SPC2608 Test II

Ways We Behave Unethically

- Use aggressiveness vs. pure argument - Use fallacious reasoning - things we do that are more strategic communication than pure communication (attack the person). - Hold up false arguments - two wrongs make a right. - Try to get our way through dishonesty - omit information or out-and-out lie.

Things to Keep in Mind When Using Humor

1) Devices of humor: exaggerations, word play, irony, joke telling. 2) Analyze your own humor: focus on what other people is funny about you. 3) Avoid Pitfalls: offensive, irrelevant, telling jokes, over-introducing, overused

5 Ways to Enhance & Bring Our Speaking to Life

1) Employ imagery - language the evokes the feelings of our emotions 2) Use stylistic devices - making our language livelier by using planned figures of speech (alliteration, assonance, personification, parallelism, simile, metaphor, hyperbole, analogy) 3) Use fresh language - avoid overused/antiquated/dated language 4) Vary our rhythm - don't be dull, lift-up phrasing 5) Use humor

Variety of Sources

1) Everyday experiences: look for humor in everyday things that happen to us. 2) Be selective: be careful that our selections directly relate to topic.

Parts of a Syllogism

1) Major premise: obvious statement 2) Minor premise: extension of Major Premise logic 3) Conclusion: conclusion derived from Major and Minor Premise - One of the most famous syllogisms: "All humans are mortal (obvious). Socrates is human (minor). Therefore, Socrates is mortal (conclusion).

5 Primary Motives for Lying

1) To save face: save us from embarrassment. 2) To avoid tension or conflict: when we are trying to prevent a larger conflict or argument. 3) To guide social interaction: when we lie to be friendly. 4)To affect interpersonal relationships: attempts to expand a relationship. 5)To achieve personal power: when we do anything dishonest in order to gain power over another person or situation.

Monroe's Motivated Sequence

5-step process: 1) Attention: addresses listeners' core concerns, making speech relevant to them. 2) Need: isolates & describes the issue to be addressed. 3) Satisfaction: identifies the solution. 4) Visualization: provides audience with vision of anticipated outcomes. 5) Action: speaker asks audience to act.

Exaggeration

A claim that is too broad or general to survive scrutiny. "Best... only... most." Keep in mind these are comparative terms. "My mom makes the best lasagna."

Exaggeration

A claim that is too broad or general to survive scrutiny. "Best...only...most"

Inconsistency

A contradiction in word or action without justification.

Lie

A deliberate attempt to hide or misrepresent the truth.

Cultural Norms

A group's rules for behavior; attempts to persuade listeners to think or do things contrary to important norms will usually fail.

Syllogism to an Enthymeme

A statement, claim in which we communicate many things by using little bit of information. Give audience a small picture; let them fill in the blanks.

Rhetorical Device

A technique of language to achieve a desired effect.

Steps to establish credibility

- Demonstrate trustworthiness by presenting topic honestly & with concern. - Establish feeling of commonality. - Acknowledge personal knowledge with topic. - Be vibrant and charismatic.

Types of Special Occasion Speeches

- Entertain: lighthearted, amusing speech. - Celebrate: person, place or event - Commemorate: event or person, offer remembrance and tribute. - Inspire: inaugural addresses, keynote speeches.

Ways to increase persuasive goal

- Make message personally relevant - Demonstrate benefit of change - Set modest goals - Target issues people feel strongly about - Demonstrate how attitude/behavior might keep listeners from feeling satisfied - Expect to be more successful - Establish credibility

Appeal to Authority

Using a source which either a) has inappropriate expertise, b) is part of contradictory opinions or c) was making a joke. "The governor Charlie Crist said Bobby Bowden should not be fired."

Claims of Value

Address issues of judgment by attempting to show that something is right or wrong, good or bad, worthy or unworthy.

Synchronize Our Language

Address our audience in a way that will resonate with them. - Consider the levels of formality, occasion, etc. - Craft a message that recognizes that all the people in your audience are different. - "Meaning is created in the nexus between the speaker and the audience." - We have to do all we can with our language and delivery to make sure our intent reaches our audience. - Language is a potent identifier.

Claim

Also called proposition - states the speaker's conclusion, based on evidence.

Inductive Reasoning

An argument using inductive reasoning moves from a specific cases to a general conclusion supported by those cases.

Analogy

An extended metaphor or simile that clarifies an unfamiliar concept by comparing it to a more familiar one.

Logos

Appealing to reason & logic - important for gaining agreement for position.

Slippery Slope

Argument which bases objection to a particular action because it supposedly will inevitably lead to a similar but less desirable action, which in turn will lead to an even less desirable action, and so on down the slippery slope.

