Stereotypes, Prejudice, Discrimination

How is popular culture a part of stereotyping and discrimination?

- can perpetuate stereotypes and prejudice, and culture also can forward positive change - exposure to images that reflect diversity in social groups can help weaken stereotypes and automatic activation, and will help people see groups as dynamic entities with less rigid borders - people look to images of pop culture as well as to their peers and role models for info about what attitudes and behaviours are cool or out of date, get sense of local norms around us - learning these norms can make us motivated to adopt them - legislation against hate speech, unequal treatment, and hostile environments can, if done right w/o suggestion of compromise, and with important leaders clearly behind them, can make people follow

Explain how children are distinguishing between genders/power of the gender image

-salient in young children: distinguish men from women well before first bday, and identify themselves as boys or girls by 3 y/o, form gender stereotypic beliefs and preferences about stories, toys, and other objects soon after, and use these stereotypes to judge others and favour their own gender - distinguish between stereotypically masc and fem behaviours: ie, by 2 bday, children showed more surprise when adults performed inconsistent gender role behaviours, and preschool kids liked new toy less if it was for opposite sex child -yes, could be bio/evol, but there is culture and role models/parents teaching gender stereotypes - sig correlation between parents' gender stereotypes and kid's gender related thinking

How does contact reduce prejudice for Pettigrew and Tropp, found by their meta analyses?

1) Enhancing knowledge about outgroup 2) reducing anxiety about intergroup contact 3) increasing empathy and perspective taking

What are the basic predictions from the social identity theory?

1) THREATS TO SELF ESTEEM HEIGHTEN need for in-group favouritism 2) expressions of in-group favouritism enhance one's self esteem

What are the factors affecting cognitive resources to inhibit stereotyping?

1. Age - old people have harder time suppressing stereotypes 2. Intoxication - hard to inhibit impulses/ thoughts, so impairs ability to control stereotype activation and application 3. Physical exhaustion/ affected by strong emotion - sap cognitive resources to avoid this -ie., Bodenhausen classifying participants by circadian arousal patterns into "morning" and "night" people, and by random assignment, took part in experiment of human judgement at either 9am or 8pm. Morning people more likely to use stereotypes at night, night owl more likely to do so early in the morning

What studies answer the questions about why people are so sensitive about status and integrity of in-groups, relative outgroups, despite personal interests not at stake?

1. Boys shown series of dotted slides, task = est. number of dots on each slide, which were presented fast so they couldn't be counted. Later, experience enter said that some people are chronic over or underestimates Second, separate task, participants divided into two groups. For "convenience" - they were grouped into overestimates and underestimates, and participants knew which group they were in (but lol no they didn't, it was random) Participants told to allocate points to other participants that could be cashed in for $$ Procedure = creating minimal groups Participants allocated more points to members of own group than other group This ingroup favoritism found internationally and w/different measures

What conditions necessary for intergroup contact to succeed as a treatment for racism, according to the original contact hypothesis?

1. Equal status: the contact should occur in circumstances that give the two groups EQUAL status 2. Personal interaction: contact should involve one-on-one interactions among individual members of the two groups 3. Cooperative activities: members of the two groups should join together in an effort to achieve superordinate goals 4. Social norms: social norms, defined by relevant authorities in part, should favour intergroup contact

How can stereotype threat hurt achievement in academic domains?

1. Reactions to the threat can interfere w/ performance (inc. anxiety, trigger distracting thoughts 2. if chronic to domain, students will misidentify from it, dismissing it as no longer relevant to esteem and identity - ie, black and white student who enter hs equally qualified in academic performance. both students struggle on the difficult test.. both students may worry about failing, but the black student is afraid to confirm negative stereotype of blacks, and this triggers anxiety and distracting thoughts, impairing performance. if this happens regularly, she may misidentify w/ school, and she'll stop worrying about academic performance

How do illusory correlations result?

1. Tendency to overestimate distinctive variables (those that catch attention because they are deviant) So, if people see a story on the news about a person who was released form mental institution (not really encountered) committing a brutal murder (also uncommon behaviour) may remember link between mental patient and brutality better than if a more common person committed murder, or mental patient did something common IMPLICATIONS: unless otherwise motivated, people overestimate the joint occurrence of these disctinctive variables 2. Overestimation of association between variables they expect to go together ie., participants given lists of words: lion-tiger, lion-eggs, bacon-tiger, bacon-egg, and overestimated frequency of normal/meaningful pairing, even if these had occurred no more frequently than the weirder pairings - also, stereotypes = expectations that social groups and traits fit tog like bacon and eggs, and overestimate frequency which they've observed this IMPLICATIONS: overestimate joint occurrence they expect association w/, like stereotyped groups and behaviours

How can people be protected against stereotype threats?

1. reminded of traits, qualities, or other things that make people feel good about themselves, even unrelated to domain under threat 2. blurring group boundaries 3. using humour 4. attributing arousal to something non threatening 5. thinking of other group members who have been successful in domain 6. reminded of other categories that are considered favourably in domain 7. learning about stereotype threat may help protect individuals fro its effect

What are the processes that stereotype exerts its effects through?

1. triggering phsyiological arousal, which may interfere w/ ability to perform well on task at hand 2. threatened individuals trying to suppress thoughts about stereotype, which can drain resources away from task 3. Working memory impairment, impairing task performance 4. causes negative thoughts, worry, feelings of dejection, and can cause individuals to focus on avoiding failure than achieving success

How has it been shown that the two forms of sexism are positively correlated?

15 000 men and women studied internationally (19 nations across six continents) Glick, Fiske, and others found strong support for the notion of prevalent ambivalent sexism People from countries w/greatest degree of economic and political inequality between sexes exhibit the most of both types of sexism

What is the jigsaw classroom?

A cooperative learning method used to reduce racial prejudice through interaction in group efforts In newly desegregated public schools, Grade 5s were assigned to small racially and academically mixed groups material to be learnt in group split into subtopics each student responsible to learn one piece of the puzzle, after which all members took turns teaching their material to one another in this system everyone needs everyone else If the group as a whole is to succeed

What is ambivalent sexism?

A form of sexism characterized by attitudes about women that reflect both negative, resentful beliefs and feelings about women's abilities, value, and power to challenge men's power, and affectionate, chivalrous, but possibly patronizing beliefs and feelings Consists of TWO PARTS: hostile sexism (first part of this explanation) and benevolent sexism (second part of this definition) Many women feel favourably towards men who exhibit benevolent sexism, the two forms are positively correlated

What is a subliminal presentation?

