled in camps, trips, programs, etc.

Why don't people vaccinate?

Kata 2012: Religious Reasons: "God will protects me" or "God created diseases and an immune system" Distrusts in Pharmaceutical Companies: "They're just out to make money Trust in Self: "I know my child" or "I trust my own ability to research" Lack of resources: " I didn't know" or "I don't have the money" Leads us right back to the Ritalin divide. Highest levels of unvaccinated? Poor minority and high income whites.

Traits of effective SBSE Programs

Kirby 2002 argues that the common traits of effective programs include those which 1. Focus on decreasing risk behaviors that lead to TP/STI's 2. Are based on approaches that the effective at reducing other health-risky behaviors 3. Communicate a clear message about sexual activity and condom use and reinforce that message 4. Include basic accurate information about risk, methods for avoiding risk, contraception and STIS 5. Employ the use of teaching methods that involve participants and make them personalize information 6. Address social pressures that influence behavior 7. Include information about communication, negotiation, and refusal skills 8. Incorporate behavioral goals, teaching methods and age-appropriate materials 9. Last a sufficient length of time 10. Have trained teachers/peers who believe in the program

No Child Left Behind (2001)

LOTS of pushback from teacher unions and parents, particularly on the topic of standardized tests and when local schools are in danger of closing Slowly, court cases are winding their way up to state SC and the federal Supreme Court that are essentially chipping away at NCLB

Effects of English speaking ability

Language can and does reflect a student's racial/ethnic background That is, the perceptions that people have on language and even accents can lead to discrimination A student who lets say has a Hispanic accent may be deemed as "dumb" Whereas a student who has a British or French accent might be deemed as highly intellectual In 2010 Guadalupe Aguayo, a teacher in Phoenix, filed a class-actioned complaint after being told that her accent would not allow her to teach students learning English. The state agreed to alter its procedures for deciding who needs specialized English instruction. Emphasis on English proficiency in schools because of primary language of instruction and language on standardized tests However, we still have a high amount of students who fall under the English as a second language (ESL) category They're also more likely to be placed in ELL (English Language Learners) courses The time these students spend trying to learn English takes away from them learning core curriculum, thus placing them behind their peers The national council of teachers in English (NCTE) reported that ELL'S attending grades 7-12 increased by more than 70% since 1992, and k-12 enrollments for ELL's rose by 5% since 1990. Between 1980 and 2009 kids from 5-17 who spoke primarily languages other than English ranged from 4.7 million to 11.2 million. 41% of these children struggled with English in 1980, but by 2009, this figure had reduced to 24% But, what happened in 2011? Immigration laws changed slightly, unaccompanied minors cannot be sent home if there is not an adult present to receive them. This will perpetuate the achievement gap. Also, these immigrant children are not beneficial for property taxes that fund schools.

Still in the 19th century

Late 1830's and 1840's state boards of education set up and funded by factory owners. 1840's potato famine- mass Irish immigration-effect of this? Catholic Schools, Pushback against protestant schools as result 1851- Compulsory education of all until age 13 established in most Eastern states NOT A COINCIDENCE, to indoctrinate the Irish immigrants 1860's brings the civil war and the 13th and 14th amendments. "colored" schools set up and differentially funded by state boards. Separate but equal takes effect. 1862 and 1890- land grant universities ( focus on practical/technical) 1896- Separate but equal is confirmed by Plessy v Ferguson (and not overturned until 1954 by Brown v Board of Education)

Societal effects of higher college enrollment and completion

Later childbearing Increased Professionalization "Overeducated" Push for academic, college readiness track in high school - to the diminishment of vocational tracks like machinery and plumbing. Is this a good idea?

Historical Background from week one

Legal (Dejure) = racial segregation of schools ended in 1954, but... De Facto Segregation refers to that segregation that occurs without the force of law. Its factually there without law. 1971 brought swann vs charlotte, mecklenburg board of education in which busing of poor black students to nearby rich suburban white schools was ordered. This, almost overnight, brought "white flight" (refers to the voluntary removal of white people from heterogenous urban areas to more geographically distant homogenous suburban areas. This can be done geographically {as above} or, less commonly, actually through removal of children to private schools.) Milliken vs Bradley (1974) said that its not illegal for schools to reflect their neighborhood surroundings and we can't force desegregation (e.g. buses that bring students from one school to another.) Predictably, neighborhood segregation and gerrymandering of school districts increased to that white schools grew even more homogenous. What does this suggest about school funding? And the reproduction of ineqaulity? What has that looked like on a large scale basis? There should be some way to measure inequality over time between places. Through the Gini Coefficient = segregation by class Developed in 1912 by Dr Conardo Gini (some think his name stands for General Income Inequality, which is false) The Gini coefficient measures the dispersion of income in a given society in order to determine how unequal that society is. Used in almost every social science or ss-related discipline from sociology to ecology why would we want to know this? What methods are we using are we using when calculating? It varies from 0-1 "0" means perfect equality, everyone has precisely the same amount of money "1" means perfect inequality. One person in society has all the money.

The "Lemon" test

Lemon v Kurzman (1971)- SC case that established that any potentially religious program in school must: 1) Promote a secular legislative purpose 2) have its primary effect between state and religion 3) enable no entanglement between state and religion Holiday Program? Christmas Program? Reading the Bible or other religious text? Student religious group?

Tracking within system (external to schools)

Less common in the US although present (magnet schools) Very common in Europe (huh? Didn't she say they were more equal??) (European college is cheaper and offers a college stipend to students) This is how their system is set up. Students choose their specialization subjects around early adolescence (12-14) by deciding which subjects they want to pursue at a higher level.

Proposed Reforms (Current and Maybe Future)

Make student loans banckrubtable a certain number of years after college. Pros/Cons? People were leaving college and declaring bankruptcy immediately out of college. Currently, cap on deductible student loan interest is 2500- increase the cap so people can take more off their taxes? Pros/Cons? Make all student loans (public and private) follow income-based repayment with forgiveness after 20 years? Make private loans follow the terms of public loans? Make student loans follow same statue of limitations as other debt (after 7 years of no activity, it drops off your credit report) Eliminate Parent PLUS loans as it just inflates tuition and causes parents to get into debt for kids education

Karabel 2001, The Chosen (continued)

Masterpiece history of elite education in America, focusing on the Ivy League Discusses how the Ivy League changed from a "gentleman's finishing school" that wasn't difficult at all to get into (ig you had money) to.. Today's meritocracy that doesn't really depend on money, but rather GPA's SAT scores, Rec letters, and extracurricular When did this shift happen? Karabel argues.... When Jewish people started to have enogh money to get in and women wanted to join around the 20th century. All of a sudden, the admissions committees threw up some boundaries and needed a way to determine the strength of candidates beyond knowing someone's dad Became a way to keep Jewish and women out... until J&W started doing really well at those things (Low levels of African Americans. Lower rights of Caucasians) (Lots of Asians and Hispanics)

Paying off student loans by race and gender

Men are almost able to pay off half their debt in 3 years. Asian women can pay off 61% in 3 years

Domestic

Merit Pay- base a portion of teacher's pay on student growth over the course of the year Pros: Teachers can earn significantly more than their regular base pay. Teachers should be more motivated to increase student learning (win/win situation) Cons: incentivizes cheating. Regression from priming students to perform poorly on the entry exam, and then priming them to do better on the final exam to achieve a 25% increase so pay increase can be achieved. (Merit Pay- revision for paper) Teacher merit pay internationally is correlated in test scores

Alternative Certification programs in America

More than 600 programs, requires vary hugely. First, Teach for America- founded as national teaching corps 20 years ago, designed to attract the top college seniors from all majors into teaching for two years. -training is the summer before they enter for 6 weeks. -about 60% stay for at least a third year.

