Strategic Communications Comp Exam

Generation X

(20 somethings) Children of early baby boomers Demographic MOST SOUGHT AFTER by advertisers, because they purchase automobiles & clothing in large quantities. Watch more hours of primetime television More pessimistic than a decade ago. Workplace trait: immediate gratification, flexible in adapting to changing workplace conditions. Short-term results: Inability to think longterm Social media most effective form of reaching them with commercial and nonprofit messages.

Midlifers

(30 somethings) Established in careers, started families, tend to change jobs often, and not as loyal to employers.

Baby Boomers

(born in 1950s and early 1960s) 2008- represent about 40% of US Population Interested in balancing work and family

Traditional Perspective

(oldest perspective) Traditionalists regard organizations as objects that can be studied with the concepts and methods of traditional social science. Traditionalists believe that organizational communication is an objectively observable activity. It can be measured, labeled, classified, and related to other organizational processes.

consonance

the belief that all media are similar in attitudes, beliefs, and values

Narrative Paradigm

Walter Fisher -People are storytelling animals; almost all forms of human communication are fundamentally narrative. Listeners judge a story by whether it hangs together and rings true with the values of an ideal audience. Thus, narrative rationality is a matter of coherence and fidelity.

Magic Bullet Theory

Warren Commissio - Based on belief media were so powerful they could accomplish almost anything by influencing or manipulating public opinion & social policy.

3 incorrect assumption regarding demographic categories

1. All members of a demographic category share the same beliefs and behaviors. 2. Demographic characteristics are the sole factor influencing the individual 3. There is such a thing as an "average" or "typical" member of any demographic group Professional communicator should avoid saying or writing that "the average teenager listens to rap music" or "the typical Asian American easily adopts to new technology

Much of Psychographic research is based on determining

1. How individuals consume media 2. How they make purchasing decisions

5 points regarding narrative paradigm

1. People are essentially rational. 2. We make decisions on the basis of arguments. 3. The type of speaking situation (legal, scientific, legislative) determines the course of our argument. 4. Rationality is determined by how much we know and how well we argue. 5. The world is a set of logical puzzles that we can solve through rational analysis.

5 points regarding rational-world paradigm

1. People are essentially rational. 2. We make decisions on the basis of arguments. 3. The type of speaking situation (legal, scientific, legislative) determines the course of our argument. 4. Rationality is determined by how much we know and how well we argue. 5. The world is a set of logical puzzles that we can solve through rational analysis.

Ethos

A Greek term referring to the character of a person; one of Aristotle's three rhetorical appeals

axiology

Area of philosophy that deals with nature of values. It includes questions such as "what is good?" and "what is value?"

Rhetoric

Aristotle - From the Greek "orator," this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

Propaganda

Attempt to have a viewpoint accepted on the basis of appeals other than the merits of the case. - Unethical & manipulative - Tried to set up adversarial relationships -or- "us against them" scenarios - Serves only the interests of the person acting as its source.

emerging media

Audience Segmentation, Convergence, Increased Audience Control, Multiple Platforms, User-Generated Content, Mobile Media, Social Media.

Social Judgment Theory

Carolyn Sherif, Muzafer Sherif, and Carl Hovland,- the perspective that people assimilate new information about attitude objects in light of what they already know or feel; the initial attitude acts as a frame of reference, and new information is categorized in terms of this standard

Semiotic

Charles S. Peirce The study of signs and symbols of all kinds, what they mean, and how they relate to the things or ideas they refer to. For assistance in understanding how consumers interpret the meanings of symbols.

Muted Group Theory

Cheris Kramarae- An approach to communication that considers women a muted group because man-made language aids in defining, depreciating, and excluding them.

Culture

Culture consists of the abstract values, beliefs, and perceptions that lie behind people's behavior

Evading Responsibility (Image Restoration Theory)

When unable to deny performing the act in question, the accused may attempt to evade responsibility. This strategy has four components. Scapegoating: the actor may claim that the act was committed in response to another wrongful act. Defeasibility: the actor pleads a lack of knowledge or control about important factors related to the offensive act Make an excuse based on accidents: the actor may make an excuse for factors beyond their control Suggest the action was justified based on motives or intentions: the actor asks not to be held fully responsible based on their good, rather than evil motives in committing the act.

epideictic rhetoric

a type of rhetoric that pertains to praising or blaming

Narrative fidelity: does the story ring true?

does the story ring true? 1. Does the story square with the hearer's experiences? 2. A story has fidelity when it provides good reasons to guide our future actions. 5. People tend to prefer accounts that fit with what they view as truthful and humane. 9. Judging a story to have fidelity means we believe shared values can influence belief and action.