A method of presenting stimuli so faintly or rapidly people don't have a conscious awareness of having been exposed to them

What is the optimal distinctiveness theory?

According to it, people try to balance the desire to belong and affiliate with others and the desire to be distinct and differentiated from others may drive people to identify w/small in-groups and distance from outgroups or ambiguous group status

Why is accuracy of stereotypes debatable?

Accurate means what? Stereotypes reflect universal, stable, genetic difference? or stereotypes reflect differences that exist under sets of societal and historic changes (so differences could change w/ conditions) Second, if you anticipate a person to be a certain way, you will act differently, and make them act that way to you in return. Your expectation was accurate bc of the self-fulfilling prophecy

How can you exert control over stereotypes?

Activate thoughts about individual who is in that group - ie, study where white Canadians watched a video of an interview with a black person and found they activated stereotypes associated w/ group in 15 seconds of exposure. But, if exposed for 12 min to individual and learned more info, no more stereotype activation. If later the black person disagreed w/ them on a verdict of a court case, stereotype reactivated Can also exert control through training and practice resisting stereotype activation when confronted with info about a group, being primed w/ couture stereotypic examples, taking perspective of member of stereotyped group

Describe the prejudice and discrimination in Obama's election as Prez?

Although the vote was a remarkable evolution in race relations, there were other signs not everyone was happy White supremacist and other hate groups saw huge growths in number and activity threats agains his life jumped by 400% compared to those made against his white predecessor Sales of guns and ammunition skyrocketed

How cna stereotypes embolden or threaten a person?

Asian women in study women performed worse on math test when gender identity was made salient (had to answer qs about their gender before test) performed better on test when ethnic identity was salient in a follow up, if high expectations of asian women's math abilities are made salient before math test, can lead to choking effect and worse performance

Explain what attributions are? How do they cause stereotypes?

Attributes = explanations about the causes of others behaviours, which can be flawed Flaws perpetuate stereotypes EG know discrimination impairs performance of stereotyped individuals, perceivers won't take this into account when explaining underperformance, just support for the negative stereotype see confirmation of stereotype, not consequences of discrimination Also, people don't accept stereotype-disconfirming behaviour at face value, they imagine situational factors that will explain away apparent exception to the rule (random luck, motives etc.) = easy maintenance of stereotypes

How does attributing negative feedback to discrimination have negative effects? What was a study done about it?

Attribution can be inaccurate, and might miss opportunity to learn info relevant for self improvement 1. Black students in a study responded positively to negative feedback when the teacher made it clear they had high standards AND assured students they could reach them. Ambiguity about the sincerity of feedback could cause them to diminish confidence and accuracy. 2. attributing negative feedback to discrimination can make people feel they have less personal control over lives. Low status groups may be threatened by this vulnerability and feel worse about themselves when they perceive they were discriminated against

What is the Implicit Association Test?

Bc of implicit nature of implicit racism, this is a covert measure that don't require individuals to answer questions about their attitudes Measures implicit racism toward Blacks, by comparing how quickly or slowly participants associate black cues (a black face) w/ negative and positive concepts, compared w/ how quickly or slowly they make the same kinds of associations w/ note cues others focus on associations concerning older v younger people, men v women, etc. sparked research about racism nd other forms of prejudice and discrimination

How do collectivists how biases in in-group favouritism

Being oriented strongly towards one's ingroup may be considered desired and valued they draw sharper distinctions between in and outgroup members than individualists

Why is social categorization adaptive?

By grouping people, we can form impressions quick ad use past experience to guide new interactions can save time and effort by using peoples' group membership to make inferences about them Children learn about this early, so are aware of and use stereotypes when they are young

How is is in-group favouritism evident in our language?

By subtly priming "in-group" pronouns like we, us, ours, triggered positive emotions, while outgroup pronouns (they, them, theirs) = negative emotions

Describe the studies that show how effects of stereotypes on individual's perceptions = confirmation bias?

CB = interpet, seek, and create info to confirm expectations Jeff stone had students listen to college bball game - some thought. player was white, others black after listening, students asked to eval how player had performed students who believed black player rated as playing better and more athletically, white player said to be intelligent and have more hustle in the game

WHAT IS important to note about challenges with intergroup interactions?

CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED W/INTERGROUP INTERACTIONS NOT LIMITED TO THOSE BETWEEN WHITES AND BLACKS, ALTHOUGH THE MAJORITY OF RESEARCH HAS FOCUSED ON THIS DYNAMIC social psych studying related issues involving other social categories, like HIV positive employees, sexual orientation, physical disabilities, and those who are facially stigmatized

What are the factors that make automatic activation LESS likely?

COGNITIVE - exposure to counter-stereotypic groups members - knowledge of personal info about individual CULTURAL - not common stereotype - norms and values opposed to stereotyping MOTIVATIONAL - motivated to avoid prejudice - motivated to be fair/egalitarian PERSONAL - disagree w/ stereotypes, low in prejudice

What are the factors that make automatic activation more likely?

COGNITIVE FACTORS - stereotype is accessible (recently activated/primed) - depleted cognitive resources due to prior attempts to subdue stereotypic thinking, fatigue, age, intoxication CULTURAL FACTORS - popular stereotype in culture (ie, skinhead activates stereotype in America more than people in South America) - norms and values accepting stereotypes MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS - motivated to make inferences about the person quickly - motivated to feel superior PERSONAL FACTORS - endorse stereotypes, high in prejudice - if only given a minimal, emotionally neutral info (category label), automatic activation depends on perceiver's prejudice degree

Describe the studies that shows how the racial barriers are coming down?

Dating in college by Shana Levin white, asian American and latino students who dated outside racial group more during uni showed less in-group bias and intergroup anxiety at the end of uni than students who didn't date outside their own racial group Elizabeth Page Gould and others created cross group friendships between Latinx and whites in an experiment by having them meet for a few weeks and perform closeness building tasks Experience had positive intergroup effects, one of which was that participants who had initially been relatively high in implicit prejudice began to initiate more intergroup interactions

Describe the two separate processes of the change of group members categorizing each other according to the Comms In-group Identity Model?

Decategorization - leads people to pay less attention to categories and intergroup boundaries, but also to perceive outgroup members as individuals Recategorization - people change conception of groups, allowing them to develop a more inclusive sense of the diversity characterizing in-group - "they" becomes "we," a common in-group identity can be formed

Why do we perceive out-groups as homogeneous?

