Sociology

Autocommunication

An animal communicating or giving information to itself. Ex: Bat making sending sound waves to tell itself where it is.

covariation model of attribution

An attribution theory proposing that we make causal judgments by determining whether a particular behaviour correlated with a person, a situation, or some combination of persons and situations • Consistency (time) • Distinctiveness (situation) • Consensus (people)

Foraging

Animal behavior associated with recognizing, searching for, capturing, and consuming food.

types of personality more subject to prejudice ?

Authoritarian personality

anthropomorphism

attributing human characteristics to an animal or inanimate object (Personification)

3 types of parenting styles

authoritarian(엄함), permissive(너무 느슨), and authoritative (reasonable demands and high responsiveness)

5 considerations for gender

biological, identity (gender they identify as), expression (gender they express), attraction (gender they're romantically attracted to), fornication (gender they're sexually attracted to)

Reinforcement-modeling of aggression

can lead to aggression through positive reinforcement. Parents who give into demands of temper tantrum leads to more tantrums

Primary groups

closest members of the group to you

Sick role

concept describing the social rights and obligations of a sick individual

"In" group

- the one we are connected with. Stronger interactions than with those in the out group, and more influential as well.

Mating strategies

1) Random mating- all equally likely to mate with each other, not influenced by environment/heredity or social limitation. Ensures a large amount of genetic diversity. 2) Assortative Mating - Non-random mating where individuals with certain personalities tend to mate with each other at a higher frequency, ex. large animals with large animals. Problem is if animals too genetically similar mate (inbreeding), can be harmful to species overall. 3) Disassortative Mating (Non-Assortative Mating) - opposite of assortative mating - situation where individuals with different or diverse traits mate with higher frequency than with random mating.

First impressions are:

1) long (lasts a long time) 2) strong (tough to overcome) and 3) built up (put extra emphasis on info that helps reinforce first impression, and not info that doesn't).

Social circles

1) self 2) family 3) society 4) media −Media is major source of stigma, because can depict conditions as being dangerous, etc. Social media is also huge component. −Society - interactions between self and society like education/employment/health care and stigmatizing views can affect individual to get a job, healthcare, etc. Use of legislation and anti-discrimination laws. −Family - family can be shunned by society, or shun individual themselves. Ex. isolate the individual and keep as secret within family. May be detrimental to personal/intimate relationships, and interventions like education/therapy are important. −Self - Can lead to avoidance, denial of condition, suffering of mental health conditions, and no longer participating in society. Useful interventions include educating, access to support groups/resources.

2 main foraging strategies

1) solitary foraging and 2) group foraging (can potentially lead to competition when food is scarce, but also means they can take down larger prey and can benefit everyone)

Characteristics of an Ideal Bureaucracy

1. Clear division of labor 2. Clear hierarchy of authority 3. Formal rules and procedures 4. Impersonality 5. Careers based on merit

deindividuation and socio-cultural aspects of aggression

A phenomenon that occurs when immersion in a group causes people to become less aware of their individual values People act more aggressively in groups (ex. riots)

Achieved status

A social position that a person attains largely through his or her own efforts

The Just World Hypothesis

Believing that noble actions performed by an individual are always awarded, while evil acts are always punished. Suggests there is some kind of special force, cosmic justice at play • JWH overemphasizes the internal factors rather than external (fundamental attribution error)

Agression comes from the combination of :

Biology: genes, testosterone •Circuits in brain can inhibit/facilitate aggression. The amygdala facilitates our fear response, and when stimulated triggers aggressive behavior. The frontal lobe is responsible for impulse control, criminals have decreased frontal lobe activation. Psychological Socio-cultural

Types of Economy

Capitalism - private ownership of production with market economy based on supply and demand Socialism - motivated by what benefits society as whole, common ownership of production that focuses on human needs and economic demands Division of labour in government and economy is functionalist - everyone is required to have responsibility in society.