Humanistic/Interpretive Theorist

humanities approach communications; Scholars who do interpretive study are concerned with meaning; qualitative methods

secondary research

involves the summary, collation and/or synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for example, research subjects or experiments.

Formative Evaluation (PR PLAN)

used to describe how information gathered in the evaluation can be used for future programs or how to get the most benefit out of the success of the campaign

gender polarization

viewing men and women as polar opposites

cognitions

ways of knowing, beliefs, judgments, and thoughts

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

- the process by which the use of an innovation, whether a product or a service, spreads throughout a market group over time and over various categories of adopter

Media Ecology

Marshall McLuhan An approach that views communication technologies as environments. The study of different personal and social environments created by the use of different communication technology.

Generation Y

(teenagers and preteens; born between 1981 Equal amounts of time interacting with friends online and in-person Spend money on clothing and entertainment Consume news media to a lesser degree than other groups Tend to be more optimistic focus more on self

3 Reasons why youth market is so important to marketers

1. Purchasing power they currently have themselves 2. Ability to influence purchasing adult consumers 3. Purchasing power they will have when they mature into adult consumers

early adopters

13.5% of population; respected; more integrated into the local social system; the persons to check with before adopting a new idea; category contains greatest number of opinion leaders; are role models

Laggards

16%; Adopt only when certain the technology will not fail, or when forced to change. Innovation-decision process is lengthy. Tied to the past; Reluctant to try new things. Don't see a need to change. Suspicious of innovations. Limited resources

innovators

2.5% of population; venturesome; very eager to try new ideas; acceptable if risk is daring; more cosmopolite social relationships; communicates with other innovators

Late Majority

34% Older and conservative consumers who avoid products they consider to be too risky. They will purchase something only if they consider it to be a necessity or when they are under some form of social pressure.

Early majority

34% members dont like to take as much isk and therefore tend to wait until "the bugs" are worked out of a particular product or service middle class

Program Book (PR PLAN)

A book containing the entire written proposal is placed in a book after it has been executed and evaluated; used to show off agency work

epistemology

A branch of philosophy that examines questions of how we come to know what we know. Study of knowledge

Pathos

A feeling of sympathy; a quality that arouses pity or tenderness.

crowdsourcing

An exploratory research technique that uses social media to obtain ideas and content from a large group of people

Rhetorical Exigency

An imperfection marked by urgency; rhetoric can do something about the imperfection. Ex: Hurricane Katrina- The disaster isn't rhetorical, but the communication afterwards to change an imperfection (FEMA's slow response) is rhetorical.

agenda setting

Max McCombs and Donald Shaw - Belief that journalists don't tell you what to think, but do tell you what and whom to think about the power of the media to bring public attention to particular issues and problems

Critical Perspective

Critical scholars differ from traditional and interpretive scholars in various ways, but one difference is especially significant: Critical scholars regard organizations as instruments of privilege or even outright oppression. They focus their attention on the relationship between privileged classes (or privileged conditions) and disadvantaged or oppressed orga-nizational groups. They are concerned with the way in which that relationship is created and sustained through symbols and discourse. The privileged usually include owners, exec-utives, the political elite, and even dominant ways of thinking and acting (e.g., masculine rationality). The disadvantaged or oppressed usually include workers, women, minorities, and others who are denied privilege or otherwise discounted in organizational life.

Genderlect Styles

Deborah Tannen Masculine and feminine styles of discourse best viewed as two distinct cultural dialects which lead to misunderstandings and faulty communication Women seek connection and men seek to preserve independence and competitive accomplishment. Report versus Rapport talk (linguistic differences). Private speaking versus public speaking (women more in private, men more than public). Report: seek to command attention/convey info. Rapport: seek connection. Stories: men joke and stories/heroes, women downplay self. Listening: W with head nods M without. Asking questions: W use tag question to soften disagreement. Conflict: men more comfortable, women think it is threat to connection.

digital journalism

Digital journalism also known as online journalism is a contemporary form of journalism where editorial content is distributed via the Internet as opposed to publishing via print or broadcast.