Don't notice subtle differences among out-groups bc of little personal contact People don't encounter a representative sample of out-group members (ie, macewan as a "rival" at the bball team) People even see in-groups as as homogenous when first joined, but then become more familiar and see it as diversity

What is the motivation NOT to be prejudiced driven by?

Either external factors (not wanting to appear to be prejudiced) Or internal factors (wanting not to BE prejudiced, regardless of whether other would find out) -> most likely to successfully controlled stereotypes and prejudice, even in implicit tests

Describe the social nature of humanity

Evolutionary history and contemporary life: humans live, play, work, and fight in groups

What are the consequences of carving world into "us"/"them"?

Exaggerate differences between in-group and outgroups In-groups care about preserving distinctions between in-groups and out-groups (ie Quebecers arguing for distinct society status and having French as sole lang) Out-group homogeneity effect

What are social identity threats?

Extension of this idea, where threats are not tied to specific stereotypes but general devaluing of the persons social group

What is relative deprivation?

Feelings of discontent aroused by belief that one fares poorly compared to others

How does the behaviour of adults mimic the deep ingrained beliefs about males and females when a kid is born?

First time parents of 15 girls and 15 boys were interviewed within 24 hours of births no differences in newborns in height, weight, or physical appearance girls = softer, smaller, more finely featured fathers of boys = stronger, larger, more alert, better coordinated In another study, mothers of 11 month old girls underestimated crawling ability, 11 month old boys = overestimation

Describe the implicit racial bias evidence as measured by the IAT?

Found between groups all around the world found in children as using as six although oder children and adults begin to control or change their explicit prejudices and show less bias on explicit measures, still reveals implicit racism through development

Explain the work that separates more specific distinctions among various types of esteem-relevant threats types of groups, and types of in-group members?

Greater in-group identification has been found to be associated w/stronger social identity Lebanese participant sin a study who most strongly identified with Arabs were esp. likely to report supporting terorrist organizations and feeling that the (!! attacks on US Were justified More East Germans identified with East Germany, they had inc. in-group bias when making comparisons w/West Germany during the German unification process, heightened by relative deprivation increase during unification

Define ingroups

Groups with which an individual feels a sense of membership, belonging, and identity

Describe what occurred to Raymond Silverfox in 2008?

He was taken into police custody bc of police drunkenness Over 13 hour period, officers watched and laughed at him as he puked, lost control of bowels, and they made no effort to offer him a change of clothing, or medical attention When an officer realized he wasn't breathing, he was removed from the cell nut it was too late Silverfox's death was the result of racism No crime charges were filed after coroner inquest ruled that Silverfox died of natural causes His daughter launched civil suit against RCMP in 2010, citing racism and willful neglect Similarly Robert Stone also died in RCMP custody under similar circumstances

Describe the writer ellis Cose's experiences?

He went to a job interview, as an award winning reporter, and the editor he met didn't give him the job bc there was no black readers - instead of seeing his work, he saw his race. Then, in light of affirmative action, Cose was asked if he wanted to be in a firm as corporate director of equal opportunity, despite him not being an expert on personnel or equal employment all - he was just black

What is sub typing?

Holding negative views despite liking some members -stereotypes often withstand disconfirmation Gordon Allpert saw this, saying that people hold prejudgements even with contradictory evidence - excluding a few favoured cases, negative idea is kept for all other cases SO woman who isn't warm or nurturing can cause a more diversified image of females, or toss the mismatch into a special subtype

How have studies shown that proposed threats to one's self-esteem lead to negative stereotype use to derogate members of those stereotyped groups?

Hypothesis: proposed threats to one's self esteem lead to use of avail negative stereotypes to derogate members of stereotyped groups, and derogating others = feel better about themselves Study: participants given positive or negative feedback about performance on test of social and vera; skills - bolstering or threatening self esteem then took part in a "Second experiment" eval a job applicant all received photo of a young woman, resumé and video of a job interview half told she was jewish, the other half said she was not jewish on campus, there was a negative stereotype of jew am princess RESULTS among participants whose self esteem lowered, Julie Goldberg (jew) was more negatively rated than Maria D'Agostino, even tho pics and credentials were same Negative feedback participants given chance to belittle jew woman later experienced increase in self esteem

How do the categories we apply to others say more about us then the people we apply them too?

Ie, people think of race as stable, biologically determined entity are less likely to interact with racial outgroup members and are more likely to accept racial inequalities than are people who see race as more socially determined

Why do stereotypes endure?

Illusory correlations attributions sub-typing confirmation biases & self-fulfilling prophecies

What does being stigmatized mean?

Individuals who, by virtue of membership in particular social group, or having certain characteristics, are targets of negative stereotypes, vulnerable to being labelled as deviant, and are devalued

Give examples of where blatant sexism is evident

Iran Some people supported recent attempts at reforms to benefit women, those in power = hostile resistance Suadi Arabia: women are prohibited from driving China: selective abortion to support cultural preferences for sons over daughters Even typical workplace roles: not many female pilots, male secretaries

Describe the stereotype content model

It is a model proposing that the relative status and competition between groups influence group stereotypes along the dimensions of competence and warmth Stereotypes about competence of group influenced by relative status of group (higher status, higher competence) Stereotypes about warmth of group are perceived by competition with group (greater competition is lower warmth) Ie., stereotypes of female executives - high competence skills (like being powerful), but also negative ideas like being cutthroat. When stereotypes are high on one dimension but low on the other, groups face challenges: female business leader who is warm is less competent, and vice versa

Describe the studies that show how culture can influence social identity processes?

Jap students exhibited less in-group enhancing bias than Jap Cdn students, who had less bias than Euro Cdn students not that collectivists don't focus ingroup at all, they are just less likely to enhance in-group to enhance own self esteem -Ie Kenichiro Nakashima's study, when participants' self esteem was threatened, individuals w/ind. self construals showed more in-group favouritism

Describe the research in brain-imaging about emotional reactions to race?

Jeu perceiving amber of racial outgrip triggers different, more emotional reactions than in-group member Ie monitoring brain activity of white and black participants while showing them pics of individuals from racial in-group or outgroup fmRi revealed differential responses in amygdala (associated w/emotion) - stronger when shown outgroup members, and white participants showed greater amygdala activation in response to black than white faces greater activation was associated with higher levels of implicit prejudice effect of back faces on white amygdala activity may depend on direction of eye gaze of the daces - greater activity and paid greater attention in respond to black than white faces, but only w/ direct eye gaze Effects eliminated if targets' eyes were close ro appearing to look elsewhere (eye gaze = convey a threat)

Describe the consequences of avoidant behaviour of interracial interaction?