Part II- The Effects of Higher Education

Most obvious effect- reproducing inequality. But how does that happen? Micro level reproduction of inequality- Different majors produce different vocations that produce different salaries. Maternal education is the number one indicator of a child's future educational success. College creates status Homogamy- at the turn of the 20th century, this principle was followed. People pursue a significant other with a similar SES or educational degree.

Virginity Pledges

Most popular is "True Love Waits" in which young people sign pledges to remain a virgin until wedding day ...in 2015, 93% of people were not virgins at marriage. Virginity pledges do seem to put off first intercourse for about 8-12 weeks. But, when they do have sex, its three times as likely to be unsafe

Examples of a systematic tracking: England

Most students attend state-funded schools (as opposed to "public" schools, which are private. I know, its weird) Curriculum is uniform until about the age of 14, where students take a standardized test called the GCSE. Based on performance on this and student choice, they can continue course work. Then, A-levels around age 16 (same process) and finally applying to university *in given major* Effects of this? Extreme specialization.

By Gender ( Student Loans)

Nationally, college attending women are more likely to take out student loans than college attending men, and are more likely to take out more in loans They're also slower to pay them off on average than men On average, Asian women have paid off nearly two thirds of their debt in 3 years, while black women have only paid off 9% and Hispanic women barley anything (3%)

Do Vaccines Cause Autism?

No So whats the fuss? In 1998, British doctor Andrew Wakefield published a study on 12 children suggesting that the MMR vaccine caused a change in bowel disease, which in turn caused autism. Background: in early 1990's, Wakefield had contracted with local lawyer to find evidence of "new syndrome" caused by MMR in order to start class action lawsuit. In 1997, Wakefield patented a "safer vaccine" that would benefit from MMR being refused by parents. Children pre-selected by lawyer, one flown in from US. Possible data fabrication- parents of patients say their children's results were misrepresented (also, 12? Does not make a medical research study). Wakefield says tests occurred that never happened. Multiple lawsuits (on both sides) ensued, journal retracts paper, Wakefield has medical license revoked However, lasting impact...

What about the 4th amendment

Normally, need probable cause... not so much in schools. Courts found no exception of privacy in school property (lockers, desks, etc). And that school personnel need only have "reasonable grounds" to search students' property and person. A school official only needs a moderate level of suspicion that the law and/or school policy has been broken. Teacher is told by a student that a different student has drugs or cigarettes. The search can extend to student's friends and does not have to end when contraband is found. Additionally, if all students are searched, or searchers occur randomly, anything on school grounds is fair game.

Home schooling in America

North East is highly regulated. Mid-west and south is more approving of homeschooling

What are the factors that affect grit?

Not intelligence! "Growth Mindset"- ability to learn and intelligence are not fixed, but can be changed This is why we should praise kids not for being smart, but rather than working hard Research also shows that (a) time in school as well as (b) childhood SES matters for overall grit in school. Why?

Do "sanctuary laws" affect T&A behavior?

Not really- with two notable exceptions

Schalet 2011

Not under my roof compares the experiences of teenage sex in America and the Netherlands to talk about the cultural differences between the two countries In America, teens have sex in secret, usually outside or when parents are not around In the Netherlands, teenage sleepovers are common. Parents supply birth control and the attitude is that it's better where they can advise over it. American abortion and STD rates for teenagers are nearly triple those than in the Netherlands

Race to the Top (2009)

Obama, 4.35 billion competitive grant from the federal Department of Education to states. States get different amounts of money based on their adoption of the following elements: -Increase in number of charter schools -Increasing performance at the lowest level schools in the state -Performance based evaluation of teachers and administrators -Building and using data systems open to the public -Prioritization of STEM education (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Math) -Adoption of common standards, preferably Common Core ones. Guess which states chose NOT to participate? Alaska, Nevada, Texas, Vermont.

Can a university professor decide to offer a rec letter based on factors beyond a student's academic performance?

Obvious that factors like how well the professor knows the student, when the letter is due, whether the professor has a good relationship with the student should be allowed. But what about religious belief? Welcome to Texas Tech! Dr. Michael Dini (who teaches Biology) said that, to get a letter for graduate school, students must "truthfully and forthrightly affirm a scientific answer" to human origin. Logic: most of his students go to med school. Can't have doctors giving non-scientific answers to that question. Spradling (student) sat in on two sessions of Intro to Bio, sued in 2003. Dini changed policy that students must be able to completely explain theory of evolution in neutral language.

Evolution vs. Creationism

Obviously, more to religon in schools than just this issue, but it's used as an indicator variable/hot button topic Rare to find a state that only teaches creationism/intelligent design-usually taught alongside evolution First amendment vs. science? Is that a strawman? The more educated you are, the more upset you typically become about a creationist-centric classroom setting

Ogbu 1997 Chapter 25,

Ogbu found that high-achieving non-whites were accused of "acting white" by their non-white peers Suggests that some minority students may be (un)consciously avoiding academic success in order to maintain social networks with friends? This theory of great contention because some have replicated it, some have not.

IDEA Requirements in Higher Education

Only reasonable accommodations apply For example, translating texts in Braille or providing a golf cart to get from class to class Extra time or scribes on exams is common, but NOT different standards of grades or knowledge acquisition. Why? Higher education isn't mandatory. People CHOOSE to come. (PAPER do we do away with reducing standards for k-12 kids in public secondary schooling? [Children not having to make 70% to pass exams])

ODD and ASPD

Oppositional Defiant Disorder- refusal to listen to those in authority, frequent mood swings, violent outbursts. -sometimes caused by abuse, traumatic experience with someone in authority, and/or inconsistent discipline, about 10% of kids diagnosed. Anti-social personality disorder- sometimes called sociopathy, diminished empathy or moral sense, history or crime or aggressive behavior. -can be lessened significantly with therapy (empathy can be taught) but usually not cured. About 2% of kids.

First context-the financials of American higher education

Organized activities= 0% Interest on loans to others= 0% national research university fund = 6% Tuition=24% Hazlewood legacy= 1% State appropriations = 69% Where is the research dollars?