Deductive Reasoning

Arguments using deductive reasoning begin with a general principle or case, followed by a specific example or case, which leads to the speaker's conclusion.

Toast

Brief tribute to a person or an event being celebrated. Both roasts and toasts call for short speeches whose goal is to celebrate an individual and their achievements.

Ambiguity

Using a word or phrase in such a way that its meaning is not clear or can be taken more than one way. Using terms for which not everyone is aware of the intended meaning or definition.

Post-Hoc

Assuming a causal relationship simply because one thing follows another. "They are 41-1 when they kneel the ball at the end of the game."

Is/Ought

Assuming that because something is a certain way, it ought to be that way. "Marijuana is prohibited, therefore it must be immoral."

Ad Hominem

Attacking the person rather than the person's argument. Name calling.

Core Values

Audience members of the same culture share core values.

Physiological needs

Basic sustenance, including food, water, and air.

Metaphor

Compares two things but does so by describing one thing as actually being the other: "Education is an uphill climb" and "The US is a melting pot."

Imagery

Concrete language that uses the senses of smell, taste, sight, hearing, and touch to paint mental pictures.

Concrete Language

Conveys meaning that is specific, tangible, and definite.

Emotions

Culture also influences our responses to emotional appeals.

Ambiguity

Using a word or phrase in such a way that its meaning is not clear, or can be taken in more that one way. Using terms for which not everyone is aware of the intended meaning or definition. "The sign said 'Slow Children' so I assumed all of the children in this neighborhood were poor athletes."

Two-Wrongs-Make-A-Right

Defending wrongdoing by pointing to similar behavior of others.

Eulogy

Derives from the Greek word meaning "to praise." Usually celebrating and commemorating the life of someone while consoling those who have been left behind.

The Four Agreements

Don Miguel Ruiz - "The Four Agreements" - Be impeccable with your word - Don't take things personally - Don't make assumptions - Do your best

Code-Switching

Done carefully, the selective use of dialect, sometimes called code-switching, can imbue your speech with friendliness, humor, earthiness, honesty, and nostalgia.

Refutation Organizational Pattern

Each main point addresses and then refutes (disproves) an opposing claim to your position.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Each of us has a set of basic needs, ranging from essential, life-sustaining ones to less critical, self-improvement ones.

Logical Fallacy

Either a false or erroneous statement or an invalid or deceptive line of reasoning.

Misleading Emphasis

Emphasis is used to suggest a meaning different from the actual content of the proposition. "Free Hat!" "Free Pandas!"

Simile

Explicitly compares one thing to another, using like or as: "He works like a dog."

Figures of Speech

Expressions, such as metaphors, similes, and analogies, in which words are used in a nonliteral fashion to achieve a rhetorical effect.

Claims of Fact

Focus on whether something is or is not true or whether something will or will not happen.

Abstract Language

General or nonspecific, leaving meaning open to interpretation.

Roast

Humorous tribute to a person, one in which a series of speakers jokingly poke fun at him or her.

Non-Sequitor

If A then B. B, so therefore A. "If we kill criminals then there will be less crime. Crime is decreasing, therefore killing criminals has caused it." "If kids get used to virtual murder (i.e. violent video games) they will commit actual murder. Murders have been increasing, therefore it must be because of video games."

Enlightened Self-Interest

In addition to viewing persuasion as enlightenment, we also act with enlightened self-interest.

Causal Reasoning

In an argument using causal reasoning, the speaker argues that one event, circumstance, or idea (the cause) is the reason (effect) for another.

Argument

In an argument, you offer a conclusion about some state of affairs, support it with evidence, and then link the evidence to the claim with reasons (warrants).

Anaphora

In one form of repetition called anaphora, the speaker repeats a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses, or sentences.

Persuasive speech goal

Influence the attitudes, beliefs, values, and acts of others.

Invincible Ignorance

Insisting on the legitimacy of an idea or principle despite contradictory facts.

After-Dinner Speech

Just as likely to occur before, during, or after a lunch seminar or other type of business, professional, or civic meeting as it is to follow a formal dinner. In general, an after-dinner speech is expected to be light-hearted and entertaining. At the same time, listeners expect to gain insight into the topic at hand.

Warrant

Line of reasoning - explains (reasons) why the evidence proves the claim.

Cultural Premises

Listeners sharing a common culture usually hold culturally specific values about identity and relationships.

Denotative Meaning

Literal, or dictionary, definition

Speech of Acceptance

Made in response to receiving an award. Its purpose is to express gratitude for the honor bestowed on the speaker. The speech should reflect that gratitude.