Makes things worse white male students led to believe they would engage in convo w/ two white or two black partners sat farther from partners if the convo was going to ve racially sensitive then if there was less racial topic

What do people say when asked to describe men and women?

Males: adventurous, assertive, aggressive, independent, task oriented Females: more sensitive, gentle, dependent, emotional, and people-oriented -SO UNIVERSAL, it has been reported by 2800 uni students from 30 different countries of 6/7 continetns

What are the experiments Steele did to look at stereotype threat?

Manipulated factors to increase or decrease the stereotype threat 1. black and white students take difficult standardized verbal test - to some, it was explained to be test of intellect and others, a lab problem solving task - reasoned that bc of difficulty, all students would struggle - if test was related to intellect, stereotype threat for black students - if it was a lab task, negative stereotypes less applicable and reduced st. threat 2. whether students were asked to report race before taking a test unrelated to ability - thinking about race impaired performance of black students, no effect on white students

What has brain imaging shown about why outgroup members "all look alike"

Merely categorizing people as in or out-group influences perception of info about them, even if familiarity is constant Students exposed to unfamiliar faces of the same race, these faces categorized as in-group (same uni) or out-group (rival uni) Students processed faces more holistically when categorized as being from in-group then when they were members of outgroup Also, related results from a different study: unfamiliar black/white faces - participants had higher neural activities in places like the orbitofrontal cortex if faces were labelled in-group, and the greater activity in this cortex correlated sig with degree of preferring in-group vs out-group faces. Stronger effect on OF cortex activity and preference for the faces if in-group or out-group, not race!!!

Describe the divergent messages females and males receive as they develop?

Mothers of 22 month boys spent 2x the amount of time talking to them about numbers = decrease girls' awareness of concepts, leading them to have less interest later in life showed moms videos of kids in risky-ish activities and asked to stop the tape and indicate what they would say to own child mothers of daughters intervened more quickly than did mothers of sons mothers of girls = caution child about getting hurt, sons = encouraged boys = more injury from risky playing than girls, but by age of 6 think girls will get hurt more

Define prejudice

Negative feelings toward persons based not heir membership in certain groups

Explain how interracial interactions are more complex if member of outgrip is assoc. w/ biases and emotional reactions

Non black participants interact w/ black or white confederate on a series of tasks. More likely to exhibit cardio reactions (amount of blooopumped by heart per min) associated w/ theta if confederate was black than white

What are white people concerned about when engaging in interracial interactions? What do they do because of this?

Not wanting be, or appear to be, racist may regulate their behaviours, be vigilant for signs of sdistrust or dislike from interaction partners What should be normal interaction can become awkward and exhausting this can affect partner's perception of them, leading to outcome of being racist bc they were trying not to be Individuals engaging in intergroup interactions often activate meta stereotypes

How is sexism similar to racism?

Old fashioned, blatant displays of sexism less accepted today Sexism still exists at and intense frequency and intensity Researchers have been documenting and studying modern and implicit forms of sexism escapes notice of most, but can be powerfully discriminatory

Describe the sinister underlying of benevolent sexism

On surface, doesn't appear to be terribly troubling, but still fuels sexism and contributes to negative reactions, particularly to women who defy gender roles and stereotypes Several studies linked benevolent sexism to accepting myths about rape/eval women more negatively if they had been acquaintance-raped, particularly if she "didn't act like a woman"

How does motivation affect stereotyping?

One important motivation is maintaining, protecting, and enhancing self image/esteem Even those low in prejudice will activate negative stereotype to do this if self-esteem is threatened, people may stereotype others to feel better about themselves, which also makes them more likely to activate automatically However, it can also inhibit activation of other stereotypes! - ie., when Canadian students received praise from black doctor, they activated positive doctor stereotypes and inhibited negative Black stereotype (probably to maintain the person who praised them as especially smart and successful) BUT when a stereotyped group member criticizes or disagrees, the will activate negative stereotypes

What is the contact hypothesis?

One of the enduring ideas Allport advanced in his "The Nature of Prejudice" The theory that direct contact between hostile groups will reduce prejudice under CERTAIN CONDITIONS

What is the modern racism scale?

One of the questionnaires developed to ask individuals relatively subtle, indirect qs about attitudes towards particular groups, and scales that measure subtle forms of racism in West Europe have been used successfully in many studies, other research has demoed that people won re highly motivated to control expressions of prejudice may score low on them if they harbour prejudiced attitudes Limitations: explicitly ask respondents about attitudes toward various groups, when research today is showing more and more how implicit attitudes can be

How is sexism different from racism

PRESCRIPTIVE Gender stereotypes distinct from all others: they are prescriptive, not descriptive, and indicate what many people in a given culture believe each gender should be (ie, Canadians don't think gay men should be artsy. but do think women should be nurturing and men unemotional. Even though ambition is valued, women w/ these qualities viewed harshly) DEGREE OF INTERACTION BETWEEN OUTGROUPS/INGROUPS Men and women familiar w/ each other, so sexism involves more ambivalence between positive and negative feelings and beliefs than is typical of other forms of prejudice/discrimination

What is the demonstration of stereotypes being held by cultures?

Participants shown pic of subway train filled with passengers black man had suit on, where man held a razor one participant viewed scene briefly and described it to a 2nd participant who hadn't. 2nd participant communicated the description to a third participant and so on in more than half the sessions, black man held razor, and even waved in threateningly

What is the self0regulation of prejudiced responses model?

People who are truly motivated to be fair and unprejudiced are confronted w/ idea they didn't live up to that goal = unpleasant emotions - as they continue feeling these bad feels, they create an expertise at recognizing situations and stimuli triggering failures, and can exert more control over them

How is grouping humans different from objects?

Perceivers are members or non-members of the categories used

How does an ambiguous behaviour cause stereotypes to influence people's perceptions and interpretations of behaviours of group members?

Perceivers reduce ambiguity by interpreting behaviour as consistent w/stereotype so in ones study, black and white boys saw pics and descriptions of ambiguously aggressive behaviours - both black and white boys judged behaviours as more mean if they were done by black boys than white boys (eg - mother yelled at one year old vs construction worker yelling at one yo, lawyer aggressive vs homeless man, Boy Scout grabbed the arm of elderly woman crossing street vs ex con)

What is a minimal group?

