Teaching and Training Final Exam Study Guide

Dewey's work at this time focused on the link between learning and experience.

American Progressive Period

Education moved from the focus on standardization to focusing on the individual.

American Progressive Period

Schools were highly segregated with educational materials for African-American being castoff from ''white'' schools.

American Progressive Period

The Montessori Method introduced classrooms with stimulating environments.

American Progressive Period

American Education During the 1970s

During the 1970s, America had many foreign and domestic preoccupations. On the international front, after years of protests, the Vietnam War finally drew to a close. President Nixon visited the communist countries of the Soviet Union and China. At the end of the decade, United States citizens were killed and held as captives in the American Embassy in Iran. At home, America was changing, and people faced many concerns. The divorce rate rose, and the number of single parents increased. Overall, there were significantly more women in the workforce in a broader range of jobs. An oil crisis sent prices soaring and created shortages. There was a push for conservation and finding alternative sources of energy. Unemployment went up during the 1970s. So did prices as inflation hit home. People had less disposable income and were less willing to spend on education. Many schools suffered from inadequate funding. Desegregation and Busing The civil rights movement continued to push for equality. Desegregation at the school level had not solved unequal education. The problem stemmed partially from the tradition of neighborhood schools. By choice or lack of opportunity, neighborhoods tended to be divided by race. That meant that schools often had little racial diversity and those with primarily minority populations often had inferior facilities and lacked sufficient, up-to-date educational materials. School districts were mandated to look at desegregation at the larger district level, rather than just school by school. This led the way to forced integration. School districts assigned students to schools in proportions that would achieve integration and bused them to those schools. This plan certainly was not without controversy. Many families of all races objected to having children forced to take long bus rides to schools outside their neighborhoods. Congress voiced the opinion that busing was not the issue, and that desegregation was not necessarily the answer to making schools equal. Injustices still existed, even in desegregated schools. The issue of inequality would continue for years. Bilingual Education Amid the controversy over school busing, the Supreme Court ordered that a group of Spanish-speaking students be granted bilingual education. That is, classes would be taught in, both English and Spanish. In 1971, the Supreme Court ordered the joining of two school districts in Texas, one that had primarily Spanish-speaking students and the other mostly organization. Even the most casual and English-speaking. The Court found that language was a barrier for equal education. All students were taught both Spanish and English. In 1974, the Supreme Court acknowledged the problems students face when they have limited English skills. The Court ordered schools to provide basic English language classes for children who had limited English skills. This ruling was based on the difficulty Chinese students were facing in San Francisco. Gender Equity The Civil Rights Act affected education in many ways. It stimulated a variety of your definition of respect to the definitions of subsequent laws that provided equal respect and deference in the dictionary. How does opportunities for other groups. For example, your definition compare? To whom do you show in 1972, Title IX or the Equal Opportunity respect to in your daily life? In what ways do you in Education Act was passed. It prohibited practice showing respect? Write a short essay on discrimination based on gender in all programs the importance of showing respect to post to the and activities receiving federal financial class website or blog. assistance. If a school, even a college, receives federal funds, every program and activity must be open to all, regardless of gender. One impact of this act was opening sports, even those formerly designated for boys only, to girls. The overall influence of the law, however, was much more far-reaching. Tradition and discrimination had long limited the career options of women. This began to change in the 1960s and 1970s. Prior to that time, nursing and teaching were the two professions most available to women. It was unusual for women to enter professions dominated by males, such as law and medicine. Even when women held comparable positions, they were usually paid considerably less than men. Due to the combination of job options and pay discrepancies, in 1970, women earned 59 cents for every dollar earned by men. In 1978, more women than men enrolled in college for the first time. Children with Disabilities In 1975, Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act. For the first time, it guaranteed a free public education for children with disabilities. Further, it mandated that the education provided for each child be appropriate and take place in the least restrictive environment. Parents were to be involved in decisions about their child's placement. Previously, most children with disabilities had been segregated in special classrooms. With this legislation, children are able to spend part or all of their school day in regular classrooms.