Schools of Education Arise

Originally called "normal schools"- began in the very late 19th and early 20th centuries; two year schools, mostly elementary teachers Goal: establish teaching norms along with content knowledge of late high school and maybe early college Many major state universities started as normal schools (SIU, UCLA, FSU, etc.) Teacher certification began to be based on completion at one of these schools, rather than just content knowledge. Not coincidentally, teacher unions founded about the same time. Attempting to form boundaries around the profession.

Kitzmiller v Dover Area School District 2005 (Pennsylvania)

Parents sued Dover, Pa school district over use of Pandas and People, saying that Intelligent Design was too close to creationism, thus failed the Lemon Test National Center for Science Education agreed, joined the suit. Judge of PA district court ruled in favor of plaintiffs, school district got hit with legal fees and cannot teach Intelligent Design because its "not science" So, why is intelligent design still taught in other states?

Trends about religiosity

People from the south are more likely to disapprove of the ban of prayer in school NE and West are mostly likely to approve Connection with political affiliation slide shown earlier? Liberals approve ban, conservative oppose By age, youngest are most likely to approve of prayer ban

But these numbers differ wildly between low-and high-income schools

Per-Pupil spending Low-income schools in Texas= Federal 1600. State 5000 Local property taxes: 2200 for a total of 8800 High income school in Texas= Federal: 1600 State 5000 local property taxes 164000 for a total of 23000

Pros and cons of homeschooling in America

Pros and Cons Allow for parents to individualize instruction to child Religious instruction may occur along with content areas Lowered socialization with other kids or parents can be more selective about child's socialization Child's medical needs would not disrupt schooling as much (Nobody can know all of high school curriculum)

Pros and Cons of Community colleges

Pros- Accessible. Cheaper in terms of money. Easier to understand. Transferability. Professors more available, less time to research, more time to teach. Good technical schools. Cons- Teacher quality can sometimes be lower. Hard to transfer, what carries over? Advising and class enrollment complications. Diploma, by itself, essentially worthless on labor market. Students overwhelmingly enroll in public schools, on the rise starting and continuing since the 1950's 1982 more women start graduating from college then men

Pros of NCLB

Pros: -Systematized data collection. -Greater financial accountability-states had to release their budgets, in detail.-

Current reforms (only public loans are eligible) (Student Loans)

Public Service- individuals who work in low-income schools (as measured by title 1 funding) or other similar public interest sectors can "work off" part of their loans so that 100% are forgiven in 10 years Time- if people pay the minimum every month on time for 20 years, then the rest is forgiven Income-based-payment- limits repayment to certain % of your discretionary income (determined by family size and gegraphic location) loans forgiven after 20-25 years, dependent on type of plan and whether the lans are undergrad or undergrad+ Graduate *governments want more people in school because schooled people generally make more income and can pay higher income taxes*

Online "Universisites" and Classes

Quick history: 1999, first online university (Jones International University) accredited by North Central (this is all very fishy) 2002, MIT starts offering its lectures and course materials online, but this is ernrichment (can't get degree this way) 2002-7 (depending on unviersty), universites start offering online courses in addition to in-person ones for registered students research indicates that students learn less and are less connected to the university when taking online classes Thus, have higher drop out rates and lower labor market returns on degree. What should be done?

What does immigration have to do with schools?

Quite a bit actually 2011 high influx of immigrants in the US specifically from Central America Most if not all were unaccompanied minors The Migration Policy Institute recorded in 2014 alone tens of thousands of unaccompanied children Later resulted to 27,000 families in June 2014

Segregation by Gender

Relatively uncommon in public schools, more often found in Catholic schools Single gender classrooms are coming back, thought to be particularly helpful for boys and students of color....Why? Puberty (for focus) male teachers are better able to connect with male students, and vice versa. Hint: who are teachers? Who do they teach "teach" to?

Results of sex ed research

Religiosity metric: 26 point scale 0-26 (0 being least religious) -Mean scale score 23: (range from 21-24) Desired content -Support for biologically accurate information, contraception, STI's, pregnancy -Lack of support for "abstinence" AT ALL Desired Context -Primarily in the home

Because I want to talk more about learning theory

Remember, how does knowledge or skill growth happen? Stochastically.

Percentage of students enrolled in charters

Remember, this is snapshot data- students may be in multiple types of schools during their education.) It has increased massively since 1999, and is predicated to continue increasing (the professor believes 10% enrollment will be achieved, but will be met with a "ceiling" effect.) (Charter schools can bargain PPE) (Pubic school teachers are paid on seniority, Charter school can/may pay for performance).

But why does *childhood* SES matter for adulthood grit?

Research indicates that grit (and willpower in general) function very much like a physical muscle. It grows as you (consistently) work it out, but there's a daily limit to it. So, if you're (spending) your grit on hunger or medical issues, there's nothing left over for school So, high SES children worked out their grit muscle on academics, thus improving it, while los SES children did not. That leads to higher grit in adulthood.

Trends of sex ed

STI'S and Teen Pregnancy is highest in the South Socioeconomic and sex ed are determining factors The majority of Republicans are in favor of Abstinence: contraception info The majority of Democrats are in favor of Comprehensive

What about freedom of the (student) press?

School newspapers aren't considered "legitimate press" (college newspapers are set up separately from the university)

Basic backgrounds for Schools of Choice

Schooling in America is compulsory, usually from age 6-16 Parents can be held as negligent and children can be removed to foster care if they are not adequately educating their child Some truancy courts hold parents accountable for child's attendance through fines and possible imprisonment. Law allows for parent to enroll child in alternative school allowed for by law (usually private or charter school)

What about the 4th amendment?

Schools have an In Loco Parentis rule during the school day, thus have a responsibility for students' safety. Since parents can search their kids as they please... you see the logic.

What are the implications of this?

Schools that have students whose biological needs for food, shelter, etc. or whose psychological/emotional needs for love and safety aren't being met have a problem. Those schools are trying for self-actualization (learning!) but... ...incredibly hard to do if school is only (small) source of biological and psychological/emotional needs. Teachers can't move students into zone of proximal development if student's don't have those other needs fulfilled, thus... A problem is created, the students can't learn.

What are Charter Schools?

Schools that receive a charter (founding document) from the state board of education and function under an "XYZ Definition" X= the school must take X number of students Y= achieve Y standardized test scores Z= Within Z years (usually 5 years, but successful schools may get longer charters) First Charter started in 1991 in Minnesota, now legal in 39 out of 50 states. Teachers cannot unionize, schools may impose longer school day and year as well as behavioral and parental requirements that the regular public schools cannot. Can be networked (belong to a charter management organization like KIPP or Achievement First) or non-networked (independent). Non-networks can pair with universities.