Persuasion

Effort to gain public support for an opinion or course of action. - Truthful & ethical methods - Based on consensus - Serve the interests of both the persuader and audience

Spiral of Silence

Elizabeth Noelle-Neuman the process by which a majority opinion becomes exaggerated because minorities do not feel comfortable speaking out in opposition

Summative Evaluation (PR PLAN)

Evaluation done immediately after program's conclusion; most detail part of the evaluation section

Ongoing Evaluation (PR PLAN)

Evaluation that can be done while program is underway; Revise or fine-tune to handle unexpected issues

Implementation (PR Strategy)

Execute response

Cultivation Theory

George Gerbner Argues that mass media exposure cultivates a view of the world that is consistent with mediated "reality"; consturcts a view for us. Exposure to violent messages leads to overestimating crime

Demographics

Grouping individuals by characteristics of which they have no control; age, gender, race, ethnicity

Psychographics

Grouping individuals by their lifestyle choices of which they do have control; education, income, housing choice, martial status, family size, religion

bias of communication

Harold Innis's contention that technology has a shaping power on society Innis's idea that communication technology makes centralization of power inevitable

Communication Accommodation Theory

Howard Giles We change the way we communicate to be like the people we like (convergence). We emphasize the differences in our communication when with people we don't like (divergence). If we're part of a social group, that social identity may change who we decide to converge with.

archival research

Include external documents (newsletters, annual reports, and other publications) What is the client's history? What kind of products and services does this company or nonprofit organization provide? What is the competitive environment, etc...

Opinion Leaders

Individuals who are highly knowledgeable and well respected, and as such, they are often able to influence change.

Bystander effect

John Darley and Bibb Latané in 1968 after they became interested in the topic following the murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964 - A phenomenon in which the chances that someone will help in an emergency decrease as the number of people present increases

Dramatism

Kenneth Burke Life is a drama. Speakers persuade by dramatic identification with the audience

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Leon Festinger - The theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Evaluation (PR Strategy)

Measure effectiveness of response

9 Propaganda Devices

Name calling - "extremist," "racist," "counterculture" 2. Glittering generalities - opposite of name calling - wants audience to reject an idea without examining the evidence - lack of substance behind the appeals. 3. Transfer - communicator wants audience to take authority, sanction, or prestige of a respected idea and apply it to a new idea that the communicator wants the audience to accept. a. Symbols of the cross, Uncle Sam 4. The bandwagon - audiences are encouraged a certain behavior because "everyone else is doing it." 5. The plain old folks- adopt idea, because it is from someone similar to them. 6. Testimonials - appeals from influential celebrities or authority figures. 7. Card Stacking- presenting one-sided evidence or half-truths 8. Fear or scare tactics- pairs negative result with desired behavior required to avoid it. 9. Euphemisms- terms intended to obsure or soften the true meaning of behaviors. Ex. Layoffs as early retirement plans.

ontology

Nature of being/existence A subcategory of metaphysics that inquires into the nature of real and unreal. (2) Inquiry into the essential nature of things. Example: Are such things as dreams, spirits, & ethical persuasions real?

Mass Media Sources

Newspaper and magazine articles, radio and tv broadcasts

Informal Opinion Leaders

PR must influence these people; Those who have influence with peers because of some special characteristic; Role models who are admired and emulated or opinion leaders who can exert peer pressure on others to go along with something. Due this by being highly informed, articulate, and credible on particular issue

PIE

Planning, Implementation, Evaluation

What does PIE mean? (PR Strategy)

Planning. Implementation. Evaluation

Formal Opinion Leaders

Power leaders. Because of their position as elected officials, presidents of companies, or heads of membership groups. News reporters often ask them for statements when a specific issue relates to their areas of responsibility or concern. Also called power leaders.

Planning (PR Strategy)

Research and analyze the problem to determine how to most effectively respond to it

RACE Acronym

Research, Action planning, Communication, Evaluation

Elaborate Likelihood Model

Richard Petty & John Cacioppo Says how likely one is to elaborate on messages. There is a central route and a peripheral route. Central (highly involved in processing info) and peripheral (low involvement processing)

Standpoint Theory

Sandra Harding & Julia Wood - a critical theory that claims people's experiences, knowledge, and communication behaviors are shaped in large part by the social groups to which they belong; argues that there is no objective standard for measuring standpoints; everyday people, not the elite, provide the framework

Critical Theory of Communication in Organizations

Stanley Deetz seeks balance between corporate and human interests Deetz developed critical communication theory to explore ways to ensure financial health of corporations while taking into account diverse human interests.