Auditory Learner

People who learn best by hearing or listening to information

Schools reflect the diversity of the United States.

True

Ways to help ELL students include speaking slowing and loudly to them in class.

True

Mainstreaming allows schools to keep special education students out of most classrooms throughout the day.

False

The 1920s and the Great Depression Era (1921 - 1940)

Following World War I, many Americans turned away from concerns about political reform. America was the most industrialized country in the world, and economic prosperity and growth were strong. The influence of the Progressive movement in education, however, continued throughout this period. The economic prosperity of the 1920s increased the size of the middle class. More people had disposable income, money to spend on things they wanted, not just needed. Americans became consumers, rather than producers, of their own consumable goods. The introduction of the automobile became the stimulus for industrial growth in the nation. Consumer credit issues surfaced for the first time as credit became more widely available, so consumer education became a need. There were concerns about the rate of immigration. Quotas (government limits) were set on the number of immigrants allowed in the country. Many economists believed the economic prosperity would continue. Few had concerns when, on October 14, 1929, the New York Stock Market crashed. That day, known as Black Thursday, caused an economic panic that put the country into the Great Depression. Impact of Economy on Schools In good economic times, schools expand both in number and what they offer. This was true during the 1920s. In hard economic times, schools had to respond to lost revenue. During the Great Depression of the 1930s, the situation for schools was bleak. Public schools faced a shortage of cash, since many citizens were unable to pay their taxes. Some school districts ceased to operate while others shortened the school year. Decreases in or elimination of teacher pay was common, and course offerings cut back to basic subjects. For families finding it difficult to keep their children fed and dressed, there often was not enough money for books and school supplies necessary to attend school. Many were simply unable to attend. Children who could work often did so to supplement the family income. The federal government stepped in to help. Funds helped support some schools to hire teachers and purchase supplies. With federal money, schools began offering free hot lunches for children. As part of the program to employ others, better schools were built in some communities. By the end of the 1930s, the Great Depression was starting to ease. Families were trying to get back on their feet. Social institutions, including schools, were also working to recover from a decade of hardship. Americans were focusing inward. Rumblings in Europe, however, would eventually lead to the beginning of yet another world war. "Dick and Jane" Readers In spite of the Great Depression, in the early 1930s, a new set of reading textbooks for beginning readers began publication. Often known as the "Dick and Jane" books, these books taught basic reading skills with simple stories about a family. From the 1930s to the 1960s, over 85 million students used these textbooks. As with the McGuffey's readers before them, their widespread use helped standardize education.

Limited English Proficient (LEP)

Students for whom English is a second language and who are not reading or writing English at grade level.

English Language Learners (ELL)

Students that must learn English while also mastering the content of their regular classes.

Exceptional Learners

Students who are gifted, talented, or have special needs, such as a disability, and need, or can benefit from, programs matched to their abilities and potential.

bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

Students who are physically coordinated or athletically gifted, and acquire knowledge through hands-on activities.

Linguistic Intelligence

Students who have good written or oral communication skills and large vocabulary; learn languages easily.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

Students who have the ability for self-analysis and reflection of their own strengths and weaknesses.

Interpersonal Intelligence

Students who have the ability to read, empathize, understand, and interact effectively.

Naturalistic Intelligence

Students who have the ability to recognize identify and understand animals, plants, and other living things.

Existentialist Intelligence

Students who have the ability to see the ""big picture'' of the human world by asking questions about life, death, and the ultimate reality of human existence.

Visual/Spatial Intelligence

Students who have visual artistic skills, imagination, and the ability to think in three dimensions.

Exceptional Learners

Students who require modifications or additional services to meet their individual needs and abilities-includes gifted and talented .

Musical Intelligence

Students who understand and appreciate rhythm, tone, and sound patterns;potential ability to compose music.

Learning Styles

methods individual prefer and find most effective to take in and process information.

Individualized Education Program (IEP)

A written plan for providing a student with the most appropriate opportunity for learning.