Tatum , 1997

Self segregation occurs around 4-5thgrade Non-white students start noticing the personal impact of racism on their lives and think it's unfair This is why we see mixed friend groups in elementary school and segregation in middle and above White kids see it as the nonwhites refusing to be their friends and then pull away themselves Furthering homophily

Paying for the Party 2015, Armstrong and Hamilton

Set at a large 4 year public university in a famous football conference (cough, cough) authors lived with girls in a dorm for their freshman year, did 5 years of follow up fieldwork and interviews. Found that there are three main types of students at such a school: 1. Professional Track- students there to study and prepare for professional jobs. Parents are middle to upper class, educated. Separated into two tracks: Achievers and Underachievers. What makes the difference? Parental support and coaching. Underachievers' parents see the nest as empty and don't coach kids, achievers' parents see the nest as having moved; still an active part of decision making. 2. Party- you can guess what they're there for. Tend to major in.. a certain type of major: business, fashion, education, advertising, marketing, etc. Also grouped into two types: Socialites (who have been groomed by parents to know specifically with whom to connect and eventually marry) and wannabes (like to party, but doing it randomly and arent deliberately making choices about social networking) 3. Mobility- first generation, low-income students there to get out of poverty usually struggle, especially initially, because of total lack of experience and parental support Often too self-reliant, don't ask for help early enough Rarely attend office hours, see college as a credential to get through Thus, have low graduation rate but really high student loans.

Remember how I said that education is state based?

So are homeschooling laws. Can't review all case law, but one of the most famous Roemhild v. State of Georgia (1983) in which the court ruled that parents have the right to withdraw children into competent private schools (which could function at the dining room table).

Cons to single gendered classrooms

Socialization= When reintroduced to co-ed environments, children aren't sure how to interact with other sex Discriminatory? = differential funding and access to opportunities by sex usually emerges quickly Few Male Teachers= particularly at elementary level, so boys may still be taught in a "female" learning style.

On a micro level: "Extended Adolescence"

Sociologists have noticed a phenomenon that young people are extending their adolescence and delaying typical markers that signal entrance to adulthood For example, marriage full time job, child bearing, supporting self, making independent decisions. Why? How does this increase inequality? Who extends adolescence (Who can afford to?) Higher SES people. Not low income. So, high income is allowed to extend training and establish career without external constraints.

Tracking in classrooms

Sometimes called "ability grouping"- allows for tailoring of lesson to reading level Pros: each child gets what he needs in terms of sophistication of lesson, lower level kids aren't ashamed in front of peers Cons: lower level kids aren't (positively) influenced by high achievers, self-fulfilling prophecy kicks in.... but how could we test that (hint: think of a time before modern ethical standards.)

What do people think about religion in school?

Sources affect what people know, people think the liberal agenda is shoving religion out of school, when in actuality it only prohibits the doctrinarian of religion in schools.

History of high-stakes testing continued

Sputnik! 1957- caused massive panic in America about science and math schools School districts start giving "scientific tests" to gauge achievement and begin heavily tracking (called "Iowa tests"- developed in 1959) Usually given once a year, all subjects.

The achievement gaps and standardized tests

Standardized testing started in China 2000 ago (taken by every male child at the age of 8 to categorize a population) Modern standardized exams (multiple choice, etc) originated in the early 20th century as a way to determine the intelligence of mentally disabled children and the best way to serve them (therefore, remained very rare- typical children wouldn't take them at all) WWI- every draftee took an intelligence test to categorize them, worked well. Veterans took this concept and brought it into higher education (SAT, 1926)

Cons of NCLB

Standardized tests as accurate metrics of education.-Some schools literally cannot improve any more. (high income schools have nearly 100% of kids at proficient. They just can't get higher).-Punishing low-income schools by taking their money away is unfair and unhelpful. Incentivizes cheating. Teachers know their jobs on students doing well.. so they cheat.

Community Colleges

Started as ways to get people ready for college around turn of the 20th century By far, hold the majority of enrollment in American higher education Of students enrolled in tertiary education in America, about 41% in 2016 are enrolled at CC'S. (This doesn't count those enrolled in remedial, non-degree tracks) Graduation rate is usually quite low. Depending on school, usually around 30% of those who enroll graduate. Women, whites, Asians are more likely to graduate. Men, blacks, Hispanics are far less likely However, many are seen as a cheap way to get college credit and then transfer to a 4 year for a bachelors

Stereotype Threat

Stereotype threat= when reminded of their race, class, and/or gender, students perform to the stereotype of those demographic characteristics (e.g. females do better at reading, Asians do better at math, etc.) Steele and Aronson (1995, 1998) tested this by randomly assigning students to two groups: one in which demographic questions came before the SAT and one in which they came afterwards Did not completely erase achievement gap (hard to erase 18 years of socialization) but significantly lessened it.

But...what percent of graduates from high school?

Strangely enough, it's really difficult to answer this question If we measure it by percent of people over 25 who "have completed secondary education"? Nearly 90% Because this number includes the GED-the high school equivalency diploma that's really not equivalent. If we measure it by those who officially drop out, join the military, or become incarcerated? 85% If we measure it by those who get a HF diploma within four years of entering high school? Less than 70%

What are schools of education doing right now?

Struggling, mostly Highest and lowest SAT ranking by intended major Math, Physical Science, Engineering, Language and Literature, Biological Sciences. Education was 19, 35 points below the state average. This is odd because teachers are the ones prepping students to take the SAT. In 2014, Education was very low down on the SAT score average for math and verbal testing.

Overall by school type (Student Loans)

Student loan amounts are highest at the 4 year non-profit privates, followed by for-profits of any kind, then the publics Why is that? Partially due to a lack of taxpayer money at privates, but students are also more likely to live on campus (usually more expensive) at privates. Must take higher student loans to cover living expenses. Slope of line at privates is also slightly steeper, indicating accelerated rate of student loan borrowing.

Trends overtime (Student Loans)

Student loans debt increases overtime. Med/Law school requires the most loans.

Houston Results

Students -contrary to expectations, students in Houston in our sample do not perceive that race is the factor that affects their access or educational success -Rather, they related issues to the language barrier that they had. Teachers -teachers reported that race itself is not a salient factor -Rather, students identify with their country or origin What's the issue here? If students are not able to identify their race, they might be unaware of being marginalized

Can a school punish students for activities that occur beyond the school day?

Students and parents usually sign a behavior code at the beginning of the year that covers prohibited activities on campus and their consequent punishments Can this extend beyond the school day? Obviously to extracurricular. What about beyond the school's reach? Cyberbullying, criminal acitivy? Yup. Schools pay punish students as if that activity had happened on school grounds. Why isn't this double jeopardy? School isn't part of criminal justice system. Why should schools do this? What's the logic here?