Similarity and attractiveness

Close friends and couples are more likely to share common attitudes, beliefs, and values. We tend to partner up with people who match our age, race, religion, and economic status/educational level.

Types of government

Communism - classless, moneyless community where all property is owned by community. Monarchy - government embodied by single person, king/queen is the figurehead.

primacy bias

First impressions are important-- extra emphasis on information that reinforces first impression

Types of religions

Ecclesia - dominant religious organization that includes most members of society, ex. Lutheranism in Sweden and Islam in Iran. Churches -are established religious bodies in a larger society. Sects -tend to be smaller and are established in protest of established church. They break away from churches. Ex. Mormon/Amish Cults -are more radical, reject values of outside society. Rise when there's a breakdown of societal belief systems, but usually short-lived because depend on inspirational leader who will only live so long. -Secularization is the weakening of social and political power of religious organizations, as religious involvement declines. Fundamentalism - reaction to secularization, go back to strict religious beliefs. Create social problems when people become too extreme.

Stigma

Extreme disapproval/discrediting of individual by society - 2 forms: social stigma and self-stigma

Difference between fundamental attribution error and actor-observer bias

Fundamental attribution error only talks about other's behaviours Actor-obsever talks about others and OURS.

Group polarization

Group makes decisions that are more extreme than any individual member in the group would want.

Early developmental trajectory

Helping behaviors begin early. Some newborns cry when other newborns cry (they recognize other babies distress). Helping behavior begins around age 2, children share toys and play act helping/altruism. Age 4 begin actually begin helping.

Internal (dispositional attribution) vs. External (situational attribution)

Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them External (situational attribution) - environment

Ethnocentrism

Judging someone else's culture from the position of your own culture belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group

ulterior motives for altruism

Kin selection - people act more altruistically to close kin than distant/non-kin. •Same when people share last names, especially rare last names. Reciprocal altruism - People are also more cooperative if they will interact with that person again in the future. •We feel more obliged to help those who have helped us. Cost signalling - signals to others that person who's giving has resources. People have increased trust in those they know have helped others in the past.

Macrosociology vs. Microsociology

Macro= large groups and social institutions Micro= small groups or individuals

Rural rebound

People getting sick of cities and moving back to rural areas

Unintentional discrimination

Side-effect discrimination - talks about how one institution/sector can influence another negatively. •Ex. a small town where African American always get unfair verdict of guilty. Then while applying to a job later, don't get the job because of record. Criminal justice reached unfair verdict, and potential employers are swayed too. Past-In-Present discrimination - how things done in the past, even if no longer allowed they can have consequences for people in the present.

Iron rule of oligarchy

The "iron law of oligarchy" states that all forms of organization, regardless of how democratic they may be at the start, will eventually and inevitably develop oligarchic tendencies, thus making true democracy practically and theoretically impossible, especially in large groups and complex organizations.

Actor-Observer Bias

The actor-observer bias is a term in social psychology that refers to a tendency to attribute one's own actions to external causes, while attributing other people's behaviors to internal causes.

Optimism bias

The belief that bad things happen to other people but not to us

physical attractiveness stereotype

The presumption that physically attractive people possess other socially desirable traits as well: What is beautiful is good. A type of halo effect

Bureaucratization

The process by which a group, organization, or social movement becomes increasingly governed by laws and policy • Ex. customer service, move through 12 menu options before reaching someone to help you

Demographic transition

The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and a higher total population.

Inclusive fitness

The sum of an individual's own reproductive success plus the effects the organism has on the reproductive success of related others.

Hypothesis of Relative Deprivation

Upsurge in prejudice when people are deprived of something they feel entitled to

Urbanization vs. Suburbanization

Urbanization: moving from rural to urban Suburbanization: moving away from city

projection bias

When we assume others share the same beliefs we do

recency bias

Your most recent actions are important--> people place emphasis on your more recent actions/performances

False consensus

a belief that others share the same opinion about something, when actually most don't

The Halo Effect

a cognitive bias which causes one part to make the whole seem more attractive or desirable. This concept can be applied to people, products, brands and companies. This phenomenon can be triggered by various positive traits and is strongly linked with first impressions. Physical attractiveness is a common factor in the halo effect, as someone who is perceived to be more attractive will be assumed to have other positive personality traits and abilities. ** There is also a reverse halo effect, which is just the opposite.