The Civil Rights Act

Although the Supreme Court decision in 1954 called for an end to segregation, many schools, especially in the south, were slow to comply. Even a decade later, many African-American children were still being educated both separately and unequally. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 formally outlawed segregation in the United States public schools and public places. School districts were ordered to end segregation. They were called to "undo the harm" segregation had caused by racially balancing schools. Federal guidelines were issued. However, some school districts continued to stall, and problems remained. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act resident Lyndon Johnson, who succeeded President Kennedy, pushed for wide-ranging reforms with his "War on Poverty" and "Great Society" programs. The Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 sought to improve the schools most in need. Federal education dollars were given to school districts based on the number of poor children enrolled. This was a major boost to struggling schools and helped equalize educational opportunities. Project Head Start Project Head Start, still in existence today, also began in 1965 during the Lyndon Johnson administration. Its purpose was to help preschool children from low-income families develop the skills they needed for success in kindergarten and beyond. Students who begin with a good start in school are less likely to experience academic problems later. Some Head Start programs are coordinated with other social programs. They may, for example, provide all-day child care. These programs provide a positive, high-quality environment for preschool children. Today, the program is open to more families and serves hundreds of thousands of children each year.

Dame schools, open to both boys and girls, were schools where students were taught by women in their own homes.

American Colonial Period

Harvard University and the College of William & Mary were founded during this period.

American Colonial Period

Since teachers were role models, they were not allowed to drink, smoke, date, or marry.

American Colonial Period

Since textbooks were too expensive, hornbooks were used

American Colonial Period

The role of the teacher included cleaning the school and visit the sick.

American Colonial Period

Formalized teacher training program called normal schools were established.

American Common School Period

Frosebel developed the first kindergarten based on the belief that children learned best through play

American Common School Period

Horace Mann began the first public state-supported schools.

American Common School Period

McGuffey's readers were used across the country.

American Common School Period

Schools began to give the same education to people from different levels of society.

American Common School Period

Benjamin Franklin began the first public library to share his love of reading.

American Early National Period

Schools began to teach American history

American Early National Period

Thomas Jefferson made counties responsible for education-the first public system of education.

American Early National Period

The Smith-Hughes Act established federal funds to support vocational education.

American Progressive Period

logical-mathematical intelligence

Characterized by performing well in math and science, abstract thinking, classifying.

American Education During the 1980s

During the 1980s, there was less national emphasis on education. President Ronald Reagan believed the federal government's role in education should be reduced. His vice president, George H. W. Bush, who succeeded him, held similar views. The 1980s were a time of growth and prosperity for some people, but the gap between rich and poor widened. Consumerism was at an all-time high. Buying on credit was a way of life for many. Those born during the baby boom had reached adulthood and many were raising families of their own. The families of baby boomers, on average, had fewer children. There were more single-parent families as the divorce rate rose. In addition, two-income families were more common than in previous decades as women gained more career opportunities. The Back-to-Basics Movement In 1983, a report called A Nation at Risk was published by a federal government agency. The report asserted that America's competitive edge was at risk. It said that the United States was falling behind other countries in business, science, and technology. There was concern that creative innovations in schools in the 1960s and 1970s had left many students lacking a good foundation of basic knowledge and skills in reading, writing, and math. A number of indications of this gap were cited. American students fell behind students of other developed countries in math and science scores. College graduates were scoring lower on general knowledge tests than in prior years. The military reported that recruits had poorer reading and writing skills than the previous generation. Millions of Americans were illiterate, meaning they could not read or write. There were calls for school reform. Many Americans believed that schools again needed to emphasize reading, writing, and math, leading to the back-to-basics movement. Critics of the movement believed that students needed more than basic reading, writing, and math skills to succeed in a complex world.