The effects of expectations

Students! 1968 experiment by Rosenthal and Jacobsen randomly assigned students into two types of classrooms: 1. Low expectations- the teachers were told that the children were "slow" and hadn't done well in previous years 2. High expectations- the teachers were told that the children were high-performers and should do well in the coming year What do you think happened? Labeling theory! Kids performed according to expectations

Functional philosophies that build upon this

Teacher Centered= Focus on lecture, teacher as source of knowledge, generally authoritative (still found universally in higher education in America, very present in Asian countries at all levels) Student-centered= focus on learning by doing, teacher as a facilitator of discovery, low level of authority Society-centered= most common example is 'revolutionary pedagogy' (by paulo freire) Teacher centered- "saint on a stage" predominantly lecture based, tends to be authoritarian in structure. I.E. the "New York Model" Pros: Expertise, quick, instillation of subordination, Cons: Not effective for all learning types, lack of focused assistance. Student centered= Emphasis on discovery based or group based lecture Dewey= emphasis on relating knowledge to children's experiences and lives. Exposure to philosophy and logical thinking in adolescence Montessori= usually for young children. Emphasis on sense experiences deductive thinking. Decisions are made by class as a whole, but individuals don't have to participate "Unschooling"= modern movement in which children choose their own learning activities based on what interests them. Theoretically, students develop self-discipline and learning is authentic to their lives. Society-centered= emphasis on using education and learning to change in society Example: Paulo Freire's 'Revolutionary Pedagogy" in which students are emancipated from oppressions through skill and knowledge acquisition and then expected to use those skills and knowledge to disrupt the existing hierarchies in society.

Conclusions-teacher certification

Teacher certification began as a response to industrialization and the need to determine if strangers were qualified to teach (based on tests) Normal schools developed as a response to need for teachers States took over certification from local districts in the early 20th century, based on graduation from normal schools and test scores. Smith Hughes Act (1917) uses "carrot approach" to get schools to hire certified teachers. NCLB mandates it about 85 years later. (Final paper-increasing status and autonomy creates a better teacher performance) WWII= emergency certifications (states are happy normal schools and unions are sad) 1970's and 80's, states start bringing back exams because they're not happy with schools of education 1983-alternative certification begins! Now over a third of teachers enter that way. Standardization out the window. What does this mean for the professionalization of teaching? What are solutions, domestically and internationally?

How do Teachers and Administrators keep kids out of the pipeline in an age of zero tolerance?

Teachers and administrators have to call the police when they have reasonable suspicion of drugs, weapons, violence, etc However the law doesn't say which police they have to call So T&A's make friends with local LEO's they trust Call those police, have them come yell at kids and put them in handcuffs, then just never file the paperwork. When T or A thinks there's really a problem, they call 911 and get whoever is around.

Why professionalizing teaching is difficult

Teachers are predominantly female and lower middle class. Churning effect- most education majors will not become teachers, and for those who do.... 50% leave teaching within the first 5 years. This is different from law and medicine

Chapter 10: Functional and Conflict Theories of Educational Stratification

Technical Theory of Education= 1) the skill requirements of jobs in industrial society constantly increase because of technological change. Two processes are involved. A) The proportion of jobs requiring low skill decreases and the proportion requiring high skill increases; B) the same jobs are upgraded in skill requirements. 2) Formal education provides the training, either in specific skills or in general capacities, necessary for the more highly skilled jobs. 3) Therefore, educational requirements for employment constantly rise, and increasingly larger proportions of the population are required to spend longer and longer periods in school. This theory rests on the premises that A) Occupational positions require particular kinds of skilled performance. B) Positions must be filled with persons who have either the native ability, or who have acquired the training necessary for the performance of the given occupational role. The technical function theory of education does NOT give an adequate account of the evidence. Economic evidence indicates no clear contributions of education to economic development, beyond the provisions of mass literacy. Shifts in the proportions of more skilled and less skilled jobs do not account for the observed increase in education of the American labor force. Education is often irrelevant to on-the-job productivity and is sometimes counter-productive; specifically vocational training seems to be derived more from work experience than from formal school training. The quality of schools themselves and the nature of dominant student cultures suggest that schooling is very inefficient as a means of training for work skills. Available evidence suggests that the technical-functional view of educational requirements for jobs leaves a large number of facts unexplained. Functional analysis on the more abstract level does not provide a testable explanation of which ascribed groups will be able to dominate which positions. One must leave the functional frame of reference and examine the conditions of relative power of each group. Conflict Theory of Education= The conditions under which educational requirements will be set and changed may be stated more generally, on the basis of a conflict theory of stratification and from advances in modern organization theory fitting the spirit of this approach. (Important terms= Status Groups, Struggle for Advantage, Education as Status Culture). Status Groups are groups where people share certain characteristics and exclude those who do not possess such characteristics. Status groups may be derived from a number of sources. A) difference in life style based on economic situation. B) differences in life situation based on power position. C) differences in life situation deriving directly from cultural conditions or institutions, such as geographical origin, ethnicity, education, or intellectual or aesthetic cultures. Struggle for Advantage: Continual struggle for wealth, power, prestige. Since these are scarce, it sparks competition. Education as Status Culture: Schools primarily teach vocabulary and inflection, styles of dress, aesthetic tastes, values, and manners. The emphasis on sociability and athletics found in many schools is not extraneous but may be at the core of the status culture propagated by schools. Where schools have a more academic or vocational emphasis, this may itself be the content of a particular status culture, providing sets of values, materials for conversation, and shared activities for an associational group making claims to a particular basis for status. The conflict theory is supported by 1) distinctions among status group cultures-based both on class and on ethnicity. 2) status groups tend to occupy different occupational positions within organizations. 3) occupants of different organizational positions struggle for power. Education as a Mechanism of Occupational Placement states that schools either teach students how to be a part of the elite or indoctrinate workers into respecting the elite. Normative control for white-collar organizations was demonstrates through 1) no police record. 2) job loyalty. 3) Classification of organizations into those with high normative control emphasis (financial, professional services, government, other public service organizations.) and Remunerative control emphasis (manufacturing, construction, and trade.) Normative control emphasis, organizational prominence, and technological change each independently affect educational requirements only in smaller, localistic organizations, and in organizational sectors not emphasizing normative control.

Background of Special Education

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) is a law originally passed in 1990 but amended significantly in 2009 Civil Rights Law, protects against discrimination based on disability, requires schools and employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees and accessibility requirements for all public buildings.

Bringing us to..the Common Core

The Common Core is exactly what it sounds like- an attempt by the federal govt to set and maintain national standards as to what students k-12 should know in math and reading at the end of every school year. CC standards are superior to those that were already in effect in about 2/3rds of states Rolled out in 2010 with financial rewards to states that adopted the standards; states choose the curricula. 42 of 50 states and DC opted in. Guess who didn't? Ok, TX, VA, Ak, NE, IN, and SC (Mn only adopted reading) Criticism is that its "one size fits all" and "ignores local cultural context"

What about students with special needs?

The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (originally passed in 1970, revised to its current form in 1990) mandates that children with a mental or physical disability receive a free and appropriate education designed to fit their needs, at the expense of the federal government Therefore, what does this incentivize? Students must be educated in a least restrictive environment. This means that disabled students must be placed with nondisabled students whenever possible (sometimes through the use of aides). Students also receive an Individualized Educational Plan (IEP) that spells out precisely what services they must receive and the different standards they have to meet to get grades/passed to next year.