Altruism

a concern for others; generosity

"Out" group

a group or category to which people feel they do not belong

Functionalism

a system of thinking based on ideas of Emile Durkheim that look at society from large-scale perspective, and how each part helps keep society stable.

Dramaturgical Approach(Erving Goffman)

a view of social interaction in which people are seen as theatrical performers Erving Goffman

Scapegoats

are group of people towards whom the aggression is directed, ex. Jews during World War II. a person who is blamed for the wrongdoings, mistakes, or faults of others, especially for reasons of expediency. 암기도움: a scapegoat is an animal that is ritually burdened with the sins of others, and then driven away.

Social scripts

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations

Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation

done to try to understand why some have stranger anxiety and some don't. −60% were secure. Child was secure with parent and explored room, but when parent left, child was upset/distressed, but happy when mother returned. −Insecure children clinged to mother, and stayed with mother and did not explore. When mother left became upset, but distress did not go away when she came back. •Parents sensitive to child and responsive had secure attachment •Those insensitive/unresponsive formed insecure attachments

Secondary groups

formal and business-like relationships, based on a limited purpose/goal

2 parts of dramaturgy

front stage and back stage

Urban renewal can cause:

gentrification, which means when redone they target a wealthier community which increases property value. People there before are pushed out because they can't afford it - leads to great inequality in cities.

similarity bias

implies we will not befriend people different from us

2 types of discrimination

individual and institutional

Influence of Unrelated physiological arousal on attractiveness

individuals who just walked across narrow bridge (sympathetic arousal) leads to increased rating of woman. Because during attraction sympathetic arousal occurs as well, ex. fast heartbeat.

Utilitarian Organizations

members are paid/rewarded for their efforts ex. universities

Normative Organizations

members come together through shared goals, ex. religion groups or MADD. Positive sense of unity and purpose.

Coercive Organization

members don't have choice about membership ex. prison

Impression management

our attempt to control how others see us on the front stage. There are multiple front stages, and you have to play a different role every time.

Fecundity

potential reproductive capacity of a female.

Prejudice vs. Discrimination

prejudice is a negative attitude, discrimination is a negative behavior

self-serving bias

preserving our self-esteem, more common in individualistic cultures. If we succeed it's due to our internal qualities, but if we fail no hit on self-esteem because likely to do with things outside of our control.

Race vs. ethnicity

race related to a person's appearance and ethnicity refers to nationality, culture, and ancestry.

two techniques used when the Just World hypothesis is threatened?

rational techniques − 1. Accept reality − 2. Prevent or correct injustice - with petition or changes to legal system Irrational techniques − 1. Denial of the situation − 2. Reinterpreting the events - the outcome, the cause, and the character of the victim.

Mere exposure effect

repeated exposure to novel people or objects increases our liking for them. More often we see something, more often we like it. Applies to everything - music, numbers, objects, etc. ex. advertising experiment with anterograde amnesia

ulterior motive

secret reason for doing an act of kindness

Stereotype threat

self-fulfilling fear that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype - exposure to a negative stereotype surrounding a task can actually cause decrease in the performance of an individual. It threatens performance.

Ascribed statuses

social positions people are assigned at birth can't change ex. prince

What are the two forms of stigma

social stigma and self-stigma Social stigma: Social stigma is the disapproval of, or discrimination against, a person based on perceivable social characteristics that serve to distinguish them from other members of a society. Social stigmas are commonly related to culture, gender, race, intelligence and health. Stigma against mental health is big problem - ex. stereotype is mentally ill are violent (cognition), I become scared of mentally ill (affect, prejudice), so may not want to live with them or hire them (behavior, discrimination) Self-stigma: individual can internalize all the negative stereotypes, prejudices, and discriminatory experiences they've had, and may feel rejected by society

self-fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to behaviours that affirm the original stereotypes -ex. placebo effect

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

suggests some people are altruistic due to empathy. Those who score higher on empathy are more altruistic.