The American Colonial Period (1600 - 1776)

European migration to what would later become the United States began in the seventeenth century. In education, the time period between about 1600 and 1776 is known as the American Colonial Period of education. What motivated Europeans to come to a new land? Their reasons varied. Some were seeking economic opportunity. Many were looking for greater religious freedom. The motivation for others was the idea that they could produce a better society. Some were simply adventurers. Educational opportunities here were as varied as the motives for immigrating. They reflected the beliefs and circumstances of the immigrants. While some similarities existed, options for education also differed by location, since there was no overall educational system. At first, most education took place in the home. Those parents, who were able, taught their children basic reading and arithmetic skills. Daily life and work provided many additional opportunities for the practical learning needed for adulthood. Even after schools began to be established, they were available mainly in well-populated areas. The schools that did exist were primarily for elementary grades. A few universities and colleges, including Harvard University and the College of William & Mary, were founded during this period. Very few students, however, had the opportunity to attend them. Most older children worked on their family farms or businesses. Others, including some girls, learned a trade in an apprenticeship. An apprentice is someone who learns a skilled trade by watching and helping an expert in that trade. In early America, some apprentices worked without pay for an agreed period in exchange for their learning. Most colonists in the New England colonies (Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island) came from England. The majority of them were Puritans. This religious group believed in the importance of religious education and valued each person's ability to read the Bible. They viewed schools as a way to reach those goals and also to teach basic skills for farming. Education was a way to safeguard their beliefs and way of life. As early as 1642, Massachusetts enacted a law requiring every town to establish a school, although towns did not always follow this law. In the middle colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware), people came from a number of different backgrounds. Many emigrated from Ireland, Scotland, Holland, and Germany, as well as England. Because their backgrounds were more diverse, there was no one common school system. Instead, cultural groups developed their own schools. The Quakers, a religious group from England that settled around Philadelphia, believed that everyone should be educated and were tolerant of others' religious beliefs. They established the first school there that welcomed all, regardless of religion or race. Quaker schools were open to girls, African Americans, and Native Americans. Social and economic class divisions were more rigid in the southern colonies (Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia), and education was not considered a function of government. Sons of wealthy plantation owners received a formal education that prepared them for college in the colonies or Europe. Plantations were geographically separated; so many boys were educated at home by tutors. The middle class was much smaller in the southern colonies than in other areas. Middle-class and poor children, especially girls, had fewer opportunities for formal education. Enslaved people (slaves) were only taught skills that were useful to their owners. Dame schools also existed in the colonies. Students were taught by women in their own homes. Parents paid a fee for their children to attend. Such schools were open to both boys and girls. The Role of Teachers Throughout the colonies, teachers ranked just below religious leaders in importance. Both groups of men were better educated than the general population. Both were expected to teach and to act as examples of moral behavior. Serving as a role model brought with it many expectations. Teachers could not drink, smoke, date, or marry. Regular church attendance was required, along with participation in civic events. Teachers were expected to be industrious and honest. A teacher routinely cleaned the school and often visited the sick or performed other charitable acts to set a good example. School Curriculum In most schools, teaching focused on basic reading, writing, simple math, and religion. Some students were educated beyond elementary school, although few formal schools existed. In the middle and New England colonies, training was available for trades, such as shoemaking. Sons of wealthy parents often learned Latin, Greek, and more advanced math. Those in the South also studied astronomy for navigation and plantation management skills. In addition to basic skills, girls learned sewing and other home management skills. Girls from wealthy households sometimes had the opportunity to study literature and learn poetry, in addition to their basic subjects. Books were rare and expensive. Schools used hornbooks for instruction. A hornbook was a flat wooden board with a handle. A sheet of paper-usually containing the alphabet, a prayer or two, and Roman numerals—was pasted on the board. Since paper was scarce, a thin, flat piece of clear animal horn was attached to cover and protect the paper. Hornbooks were used widely throughout the colonies until the 1800s when books became less expensive.

Arduous

Hard to accomplish or achieve.

Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)

Howard Gardner's theory that there are several specialized types of intellectual ability.

Differentiated Instruction

Matching instruction to meet the different needs of learners in a given classroom.

Accommodation

Modifications to the environment, learning strategies, or materials that are made to help students with particular special needs succeed in the classroom.

sterotype

Preconceived generalizations about certain groups of people.