Overall, Across the Country (Student Loans)

The National Center for the Education (clearinghouse for all educational data) is quite clear that higher levels of research productivity correlates directly with student tuition being a smaller piece of the pie. What does that mean? As universities focus more on research (and its payout) tuition from student becomes less important. But, student acceptance rates as Tier 1 and Tier 2 universities plummet every year, so students desperately want to attend these schools. What gives (And what is a Tier 1 university?) Some professors are only good research, others are only good at teaching, a little bit of both occasionally.

Knowledge of Religious Practices

The Pew Foundation asked a series of questions about religious practices to a representative sample of 4000 adults For example, "What is Ramadan?" or "Which of the following is not one of the Ten Commandments?" How do you predict different religious groups did on these questions? Overall, people who identified as Jewish did the best and Hispanic Catholics did the worst. Why might this be? Urban living, being submerged by other cultures Hindu's are more likely to be the richest, followed by Jews Income by religion is correlated by education associated with the success corresponding with their religion.

No Child Left Behind (2001)

The department of ed wasn't powerful until 2000 No Child left Behind: President Bush's law to reform schools. It mandated more standardized tests and data collection from schools and provided financial sanctions to those schools who weren't progressing sufficiently on standardized exams.

Chapter 15: E Pluribus...Separation: Deepening Double Segregation for More Students

The impact of segregation will steadily mount as the country becomes a predominantly nonwhite society. In that new society, increasing levels of education for historically disadvantaged black and Latino students becomes even more vital t the health of families, communities and the nation. Even though evidence shows that orthodox theory of education reform has failed, the response of its advocates has been to press even harder, imposing more rigid sanctions and tests and a belief that inequality can be fixed through accountability, will power, and sanctions. Educators use a parroting of policies that have failed, and fear bringing up race in beliefs it will upset people. Ignoring the relationship between segregation and educational inequality, the focus instead has been on creating intense testing drills in segregated schools and on blaming schools and teachers. Usually the emphasis is on English and Math which leaves millions of children disadvantaged and discourages teachers and principals who then try and exit these schools, and in the end does not produce and real educational gains. When social progression was experienced in the South for Latinos, it was ignored in the North and West deepening isolation and inequality. Segregation has increased as a result of integration by opponents of civil rights activism.

Regulation in Public and Private Schools in the United States John F. Witte

These lists of information needs are only suggestive. In the U.S., they probably would best be compiled at the state level for inclusion in a uniform state information system. What is interesting is that in some states existing reporting and information systems or those being constructed for public schools probably satisfy most of these requirements. For example, Wisconsin now has a website that includes most of the information listed above for all districts and all schools in those districts; it goes back three years. Individual student level data are aggregated at the school level. The basic system includes student demographic data and detailed breakdowns of test data by grade, gender, race, free-lunch eligibility, and disability status. Graduation rates and attendance are included for each school. The system also includes information on the race, gender, educational attainment, and attendance of teachers and detailed information on programs, curricular options, and extracurricular activities. Financial data also are available, some on the website, some not. The system covers every public school in the state, with fairly sophisticated search software. In conclusion, the author urges two things. First, the information required on all schools should not be built into the colossal systems that the author suspects characterizes many of the European states covered in this volume and elsewhere. In this regard, the European Union should not be our model. Unfortunately, that already has occurred in some American states, and it may become a national practice, introduced by the No Child Left Behind legislation. States, with considerable local input, should determine the minimal information that is essential and how that information is used to monitor and regulate districts and schools. Second, these reporting requirements should be extended to private schools receiving public vouchers. Charter schools in Wisconsin and almost all states with charter school laws (forty) are already covered by such requirements. Private schools not receiving public monies probably cannot be compelled to report under existing constitutional interpretations (and of course some staunch voucher supporters would say that that applies to voucher schools as well). However, they might be wise to adhere voluntarily to these requirements. Why? First, as families begin to make more use of this information in their search for schools, private schools simply will not be in their search sets. Second, private schools may do comparatively quite well. This call for inclusion of private voucher schools in an information-based regulatory system should not be read either as a call for excessive regulation or for states to have the unrestrained right to regulate whatever they want. Certainly in the case of private religious schools, Richard Garnett's well argued case for limiting the regulation of religious instruction as protected speech makes a great deal of sense. The author hopes that the same would be true for public schools, but the author fears that political correctness and fears of legal or other entanglements are limiting teaching and speech in our public schools more than we would like to admit. But most important, my theme is that when significant public money is involved, there is a compelling public interest in knowing how that money is being spent and with what results. This means that private schools receiving vouchers or some other form of substantial public aid should no longer be able to hide all activities behind the free exercise clause of the First Amendment. If they take the money, they have to accept public responsibility for its use, and that means accepting a minimal level of accountability

Can students close the college graduation gap?

They're helpful in increasing access to college for those who don't have the cash up front But, unless you actually graduate from college, they may leave you worse off than you were before Also, the massive student loan and college tuition bubble has the potential to hurt the economy worse than the housing bubble ever did. Who takes out student loans? International students pay full cost, causing universities to attract international students to college campuses.

Edwards v Aguillard (1987)

This is the case (from Louisiana) that ruled that teaching creaitonism in public schools is unconstitutional. Why? It fails the Lemon test because it advances a particular religious agenda. but.. this is still taught in schools? Nope. Intelligent design is taught, not creationism.

Effects of Local Control?

This local control comes from how schools in America are funded American schools are funded through three main sources: 1) federal grants 2) State grants and taxes 3) local property taxes from their "catchment zone" Catchment zone= the geographic area that schools pull students from 2014-2015 average school funding. State (48.3%) Local and Intermediate (43.5%) Federal (8.2%)

What are some solutions?

This section is divided into two: domestic solutions and international solutions More broadly, we'll look at solutions for increasing teacher quality and retention, since that's innately linked with teacher certification (one hopes)

Types of Schools (Student Loans)

Tier 1= Highest research, producivity, doctol granting. Examples= tech, the Ivy Leagues (except for darmouth) chicago, michigan, etc Tier 2= Higher research producvitity, doctorl granting. Example=Baylor, Drexel, Fordhman, Smu, UTS, Texas Christian Tier 3= Moderate research productivity, some grant doctorates. Examples=TWU, Sam Houston, Lamar, Texas Southern SLACS= Small Liberal Arts Colleges. Example= Swarthmore, Haverford.

Section III: Important School Legislation

Title IX-1972 Federal law that prohibits discrimination based on sex to any federally funded program. Most know it in the context of sports, (girls' and boys' sports must be equally funded at schools) However, frequently used to address sexual harassment ("Hostile work or class environment") and discrimination in academic settings (differential financial aid or admissions to programs based on sex) University judicial processes regarding sexual assault or other sex-based crimes (e.g. discrimination) operate on a "preponderance of the evidence" and 60 day standard. Thus, a student may be excluded from university but not found guilty in criminal court.