Persons categorized on the basis of trivial minimally important similarities - ie, the over/under estimators - they didn't have a rivalry, or antagonism, weren't frustrated, didn't compete for limited resource, and weren't acquainted with each other

What are some categorizations that dominate our perceptions ver others?

Race gender age

What are the factors that keep negative feelings of race strong?

Relative lack of contact between people of dif racial and ethnic groups stigma of being perceived as racist is esp. troubling for most less contact, stronger negative emotions' nd greater anxiety about appearing racist makes interracial perception challenging and emotional w/ tension

Does trying to suppress a stereotype work to stop being prejudiced?

Results mixed 1. can cause post-suppression rebound - after trying to suppress, stereotype pops up even more 2. when people are intrinsically motivated to suppress a stereotype they don't believe, may be able to reduce rebound effects

What was the reality of the Brown v/ Board of Education of Topeka ruling?

Ruling was that racially separate schools were inherently unequal, in violation of the US Constitution In part, informed by empirical social scientific evidence Desegregation was slow Law in Ontario for segregation wasn't repealed until 1964, last school closed in 1965, and last segregated school in Canada (Nova Scotia) didn't close until 1983 In US we saw stalling tactics, lawsuits, vocal opposition to busing Walter Stephan's review showed although there was a 13% decrease in prejudice among whites, 34% reported no change, and 53% reported an increase

Describe the steps of the social role theory

SEX STEREOTYPES SHAPED BY UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEN/WOMEN INTO DIFFERENT SOCIAL ROLES 1) Bio and social factors = division of labour between sexes emerged - home vs work setting. 2) since people behave in ways to fit roles they play, men will wield phys, social, and Econ power 3) behavioural differences provide continuing basis for social perception, leading us to perceive men as Dom and women Domestic by nature, but its really due to their roles

Explain the reason behind the events of Robbers Cave

Simplest for the conflict = competition Assign strangers to groups, pit them against each other, and there is conflict intergroup benefits of reducing focus on competition by activating superordinate goals evident around the world - ie, Greece and Turkey relations improving w/ earthquakes that hurt both countries - Turkish rescue crews pulled Greek kid from rubble United against shared threat = ability to bridge gulfs

What explains the gender differences in work settings?

Social science research points to sexist attitudes and discrimination Sex discrimination during school years may pave way for diverging career paths in a adulthood, so when equally qualified men and women compete for job, gender considerations enter once again, as some research indicates that business prefers men for masc jobs like managerial positions, and women for fem jobs like receptionists Even w/comparable jobs: women paid less than male counterparts, w/glass ceiling to make it harder or impossible to rise to higher positions of power Women confronted w/ hostile, unfair environment -dilemma: seen as more competent if presenting themselves w/stereotypically masc. traits, yet this also makes them seem less socially skilled and attractive (which could cost them the job)

How are we taught the stereotypes and prejudice through our culture?

Socialization -processes through which we learn norms, rules and info of a culture. -People learn stereotypes through role models, group norms, and culture -racial prejudice affecter by peers, fam, and social inst. -overhearing racial slur by stranger inc. people's expressions of prejudice -ie using Jew ball (misheard Jew boy) and tried to mimic father's values, which saw him in a different way -parents' stereotypes can influence the child, often implicitly -stereotypes and prejudices exhibited by peers, media, and culture can influence

Can stereotypes be accurate then? Geez!

Some are more accurate than others Many based on illusory correlations or perceptions, but some stem from kernel of truth, and others can be accurate UBC researchers: asled attractive individuals (beauty is associated with goodness) to rate themselves on a number of personality traits, and asked undergrads to make personality judgements off these people, and found attractive targets rated more positively than less attractive people, but perceiver's personality ratings were more accurate

What is the controversy about the nonverbal implicit racism?

Some scholars = question implicit measures, asking what they actuallyy measure, how useful they are for predicting behaviour, and how their results should be interpreted Opposing: meta analysis of decade of studies on IAT found that in socially sensitive domains of interracial and other intergroup bjeaivour, the norms against explicit prejudice are strong, IAT measures of implicit prejudice predicted biased reactions and behaviour significantly better than measures of explicit prejudice

Are stereotypes automatic?

Stereotypes can bias perceptions and responses even without personal agreement Patricia devine distinguishes between automatic and controlled processes in stereotyping: people have become highly aware of contents of stereotypes through cultural influences, and bc of this, people automatically activate stereotypes whenever they are exposed to members of groups for which popular stereotypes exist

What is the difference between stereotypes, prejudice and discrimination?

Stereotypes:associations or beliefs Prejudice: feelings Discrimination: behaviours - specifically negative behaviours directed against persons because of their membership in a particular group can operate somewhat independently, but can influence and reinforce each other

Describe Jennifer Eberhardt and others research on implicit racism

Studied predators of whether a crime defendant was likely to be sentenced to death examined 600< death penalty eligible cases in Philly between 79 and 99, found in cases w/ white victim, the more defendant's physical appearance was stereotypically black, the more likely he would be sentenced to death unlikely that the judges/jurors were consciously aware of this bias

What showed that perceivers saw outgroup members' faces more like objects?

Study by Lasana Harris and Susan Fiske when participants saw pics of people from variety of groups, FMRI showed activation in medial prefrontal wrote, thought to be necessary for social cognition not evident in response to images of nonhuman object or extreme outgroups (homeless, addicts) regions of brain assoc. w/disgust were more likely activated = dehumanizing view, so spud allow individuals to be less concerned w/treating outgroup members poorly

How did Patricia Devine study automatic/controlled stereotyping processes?

Subliminal presentations to white participants One presentations had words relevant to black stereotypes, and those who were primed w/ these words activated the black stereotype, leading them to interpret another person's behaviour more negatively/hostile This happened even among participants that didn't consciously endorse the stereotypes in question

What is in-group favouritism?

Tendency to discriminate in favour of in-groups, not outgroups

Describe social categorization

The classification of persons into groups on basis of common attributes -same way biologists classify animals into species, archaeologist divide time into eras, we divide people on basis of gender, race, and other common attribute

What is the realistic conflict theory?

The theory that hostility between groups is caused by direct competition for limited resources economically, one group may fare better than another group in struggle for land/job/power obvs loser is frustrated, and winner feels threatened and protective = conflict

What is stereotype threat?

Theory by Claude Steele the experience of concern about being evaluated based nonnegative stereotypes about one's group particularly threatening for individuals whose identity and self esteem invest in domains where stereotype is relevant

What are the studies about the outgroup homogeneity effect?