Cultural Diversity

Part of this nation's strength comes from the fact that people with different backgrounds, languages, races, and religions have come together to form one society. The United States is a country of immigrants. From the first colonists to those who have come recently, individuals and groups from many countries have added vitality and energy, as well as skills and knowledge, to their new country. Schools reflect the diversity of the United States . Many people identify with a specific ethnic group based on their heritage. Ethnicity refers to a particular racial, national, or cultural group including that group's customs, beliefs, values, and often language and religion. Racial diversity is just one component of diversity. Some people identify with a racial group. Others identify with their country of origin or that of their ancestors. Many people simply see themselves as Americans.

Ethnicity

Particular racial, national, or cultural group including that group's customs, beliefs, values, language, and religion.

Mainstreaming

Placement of a child with special education needs full-time in the regular classroom.

Magnet Schools

Schools designed to emphasize a particular subject area or areas of talent and attract qualified students throughout the school district.

Learners with Special Needs

Special needs include a broad range of physical, mental, social, and behavioral challenges that affect learning. Students with special needs may include those who have speech, vision, and hearing disabilities, as well as those who have intellectual and learning disabilities. The effects of these conditions can range from minimal to severe. As you recall, Congress passed the Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975. This required public schools to provide students with a free appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment possible (Figure 9.9). The law was renamed the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in the 1990s. Part of the IDEA requires that public schools create an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for each student who meets specific requirements. The IEP is developed by a team that includes the child's parent or guardian; one or more regular classroom teachers; a special education Figure 9.9 Learners who have special teacher; and a school counselor, psychologist, or needs may include students with administrator. physical challenges. An individualized education program is a written plan for providing a student with the most appropriate opportunity for learning. It describes the student's level of performance and how the child's disability affects academic performance. Academic goals and objectives are set. The plan describes specific accommodations or modifications to the environment, learning strategies, or materials that are made to help students with particular special needs succeed in the classroom (Figure 9.10). (For example, a student who is blind might need Braille copies of textbooks.) The IEP specifies services needed for the student to succeed in the classroom. The goal of an IEP is to provide the least restrictive, most effective learning environment for the student. Depending on the individual student, schools may use various educational placements or a combination of them. These include the following: Mainstreaming. With mainstreaming, schools place students in one or more regular classes based on their expected ability to keep up with the standard curriculum. They may have extra learning aids, but they receive no treatment as special students. For example, a student who has a hearing disability may have an interpreter in class but is still responsible for all regular class assignments. Mainstreaming works for many students who have special needs. Inclusion. Sometimes students with special needs attend regular classes, even if they are not able to keep up academically with class requirements. With inclusion, the only requirement is that the student will benefit from the class. For example, a student with Down syndrome might be placed in a regular classroom, even if unable to keep up academically, to gain social interaction skills. A student included on this basis would complete modified assignments. Special education teachers serve as resources for classroom teachers when students are placed for inclusion. Special education classes. Students who have special needs may spend part or all of their day in classes with other students who have similar disabilities. Special education provides adapted programs, extra staff, and specialized equipment or learning environments or materials to help students with special needs to learn. Special education teachers receive training in methods to adapt and individualize learning for many different special needs. Students who have severe disabilities often spend the whole day in special education classrooms to best meet their learning needs.

Special Education

Term used in the individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that is defined as specially designed instruction to increase the student's chances for success.

Due to a poor economy, course offerings were cut back to basic subjects.

The 1920s and the Great Depression Era

Due to an increase in available credit, consumer education became a need.

The 1920s and the Great Depression Era

Schools began offering free hot lunches for children.

The 1920s and the Great Depression Era

''Dick and Jane'' readers were used to teach reading skills with simple stories about families.

The 1920s and the Great Depression Era.