Seniors

Strongest workplace trait is loyalty to employers Value work over family Prefer daily newspapers and lifestyle magazines over television and radio

Cultural Studies

Stuart Hall Focuses on how people make meaning, apprehend reality, articulate values, and order experience through their use of cultural symbols. Studies of various disciplines that have begun to study concepts and issues surrounding culture and ideology. Take the critical quality: only qualitative study. Political Economy, Textual Analysis, Audience Analysis are all looked at

Mortification (Image Restoration Theory)

The accused admits responsibility and asks for forgiveness.

Corrective Action (Image Restoration Theory)

The accused claims that they will correct the problem. This can involve restoring the situation to its prior state, or promising to make changes to prevent its reoccurrence

Reducing Offensiveness (Image Restoration Theory)

The accused may attempt to reduce the degree of negative feeling experienced by the audience. This strategy has six components. Bolstering: used to mitigate the negative effects by strengthening the audience's positive idea of the accused. They may remind the audience of previous good acts or good reputation. Minimization: attempts to convince the audience that the act in question is less serious as it appears. Differentiation: the act is distinguished from other more offensive acts to lessen the audience's negative feelings by comparison. Transcendence: the act is placed in a broad context to place it in a different, less offensive frame of reference. Attacking accuser: the actor attacks their accusers, to question the credibility of the source of the accusations Compensation: the actor offers to redress the victims of their action to offset negative feelings towards them.

Denial (Image Restoration Theory)

The accused may deny that the act occurred, or deny their role in committing it.

Rhetorical Situation

The circumstances that call for a public response; in broadest terms, consideration of the audience, occasion, and overall speech situation when planning a speech. exigence, audience, constraints

Rational-world paradigm

The mind-set of the reigning technical experts is the rational-world paradigm.

crisis communication plan

The process of anticipating and preparing for threats that have the potential to damage an organization's reputation with important constituents and influence the organization's survival.

Interpretive Perspective

The second important perspective is the interpretive perspective, which regards organizations as cultures. To the interpretivist, the organization is a subjective rather than objective phenomenon. Social action is possible only to the extent that people can share subjective meanings. The culture of an organization is a network of such meanings. Thus, an organization exists in the shared experiences of the people who constitute it.

media Convergence

The trend of media organizations shifting toward a multiple-format approach to producing and distributing content. This trend is driven by innovations in technology and changing consumer preferences. a blending of media made possible by digitization; adoption of digital tech. by different media in their production and distribution processes

User gratification Theory

This mass media theory assumes that people makes choices about what media they will consume in order to fulfill certain needs

Image Restoration Theory

William Benoit - IRT's Message Structure Concepts: denial (we didn't do it, or we didn't do it, they did) reduce the offensiveness (bolstering, minimization, differentiation, compensation, attack the accuser) correct the wrong (set things right). — Organization defends its reputation and protects its image. Not necessarily an apology

Face-Negotiation Theory

[Ting-Toomey] members from individualistic and collectivistic cultures often have different styles of conflict because they have different ideas about self-image

Frankfurt School theorists

a group of scholars who believed that the media were more concerned with making money than with presenting news

civic spaces

a metaphor suggesting that speakers have "locations" where the opportunity to persuade others exists

Hawthorne experiments

a set of investigations that ushered in a human relations approach to organizations studies that found that changes in the work environment had little long-term effect upon worker productivity

communication

a social process in which individuals employ symbols to establish and interpret meaning in their environment

Objective/Empirical Theorist

behavioral science approach communication ; Scholars who do objective study are scientists; quantitative methods

Cultural Approach to Organizations

clifford geertz & michael pacanowsky - Humans are animals suspended in webs of significance that they themselves have spun. An organization doesn't have a culture, it is a culture—a unique system of shared meanings. A nonintrusive ethnographic approach interprets stories, rites, and other symbolism to make sense of corporate culture. ( clifford geertz & michael pacanowsky

cultural communication

communication between and among individuals whose cultural backgrounds vary

Rhetorical Audience

consists only of those persons who are capable of being; influences & being mediators of change, you are not a member merely because you heard a rhetorical appeal

cognitive uncertainty

degree of uncertainty related to cognitions

Narrative coherence

does the story hang together? 1. How probable is the story to the hearer? 2. Narrative consistency parallels lines of argument in the rational-world paradigm. 3. The test of reason, however, is only one factor affecting narrative coherence. 4. Coherence can be assessed by comparing a story to others with a similar theme. 5. The ultimate test of narrative coherence is whether or not we can count on the characters to act in a reliable manner.

collectivism

prioritizing group needs or values over the needs or values of an individual (we-identity)