These effects are common People from china, Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam see themselves different from one another, but Westerns say they look the same Literally all majors talk about "the business type" Liberals lump tog. conservatives teens lump together boomers to in-groups, members of out-groups can look all the same, shown in how people are less accurate in distinguishing and recognizing faces of members of racial outgroups than their own

What are meta stereotypes?

Thoughts about outcrop's stereotypes about them, and worry about being seen as consistent w/these these stereotypes Jacquie Vorauer

How did Steven Spencer look at motivation to protect self-esteem in stereotypes?

Threatened participants self-esteem by making them think they had done poorly on an intelligence test more likely to automatically activate negative stereotypes about Black/Asian people when exposed briefly, or subliminally, to videotape or drawing of a member of the stereotyped group

What is a fundamental motive that evolved in our species?

To affiliate w/relatively small groups of similar others served for basic need for self protection Implication of this = evolved tendency in people today to died the world into in-groups and outgroups, and favour outgroups over outgroups Negative stereotypes of such outgroups can help justify desire to exclude them, and stereotypes can fuel even more prejudice and discrimination

What are some of the most successful demos of desegregation?

Took place in a baseball diamond Montreal Royals signed a young black man Jackie Robinson, to play on the team The owner, Rickey, knew about contact hypothesis and was assured by a social scientist friend a team created the critical conditions for it to work. When Mont. Royals won Little World Series, Jackie Robinson was promoted to Dodgers, and on April 15 1947, he was the first black man to break colour barrier, and baseball became integrated Herb Carnegie: semi-professional Quebec hockey league, but despite his skill never made it to National Hockey league because of colour barrier, which wasn't broken until WIllie O'Ree began playing for the Boston Bruins. After Carnegie retired, he started the first registered hockey school in Canada, and the Carnegie Future Aces Foundation, which provides scholarships to youth who display exemplary citizenship

Describe the cdn estimates for workplace harassment

Towards women, range from 42 - 80%

What is group?

Two or more people perceived as having at least one of the following characteristics direct interactions w/each other over a period of time joint membership in a social category based on sex, race, or other attributes a shared common fate, identity, or set of goals - see people differenctly if we consider them to constitute a group rather than an aggregate of individuals also fundamentally different ways if we consider them part of in-group or outgrip

How has the election of Barack Obama, seems as sig sign of racial progress?

U of Washington students (studied by Cheryl Kaiser) completed questionnaires about their perception of racial progress both just before and after election Students' perception of racial progress in US inc. sig But, support or policies that address racial inequality and perceptions of how much farther US needs to go to achieve racial equality dec. significantly This is troubling, because racial bases in employment, salaries, housing, bank credits, charges from car dealerships, and other measures exist So yes, can celebrate racial progress, but it is a fact of life and isn't limited to actions of fringe individuals

What are the cultural differences in media and body image?

What is norm/ideal in Western media isn't the same in other cultures or subcultures of Western culture Differences in ideals as repped by media of a culture leads to different effects on body related self0esteem and behaviours of individuals

Describe the study about the rating of women's performance vs men's

When female students eval content and writing style of articles written by "John" not "Joan" McKay, it got higher ratings Other studies showed that people devalue women's performance in traditionally "masculine" roles and attribute achievements to luck, not ability HOWEVER: this devaluation of women not found in similar studies - more than 100 modelled after og up top show people aren't biased by gender in the evaluation of performance

What are the distinctions between types of esteem-relevant threats?

Whether threat is to the group's status or to the individual's role within group types of groups: such as whether a group has high or low status in a culture types of in-group members (such s whether the members are strongly or weakly identified in groups)

How do different ethnicities perceive racial progress?

White Americans perceive greater racial progress than other Americans See things more from how far things have come, other ethnicities see how far it has to go

What did Daniel Katz and Kenneth barley find about ethnic stereotypes?

White college students viewed the avg white American as smart, industrious, and ambitious Avg Black Americans thought of as ignorant, lazy, happy go lucky In multiple follow up surveys between 1951-2001, these negative images of Blacks faded

Describe media's effects on how women think they should look

Women's body images and esteem impacted by thin models, especially among European American women Esp negative among individuals who are already concerned with appearance/other people's opinions Meta alanlysis found that media effects on body dissatisfaction measures were smallest when women were asked to focus on appearance of models in the images, as opposed to images being secondary to the study, so wome more vulnerable to sexualized images when they aren't mindful of them

Do white people feel stereotype threats?

Yes! when white athletes step onto a court/field and they are minorities Jeff Stone: black and white students played miniature gold when the game was diagnostic of natural athletic ability, white students did worse, but when it was sports intelligence, black athletes did worse

What are stereotypes?

a belief or association that links a whole group of people with certain traits or characteristics

What os the social dominance orientation?

a desire to see one' subgroups as dominant our other groups, and a willingness to adopt cultural values that facilitate oppression over other groups Endorsement of "some groups of people are inferior to others" "if groups stand in place, less problems" Would disagree w/ "group equality should be ideal" In-group identification and outgroup derogation especially strong in these folk

Explain how distinctions between social categories are more rigid then they are through historical studies?

assumption there is genetic basis for classifying people by race, but the fact is that how societies make distinctions between races can change dramatically as a function of historical contexts Ie: USA considering Irish Americans distinct from Whites, but now that is rare Biologists, anthropologists psychologists note the idea there is more genetic variations within than among races

What did Jennifer Crocker and her colleagues do in a study about stigmatized groups?

black participants described themselves on questionnaire, supposedly to be evaluated by unknown white student participants told they were either liked or disliked on the basis of the student's evaluation of the questionnaire, and took a self esteem test if the participants thought white student count see them and didn't know race, self esteem scores rose after positive and declined after negative feedback when they thought student did know race, negative feedback didn't lower self esteem, basing unfavourable evals on prejudice But those that received positive feedback showed decrease - so attributed praise to patronizing, reverse discrimination

What factors can influence categorization?

cognitive factors: what we have been primed to think about particular category motivational factors: immediate needs in a situation, determines whether we will see black male firefighter by race/gender/occupation

Describe how culture can influence social identity processes?

collectivists more likely to value connectedness and interdependence w/ the people and groups around them, and personal identities are tied closely with their social identities however: collectivists less likely to show in-group favouritism to boost self esteem

What is the social identity theory

each of us strives to enhance self esteem with two parts: 1) a personal identity 2) various collective/social identities based on groups we belong So, self-esteem boosted through personal achievements or affiliations w/successful groups Can derive pride from connections, w/o receiving direct benefits But, we often need to belittle them to feel secure about us