Hasty Conclusion

Making a judgment based on insufficient evidence. "This Catholic priest is a child-molester, therefore all Catholic priests must be child-molesters."

Ethos

Moral character - establish credibility.

Spuriousness

Other things that could have produced the effect. "I drank 16 beers and then all of these bikini models showed up. Drinking beer must attract bikini models."

Persuading Ethically

Our goal in argument and persuasion is persuading ethically.

Arguments

Persuasive speeches are built around them - states positions with support, for or against, an idea of issue.

Straw Man

Presenting an opponent's position in an altered version that is easier to attach than the original. Changing the issue. "Obama's health-care plan is going to se up death squads for old people. Let's talk about why killing old people is bad."

Claims of Policy

Recommend that a specific course of action be taken or approved.

Repetition

Repetition adds emphasis to important ideas, helps listeners follow your logic, and imbues language with rhythm and drama.

Self-actualization needs

To achieve goals; to reach our highest potential.

Self-esteem needs

To feel good about ourselves; self-worth.

Safety needs

To feel protected and secure.

Social needs

To find acceptance; to have lasting, meaningful relationships.

Pathos

To truly persuade, you must appeal to emotions.

Jargon

Translate jargon - the specialized, "insider" language of a given profession - into commonly understood terms.

Colloquial Expressions

Sayings specific to a certain region or group of people, termed colloquial expressions or idioms, such as "back the wrong horse" and "ballpark figure" can add color and richness to a speech, but only if listeners understand them.

Provincialism (Myopia)

Seeing things exclusively through the eyes of one's own group, organization, or affiliation. "We should celebrate Columbus Day and put Andrew Jackson on the 20$ bill because they were good dudes."

Speech of Inspiration

Seeks to motivate listeners to positively consider, reflect on, and sometimes act on the speaker's words.

Speech of Presentation

Twofold: to communicate the meaning of the award and to explain why the recipient is receiving it.

Connotative Meaning

Special (often emotional) association that different people bring to bear on it.

Comparative Advantage Pattern

Speech points are organized to show how your viewpoint or proposal is superior to one or more alternatives.

Special Occasion Speech

Speech that is prepared for a specific occasion and for a purpose dictated by that occasion. Can be either informative or persuasive, or, often, a mix of both. The underlying function is to entertain, celebrate, commemorate, inspire, or set a social agenda.

Evidence

Substantiates the claim.

Parallelsim

The arrangement of words, phrases, or sentences in a similar form is known as parallelism. Parallel structures can help the speaker emphasize important ideas in the speech.

Direct Form of Address

The direct form of address, using person pronouns such as we, us, I and you draw the audience into the message.

Malapropisms

The inadvertent, incorrect uses of a word or phrase in place of one that sounds like it.

Insignificant Effect

The object may actually causing the effect, however there are so many other things causing it that the effect is negligible. "Flatulence contributes to Global Warming."

Speech Introduction

The object of a speech introduction is to prepare or "warm up" the audience for the main speaker - to heighten audience interest and build the speaker's credibility. A good speech of introduction balances four elements: - The speaker's background - The subject of the speaker's message - The occasion - The audience

Problem-Cause-Solution Pattern of Arrangement

The pattern of organizing speech points so that they demonstrate (1) the nature of the problem, (2) reasons for the problem, and (3) proposed solution(s).

Reasoning

The process of drawing conclusions from evidence. Arguments can be reasoned inductively, deductively, or causally.

Central Processing

When audience members are motivated and able to think critically about a message, they engage in central processing - they seriously consider what your message means and are most likely to act on it.

Peripheral Processing

When listeners lack motivation (or ability) to judge an argument based on its merits, they engage in peripheral processing - they pay little attention and respond to message as being irrelevant or unimportant.

Joint Effect

When one thing is assumed to cause another because they both appear together. In fact, they are both the effects of an underlying cause. "You're having unprotected sex and it is causing you to vomit." (Actually, that handle of Jim Beam you drank is causing both of those things.)

False Analogy

When two objects that are compared are actually different in a way that rejects the originally assumed similarity. "Life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you're gonna get."

Aggressiveness

Winning by inflicting psychological pain by attacking the other person or their self-concept instead of the issue.

False Choice

Wrongly assuming that there are only two options in a given situation. "When it comes to abortion, either get one or be impoverished for the rest of your life."

Begging the Question

demonstrates a conclusion by means of premises that assume that conclusion. "We know God exists because the Bible says God exists. We know the Bible is right because God wrote it."

Style

the specific word choice, sentence structure, and rhetorical devices (techniques of language) that speakers use to express their ideas.