Evolutionary game theory

tells us those with best fit to environment will survive and pass on to offspring and those genes will become more common in successive generations

Companionship support

the type that gives someone sense of social belonging. Companionship while you engage in an activity.

Frustration Aggression Hypothesis (prejudice)

the extent to which people feel frustrated predicts the likelihood that they will act aggressively not personality based, but more emotional. − Ex. Someone getting frustrated can lead to prejudice. When someone's frustrated, frustrations turn to aggressive impulses, and direct that towards the employer. But you may lose your job, so you keep bottling up the aggression - and rechannel it somewhere else. Often towards minorities. − Display aggression towards other people - scapegoating. Often seen in times of economic hardship.

Fundamental attribution error

the fundamental attribution error refers to a bias in explaining others' behaviors. when we look at behaviour of others, we're more likely to attribute their behaviour to internal factors instead of considering complex external factors • Problematic when looking at complex patients - we under-recognize the situational and social problems, and healthcare barriers they can have, blaming them for their own problems.

cultural relativism

the practice of judging a society by its own standards refers to the idea that the values, knowledge, and behavior of people must be understood within their own cultural context.

Medicalization

the process by which problems or issues not traditionally seen as medical come to be framed as such

McDonaldization

the process by which the principles of the fast-food restaurant are coming to dominate more and more sectors of American society as well as of the rest of the world

Role conflict

the tension caused by competing demands between two or more roles pertaining to different statuses someone who's a parent, friend, husband, and worker

Attribution Theory

the theory that we explain someone's behavior by crediting either the situation or the person's disposition − Internal (dispositional attribution) - about them − External (situational attribution) - environment

hidden curriculum in education

transmitting social norms, attitudes, and beliefs to students ex. standing in line

averageness in facial attraction

turns out unique traits are not most attractive. Most respondents pick 32 face average as most attractive, and 2 face average less.

Out group derogation

we are super friendly to our in group, but not friendly to out group - we discriminate. Happens if we feel that the out group is threatening to the in group's success.

Group favouritism

we favour people in our own group, but those in outgroup are neutral - we don't give them favours we do to our in group.

Role strain

when you can't carry out all obligations of a status, tensions within one status. −Causes individual to be pulled many directions by one status, ex. a student. role strain is a tension that occurs when a person is facing a single role having multiple statuses. It means that it occurs with in a single role. For example a domestic mother is preparing breakfast for her kids and same time she wishes to press school uniform. This situation leads her toward role strain.

Back Stage of impression management

where you work on impression management. Ex. put on makeup, look in mirror and try different outfits.

Elaborate on the covariation model of attribution by explaining the three cues

• When consistency is high = internal factors − Ex. Very nice friend Jim, but one day he gets so mad at the pizza place. Out of character and distinctive. So much more likely to be related to the environment. Distinctiveness = situational. high degree of consensus. When a lot of people demonstrate same behavior, we are more likely to attribute behavior to situational cause.

Cultural component of attribution theory

− In individualistic cultures (Western), success is attributed to internal and failure to external − In collectivist cultures (Eastern: africa and asia), success is attributed to external and failure to external (favour situational attributions when situational factors are emphasized)

Authoritarian personality (prejudice)

− They're obedient to superiors, but don't have much sympathy for those they deem inferior to themselves - oppressive. And rigid thinkers, inflexible with their viewpoints. − They use prejudice to protect their ego and avoid confronting aspects of themselves because they're always focussed on others. a personality type characterized by excessive conformity, submissiveness to authority, intolerance, insecurity, a high level of superstition, and rigid, stereotypic thinking