Explain research around white people perceiving anger in black faces more than white faces?

esp. true for people w/ high implicit racism individuals' implicit racism levels predicted how biased they were in perceiving hostility in black faces white participants in Hugenberg's study watched facial expressions of black/whit targets. First study = hostile facial expression sand became more neutral. And the other neutral and became hostile task was to indicate when face didn't express initial emotion (hostile to neutral, or neutral to hostile) researchers found that participants w/relatively high levels of implicit bias, as measured by IAT, saw black faces as staying hostile longer in first study, and becoming hostile more quickly low racism on IAT didn't show this bias authors found the participants who showed strong bias on IAT more likely to categorize ambiguous face as black if it was hostile white brit students = racially ambiguous faces, high in implicit racism, would categorize faces as black if they were angry, low implicit racism didn't

Describe Jacquie Vormauer and Cory TUrpie's research

examined intimacy building behaviours towards same sex white or FN individual with whom a white participant thought they would be partnered after viewing video intro of target individual, participants recorded message that would be viewed by partner when creating these, high prejudice = less likely to have intimacy building behaviours (self disclosure, eye contact), as long as they didn't fear evaluation, as evidenced by lower public self consciousness scores when eval apprehension was present, low prejudice individuals engaged in fewer intimacy building behaviour, so FN individual less psotibely treated so trying to avoid appearing racist can take so much effort it decreases awareness of the other person m

Describe the media effects in stereotyping?

fed a steady diet of images of people potential to perpetuate stereotypes and discrimination some stereotyping persists in music vids and commercials, programs and cartoons in countries around the world Media depiction influence viewers, w/o them realizing it (beer/men;s cologne ads = women as sex objects = reward for consuming product/ even men's immediate behaviour is affected - if males watched video with sexist tv ads or no sexual imagery tv ads for similar products, and then went to meet and interview a woman (who was a confederate), female judges saw that male students' behaviour who had seen sexist commercials were more sexualized and objectifying Influence on women too - female undergrads who had watched ads w/stereotypical female characters = lower self confidence, less independence, and fewer career aspirations

Define modern racism

form of prejudice that surfaces in subtle ways when it is safe, socially acceptable, and easily rationalized more subtle and ambiguous theories of modern racism say people are racially ambivalent - want to see themselves as fair, but harbour feeling son anxiety around other racial groups all theories emphasize contradictions and tensions that lead to subtle, unconscious forms of discrimination and prejudice

Define outgroups

groups with which an individual doesn't feel as sense of membership belonging or identity

What are the conditions surrounding likelihood of perception of discrimination based on group membership or to be negatively affected by these perceptions?

how and to what extent the target identifies w/ stigmatized group individuals more likely to perceive discrimination based on membership if they highly identify with group or believe others are often prejudiced to that group

What are the debates around the terms like prejudice or racism?

how broad or specific they should ne, whether jeu should have an individual or institutional levels, etc.

How successful is the jigsaw classroom?

jigsaw classroom students liked each other more liked school more were less prejudiced higher self esteem academic test scores improved for minority students and remained the same for white students

What are a list of groups whose performance is hurt in domains due to stereotype threat?

low socioeconomic status students in France and US on verbal test when test was diagnostic of intellectual ability European American men on a math test when compared with asians ugandan girls on math test in co-ed rather than all female school women playing chess on a. computer when opponent is male women on engineering test after interacting with sexist men white participants taking IAT when they thought it was diagnostic of racism Individuals w/ mental health issues on test of reasoning ability when asked about illness before test women on negotiation tasks when success was associated w/ masculine traits (and vice versa) student athletes thinking about identity as athletes before difficult math test overweight individuals primed to think about weight related stereotypes older adults on memory test when it was presented as memory test women driving after being reminded of demeaning stereotypes about female drivers

How did Barbara Friedrickson study women's math performance and context?

male/fems evaluated consumer products, including an item of clothing they tried on and wore - clothing was either sweater or one piece - while wearing clothing alone in front of a mirror, participant took math test - women did worse while wearing a swimsuit than a sweater, men's performance was unaffected (think it is due to women feeling more shame and anxiety about their bodies)

describe stereotype lift

members of group that has advantage of being favourably compared to outgroup that is negatively stereotyped (men better than women at math) non stereotyped ours performed better on sakes when stereotype threat against outgroup was relevant than reduced

Describe media's effects on how men think they should look

metanaysos showed a sig relationship between men's perceptions that mass media was creating pressure about acceptable male bodies and feeling dissatisfied with their own men hitting themselves bc of an obsession to gain muscle mans but be lean bc of the start athletes and models that are prevalent

Who is Ernst Zundel?

nat Geo featured story about Toronto Quotes incl. from Holocaust deiner Ernst Zunder, who also blamed AA in Canada for rapes and drive-by shootings Zundel lived in Canada for 40 years, immigrated when he was 19 to not be scripted into German army 1970s = began distributing pamphlets w/titles about "The Hitler We Loved and Hwy and "Did 6 million Really Die" Spend his years in Canada distributing these, until mailing privileges were suspended, and he also maintained a controversial website where he freely posted racial views 2003 He was deemed threat to Cdn society and HR, and deported back to Germany 2005 Outrage expressed by Cdns at his statements = societal standards and values are changing, so blatant racism is less acceptable Racism can also be subtle, and can be just as hurtful bc the subtlety can slip through defences

Define discrimination

negative behaviour directed agains persons because of their membership in a particular group

What are illusory correlations?

one of the ways stereotypes endure overestimate of association between variables that are only eighty or not at all correlated

What is the negatives of the quick appraisal done with social categorization? What is a study that shows this?

overestimates differences between groups and underestimates differences in groups Study linked to social categorization = people tend to learn features about majority groups earlier than features about minority groups when learning about minority groups, they focus on features that differentiate them from majority more, magnifying differences

Describe Matthew Gaillots experiment about the physical energy sapped from suppressing stereotypes?

participants drank a drink sweetened w/ sugar or artificial sweetener (sugar = raise in blood glucose level) presented pic of a young man who was said to be gay, and write about a day in his life participants who scored low in prejudice towards LGBTQ avoided making derogatory statements abut gay man regardless of drink of the participants who were high in anti-gay prejudice though, those who had sugarless drink made more derogatory statements, so high prejudice participants w/ more sugar had energy to suppress prejudice

Define sexism

prejudice and discrimination based on a person's gender, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one gender or another