Can a school mandate student attendance

To a certain extent if not enrolled at an accredited private school or following a homeschooled curriculum, students must attend usually until 16, except If their religion prohibits it. An Amish man, Jonas Yoder, said that school past 8th grade was counter to the Amish way of life. SC agreed, carved out an exception in Wisconsin v Yoder (1972) What about punishing parents for their minor's truancy? Yup- multiple states fine parents or even incarcerate them. Back to homeschooling them- can anyone do that?

Main research questions of school-prison-deporation-pipleine

To what extent do secondary-level recent immigrant students and their teachers/administrators believe there is a school-to-prison-to-deportation pipeline (hereafter abbreviated as SPD PIPELINE?) What strategies do these stakeholders use to keep students out of that pipeline or allow them to fall into it? Do local laws such as "sanctuary cities" change teacher and administrator behavior about this pipeline?

Chapter 8: The First Element of Morality: The Spirit of Discipline

Two stages of childhood 1) takes place within the family 2) takes place in elementary school Critical in developing moral maturity. During this stage a child is only receptive to simple ideas and sentiments. If morality is not instilled during this time, it never will be. Religious undertones in the school system served to teach children morality, and if they're eliminated without substituting another system to teach morality, it creates a risk that essential moral ideas and sentiments cannot be taught. To influence the child morally is not to nurture him a particular virtue, followed by another and still another; it is to develop and even to constitute completely, by appropriate methods, those general dispositions that, once created, adapt themselves readily to the particular circumstances of human life. Fundamental elements of morality is the spirit of discipline. Duty= prescribed behavior

Land Grant Universities

Two waves (1862-1890) designated land and $$ in most states for a university dedicated to agriculture and manufacturing (Yes, Texas A&M was one). This is where almost all the state universities come from- tuition is nominal and students usually board with professors/ do labor on school farms to pay for themselves College attendance sky rockets. Massive increases in invention, agriculture, engineering 1890 is when congress establishes all-black land grant universities, mostly dedicated to teacher training. Historically Black Colleges and Universities (HBCU'S) like Spellman, Hampton, Howard, etc. begin.

Conclusion on Segregation

Type of segregation as well as whether it is voluntary matters Racial segregation is linked to inequality (although not synonymous) Inequality is linked to student achievement (higher inequality=lower SA) The mechanisms that cause this function on a macro and micro level.

Background 0f Private Schools

Usually have to charge tuition or get some sort of money from grants or foundations Ability to set own curriculum and hiring decisions, as well as selection or dismissal of students. Too many to count: Catholic, Protestant (and variations thereof) Montessori (What was this? Childrens development at their own pace). Boarding schools... Theoretically, anyone can start one, but they have to be accredited (even provisionally) by one of the private school accreditation organizations, or the diploma won't be recognized. (Home schooling is 4% Charter is 15-20%, Private schooling is 15-20%)

Tracking in schools

Very common- sometimes by student choice, sometimes by school choice Two interrelated types broadly: Subject matter- In America, students usually are able to drop subjects by about grade 10 and pursue their academic interests Ability Students who test high in a certain subject are usually encouraged to pursue higher learning in that area. Examples: vocational, technical, honors, AP/IB classes (issues of racism, sexism, classism?)

Chapter 14: The Effects of High Schools on Their Students

Virtually all educators and laymen believe that a school affects its students' intellectual and social development, and that "good" schools have more favorable effects than "poor" schools. But neither educators nor laymen agree on what constitutes a good school. There is consensus that more resources are better than fewer, but not that any particular resource affects any particular outcome. There is also come consensus that advantaged classmates are preferable to disadvantaged classmates, but it is not clear what specific effect classmates have.

Once in self-actualization, how does learning occur?

Vysgotsky came up with a model called the "Zone of Proximal Development" (3 circles. In the outer circle, is material that is not understood by the student. In the center of the circle is the greatest comprehension. The circle between the two, is the Zone of Proximal Development... things that can be understood through guidance or mentorship.) (For learning to occur, students must fall between "Student can do" and "Student can't do", in the category of "Student can do *with guidance*") The top of Maslow's pyramid must be achieved prior to t this.

General Case Law

We already talked about Brown vs. Board of education (1954( that struck down separate but equal and desegregated schools. What was the case that essentially gutted Brown. Milken V Bradley

Gini Uses

We can use the Gini not only to see income inequality within a country, but also compare across countries. And, to see when outside events like natural disasters and wars affected income inequality Structure of school funding= property taxes. The average world gini is higher than the US gini, suggesting that the us is more equal than many countries in the world However, us gini has increased since WWII, suggesting that income inequality is also increasing It plauteaued from 1945 to the late 70's, but significantly increased since then. What about segregation by class on a macro level? Where inequality is the greatest is where percentage of blacks and Hispanics is highest Highest areas of inequality= on average, lowest per pupil spending. Parenting type 1) Concerted cultivation Parenting type 2) accomplishment of natural growth Middle class parents see children as a project. (Develops a sense of entitlement in children) Working class and poor families treated them with scarce resources with the expectation that their children would spontaneously thrive. Class matters more than race Differences in child raising strategies by class Working class: natural growth. Depends on others (schools, doctors, daycare, etc). Scarce resources spent on needs (lowest of mazlow). No questions answered by questions, silence. Gave directives, said no, ultimatums. Middle class: concerted cultivation. See their children as projects. More involved in the child's life due to more time (more flexible time). Answered questions with other questions. Organization of activities. Background in college to guide children. Children instilled with entitlement. (*check spelling*)Murton Theory= difference between aspiration and resources

Example of high mismatch

What I call the "Equity Charters"- schools designed to erase racial achievement gap in America. Predominantly white teachers, predominantly black and Hispanic and low income students

Examples of low Mistmatch

What I call the "utility charter"- extreamely high academic achievement, 95% white or Asian, almost no low-income Over arching questions -who should teach it -what should be taught -when should it be taught Overall -there are two main types or sexual education programs in America -COMPREHENSIVE: comprised of two main elements:information about anatomy/biology and information about safer sex/contraception -Abstinence-only: as the name implies only abstinence is taught as a method of reducing pregnancy/STI's. Teaches that sex should only happen within a marriage. Sometimes, element 1 from comprehensive. (Anatomy) is present.

Segregation in America isn't just about race

What about migration status (which is also implicitly language)? What else might this affect? -Parental SES -Knowledge about schools -parent's education Migration status also affects graduation rates

Charter School Performance

What do you know about it? "Creaming effect" should allow for better performance, right? Nope.. well, sort of. Since they're SUCH individualistic organizations, we find pretty consistently that... 1/3 do better than their local public schools (as measured by test scores) <- does this even matter? 1/3 do about the same 1/3 do much worse. Yet, parents and students of charters report greater levels of satisfaction with charters than those of local public schools. Why? Because they chose them, self-selection. (Charter schools can keep kids in school which can help kids from a lower SES)

Part 2: Civic Education

What does it mean to be a good citizen? How do we do it? Usually taught through civics or social studies course... but how? Does it differ by school type or geographic area?

But how has it changed over time?