Define racism

prejudice/discrimination based on a person's racial background, or institutional and cultural practices that promote the domination of one racial group or another DIF. LEVELS OF RACISM Individual level: this definition reflects that any of us can be racist towards anyone else Institutional and cultural level: some people are privileged while others are advantaged, Institution that tend to accept or hire individuals connected to the people who already are in institution (providing them w/advantage over others) , or cultural values that favour the status quo (whereby some people are in a privileged position over others) may unwittingly ugly perpetuate racism

What is system justification?

processes that endorse and legitimize existing social arrangements protect status quo Powerful groups may promote it to preserve own advantage, but some disadvantaged groups with system0justifying orientation think the system is fair and just; may even show outgroup favouritism to more powerful outgroups

Define implicit racism

racism that operates unconsciously and unintentional undetectable by people who want to be fair and unbiased, and along w/ other implicit prejudice, can skew judgements, feelings, and behaviours, w/o inducing guilt that is more obvious, explicit forms of racism would trigger

What are the gender stereotype threat experiments Steele conducted?

recruited male and fem students who were good at math and felt they were important to identities gave difficulty standardized math test so they would all perform poorly some were told test showed no gender difference (negative women's steroeytp not relevant to test) in others, it said they did show gender differences when performed worse when the latter was explained

Describe the important consideration to how important groups are to our sense of self?

relative size and distinctiveness of one's in-group Brewer and Pickett observed that in-group loyalty and outgroup prejudice are more intense for groups that are in minority than for members of large and inclusive majorities People also vary in ideologies about intergroup relations in society: concerns over equality and access to power and social mobility individuals in groups the tbenefit from advantages the tother groups do not have may be motivated to justify and protect those adbatnahes

What is a superordinate goal?

shared goal that can only be accomplished through cooperation among groups or individuals

Describe Sherif's Robbers Cave field study (method/process)

small group of 11 year old boys (white, healthy, middle class, all strangers to one another) were at a 200 acre camp in densely wooded area of Robbers Cave State park, OK Spent first week doing normal camp activities: hiking, swimming, etc. After awhile, gave themselves a group name and printed it on caps and t shirts, thought they were only ones at the camp Soon, discovered there was a second group, and that tourneys had been arranged between two groups Parents had given permission to have sons take part in an experiment for competitiveness and cooperation two groups were brought in separately, and only after each had formed own culture was the others presence revealed Rattlers and eagles met, and did so under tense circumstances, competing in football. treasure hunt, a tug of war etc. Winning team award points, tourney winner got trophy, medals, and prizes Groups turned to hostile antagonist - it was war group flags were burnt, canine ransacked, and food fight that resembled a riot exploded in cag Restoring peace was hard experimenters tried saying nice things about each group to the other, but propaganda didn't work neither did brining in groups under noncompetitive circumstances Intro of superordinate goals did - ie, camp truck break down, and both groups needed to pull it up a steep hill = by end of camp, groups were friendly

What have studies shown about self-esteem not being what it appears to be?

some people w/ high self esteem are outwardly secure in this view, whereas others who consciously consider themselves w/ high SE (self esteem) might have doubts and require more reinforcement of their positive SE STRUDY undergrads who were initially chosen for high scores on explicit measure of self esteem were given negative feedback about their performance on a bogus intelligence test then read about case of student misconduct (some FN, others white) asked to select a punishment participants w/lower implicit self-esteem (less confident in outward idea of high SE) recommended more severe punishments for FN than white, while high implicit SE recommended similar punishments in both conditions

What did Jennifer Richeson find?

that if white participants if they score high on measure of implicit racism, interacting w/black individual can be cognitively and emotionally exhausting bc they are scared of being racist

What have social psychologists found about individuals' degree of implicit racism?

that it can predict differences in perceptions and reactions to others as a function of race true regarding subtle, nonverbal behaviours (how far you sit, or eye contact w/ someone of another are)

What is the outgroup homogeneity effect?

the tendency to assume that there is greater similarity among members of outgroups than among members of ingroups

What is Eagly's social role theory?

the theory that small gender differences are magnified in perception by the contrasting social roles occupied by men and women

How can stereotypes create self-fulfilling prophecies?

these occur when perceiver's false expectations cause a person to behave to confirm that expectations Ie job interviews - white participants sat farther away, made more speech errors, and held shorter interviews when interviewing black applicants (confederates) than white ones White interviewers used to treat white job applicants as the black applicants had been treated being exposed art his colder style led white applicants to behave nervously, and confirmed what the interviewers expected of them, hurting performance

Describe Gordon Hodson and others' research about white British students

these students read about white or black defendant in a robbery case when evidence against defendant strong and unambiguous, they were as likely to judge white defendant guilty as the black defendant When the situation was ambiguous bc some incriminating info was inadmissible, the students were more likely to judge the black defendant guilty either guilty or not guilty verdict could be justified, but in ambiguous situations such as this, racial biases are more likely to emerge Many white people admit on some occasions (even if they feel like they aren't prejudiced) admit they do not react towards minority gourds as they should - and make me feel embarrassed, guilty and ashamed if they have reason to suspect racism could bias decisions, show opposite bias on explicit, consciously controlled tasks, responding favourably to Blacks

Describe the studies by mark Schaller and his colleagues that addressed the ideas of ingroups/outgroups

when a person's motive to protect themselves is aroused (ie, watching serial killer stalk someone) they will more likely misperceive emotion of an outgroup, but not in-group member as anger Also hypothesized being in dark enviro would trigger self-protective more than bright, activating outgroup stereotypes UBC showed greater outgroup bias against Iraqis vs in-group Canadians when eval their threat revenant traits (hostility, untrustworthiness) in dark rooms, Didn't affect ratings on low threat traits

What did Trawalter and others find?

white participants who were concerned w/appearing prejudiced had increased stress responses during an interracial encounter, and demoed more behavioural anxiety compared to less concerned counterpart s over a year, differences more pronounced

how does the media promote positive norms?

year long field experiment in Rwanda Rwandans listened to soap opera on radio = popular media, over a year Half listened to soap about conflicts that paralleled the real conflicts, but solved w/intergroup corporation, communication, and nonviolence/opposition to prejudice other Half listened to soap about health issues positive intergroup norm soap more positive feelings about intergroup cooperation, trust, interactions

Draw the Social identity theory graphic

pg 94

How is prejudice more than just real competition?

"Realistic" comp for resources may be imagined People may be resentful of other groups, because of sense of relative deprivation