What has opinion been about the separation of religion and state been over time? Think back to history of schools- was place of religion there? So, what is it today? 66-57% disapprove of the supreme courts ruling that no state or local government may require the reading of the Lord's Prayer or Bible Verses in public schools 31-39% approved

Definitions for Special Education

What is a disability? -Permanent or temporary -Mental or Physical -"A condition that impairs the individual's ability to function as a typical person would" -Excludes conditions that cause illegal behavior like pedophilia or kleptomania -Also excludes gender identity disorder What's reasonable? -Special equipment, scheduling changes, etc. That allows the individual to perform the essential functions of the job. -Does NOT incude accommodations that would cause employer undue hardship (significant difficulty or expense) When laws are up to the interpretation of "I know it when I see it", abuse and exploitation of the law generally take place to discriminate.

Definitions, continued, and Opponents for Special Education

What's public building? -Obviously government buildings -Not private buildings -Designed to hold "regular gatherings" or commercial purposes Whos Opposed to this? -Small business owners (under 15 employees don't have to follow ADA) -Churches and Other Religious Groups

Does a school owe students a place free from religion?

Yes and No Yes from school-sponsored religion (including prayers over loud speaker {Engel v. Vitale, 1962} and reading the Bible at the beginning of each day {Abington v. Schempp {1963}) But No to student-based religion (student groups, student organized prayer) AND It is ok to read a holy book as a work of literature or discuss religion academically (as in a comparative religion class)

3. Problems with Teacher Certification

You listed them last week. What are they? -Lack of standardization causes a lack of quality -Lack of attraction of quality personnel. -Lack of emphasis on retention

Possible Chilling Effects on Class?

You may want to -Be careful discussing sensitive topics -Drop certain topics from your curriculum -Not "go there" if you sense anger -Limit student access off hours -Go to appointment-only office hours -Only meet "that student" in controlled circumstances

Does a school owe its students teachers who follow a moral code outside of the building?

Yup! Past or present infractions are fire-able offences Does it have to be illegal to be fire-able? Nope-just "against morality" EX: Burton v. Cascade (1973)- teacher fired for being gay. Was overturned, but only because the school district hadn't defined "against morality" in any way in the contract. So, they started defining it as "against public values" and. Ex. Brennan, a 20 year old teacher in Mi, fired for work as a stripper while on leave four years prior. Lile v. Hancock (1985)- male teacher accused of sexual abuse against stepchildren (found not guilty). District fired him 2010, Herz fired for IVF at Catholic school-not public

Background: School to Prison Pipeline

Zero tolerance policies have led to what's known as the "school to prison" pipeline in which students get arrested at school instead of being suspended or yelled at by an admin or teacher. What was the book that found that B&H children were being disproportionately punished (as compared to W&A peers) -bad boys by Ferguson Sanctuary Cities: cities that have prohibited local law enforcement from sharing immigration status information with the federal government and Immigration Services

The numbers of current higher education enrollment

college enrollment has increased since 1975, 81% of high income enter college, 65% at middle income, 51% low income All classes have seen increases in college enrollment But, low income students (even though only half of them enroll) have seen the steepest increase since 1975 They are followed (in a close second) by middle income students Period of steepest slope? Before 2000. This suggests that we're starting to hit a ceiling on percent who will attend college. Pros/cons to this? *equality of opportunity vs equality of outcome*

Method of sex ed interviews

face to face interviews -Describe their own experiences with sex education -describe attitudes/preferences about sex ed -describe religious attitudes/beliefs generally -Describe religious attitudes/beliefs as they pertain to sex ed Survey administered to determine "religiosity" and basic demographics

TTU is pretty typical of the overall picture

federal and state revenue= 37%. State revenue= 21%. Federal Revenue= 16%. Net tuition and fees= 21%. Self-supporting operations= 21%. Private gifts, investment revenue, and endowment income= 8%. All others 8%. Local Revnue =4% State appropriation has decreased between 2007 and 2013. Pell grants have increased between 2007 and 2013 Federal loans are becoming more important than state loans

San Antonio V Rodriguez 1972

found that school districts can be differentially funded through local property taxes and that the EPC doesn't require "equality" between districts.

1969, Tinker V. Des Moines

found that students don't forfeit constitutional rights "at the schoolhouse gate"

By Gender? (Student Loans)

in 2001, 27% of men had high student loan debt and 38% of women 2009 39% of men and 53% of women.

Religiosity in America Over Time

in 2014, about 6-9% identify as atheists, and 60% identify as religious in some way (Sources: Gallup; Pew Foundation; Census) Interestingly, many researchers have repeatedly found that people will simultaneously identify as a particular religion AND as an atheist at the same time. (You can see why statistics on religion can be misleading) In 2005, about 76% of Americans identified as religious and 1% as atheists. Therefore, even in 9 years, we're seeing a decline of religiosity in America. Atheists, demographically speaking, tend to be young, white or Asian, liberal, and well-educated

1980's- teacher certification

increasing need for qualified teachers because populations increase, but states are dissatisfied with schools of education. Because education doesn't have good priority, schools are not attracting the right people or teaching them appropriately Bypass them! States start developing alternative teacher certification, which allows people to take the exams, skip the schools of education, and teach while gaining certification (First state was NJ in 1983) How did the schools of education react? They resisted this notion, and go on the offensive. Saying alternatively certified teachers were not as good. Requirements on these vary greatly, but schools of education and teachers unions reactions? The mean age of alternative teachers is older than traditionally certified teachers. This means they have more experience outside of teaching. Alternatively certified teachers are also more likely to be male. Traditionally certified teachers are more likely to be white instead of alternatively certified teachers. Alternatively certified teachers are 10% more likely to be black. The percent of college graduates with masters degree are 4% more likely to be alternatively certified. Traditionally certified teachers are 6% more likely to be in rural areas. Alternative certified teachers are 6% more likely to teach in a Urban area. Figure 2 from PowerPoint shows a study that demonstrates that states with less restrictive programs are more likely to score higher in math and reading. What could cause this? What are the negative effects of alternative teachers certification? Lack of uniformity in teachers, lack of standardization. Does this de-professionalize teaching?

Milliken V Bradley (1974)

neighborhood segregation is fine. (Which caused White Flight)

Hazelwood V Kuhlmeier (1988)

says that schools may edit or delete content deemed inappropriate by the school.

American School Law

there's been a major shift throughout the 20th century that weakens students' rights and gives the schools more responsibilities (note; not rights) This had led to a restructuring of personnel and money in school districts, away from teachers and towards support staff and administrative positions. ...which consequently, works out pretty well for students with special needs, but perhaps less well for "regular" students.

College enrollment by race and ethincity

turn of the century, Hispanics start doing phenomenally better in college

New Jersey v TLO (1985) -student (TLO)

was found smoking in school. Admin forced her to hand over purse, searched it, found drug paraphenernailia . Student expelled Supreme Court found that students have 4th amendment right against unreasonable search and seizure, but just severely lessened.