American Education During the 1960s

The 1960s were a time of change. Those born during the baby boom were becoming teenagers and young adults. Many in this new generation questioned the conservatism of the 1950s and challenged the values, policies, and way of life of older adults. The sixties were a decade of contrasts. They began with the optimism of newly elected President John F. Kennedy. Neil Armstrong walked on the moon in 1969. However, it was also the decade America became involved in the Vietnam War. John Kennedy, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Robert Kennedy were all assassinated. The civil rights movement was especially active during this period. Its leaders favored peaceful methods, such as sit-ins and marches, to protest discrimination. In 1963, more than 200,000 people of all races marched in Washington, D.C. in support of civil rights. They heard Dr. Martin Luther King's famous "I Have a Dream" speech. The civil rights movement spurred other groups to work for their own equality. These included women, Hispanic Americans, Native Americans, and people with disabilities. Like African-Americans, all had been discriminated against in various ways. The 1960s were a time of educational innovation. Schools and teachers had the freedom to try creative ideas in an effort to improve education. On the national level, the most significant changes affected students who were disadvantaged economically or educationally.

American Education During the 1990s and Beyond

The 1990s were about technology. The Internet changed the way people communicated, received information, shopped, and conducted business. It played a key role in education, as well. The economy was booming and unemployment was at an all-time low. At the same time, the United States became involved in conflicts around the world, including in Bosnia and the first Gulf War. The first decade of the twenty-first century brought new challenges to the United States. After the terrorist attacks in New York and Washington, D.C. on September 11, 2001, the United States went to war in Afghanistan and Iraq. At home, the economy seemed strong, with rising real estate values and high consumer spending, much of it on credit. In 2008, however, a financial crisis began that plunged the country into a period of financial uncertainty. Some financial institutions failed. Jobs were lost as spending slowed. What was striking about this financial crisis was how quickly it spread around the world. It confirmed the existence and impact of the global economy. Finance, international corporations, and trade link the economies of nations around the world-particularly those of major countries. For example, computer links made it possible to move many of a business' functions to any country with an educated, but less expensive, workforce. The Computer Revolution With computers such an integral part of education today, it is hard to believe that they played a minor role in learning until the development of smaller versions (very large by today's standards) in the 1980s. It was not until the mid-1990s that most classrooms were equipped with a single computer. As more educational programs were developed and the price of computers declined, they became more available. It was the development of the Internet and search engines that turned computers into the powerful and essential learning tools of today. The ability to use computers skillfully soon became a key career skill. Today education, as well as information, is readily available via computer and other digital media (Figure 4.7). This makes learning available at a time and place convenient to the student. Educational Standards and Accountability State governments and local school districts largely control the public educational system. Consequently, there has always been much variation in what is taught at various grade levels, in different courses, and in individual schools. Uniformity was promoted by state curriculum guidelines and textbooks used in schools across the nation. Beginning in the 1980s, the call for more demanding and uniform educational standards grew louder. Standards are agreed-on levels of quality or achievement. Educational standards refer to guidelines defining what students at various levels should know and be able to do. In 1991, Congress established the National Council on Education Standards and Testing (NCEST). This group began asking questions. What should be studied? How should learning be measured? What standards of performance should be set? In addition, teacher associations for various subject areas (such as history, physics, math, and others) voluntarily began to develop standards for what should be taught in school. They answered the questions about what should be studied and how it should be measured. They also set standards for performance in their subject areas. These are commonly referred to as national standards. Teaching toward standards is often called competency-based education. That is, schools teach toward students demonstrating mastery and achievement of specified knowledge and skills in subject areas. Many people who support standards believe that they provide an objective way of evaluating student learning. Many who object to standards believe that real learning and creativity is lost and the only gain is memorization of facts. In 1999, President Clinton made it clear that the role of the federal government was to establish guidelines for achieving excellence in education. Individual states would establish specific standards and objectives, testing to evaluate whether standards were met, and ways to measure whether schools met the standards. Although this seemed like a reasonable plan, it soon became complicated by politics. Setting standards naturally led to the question of how to measure whether or not students had met the standards that had been set. There was a move toward educational accountability—measurable proof that schools and teachers were providing high-quality education. Beginning in the 1990s, many states began using standardized tests to measure success. Standardized tests are designed to give a measure of students' performance compared with that of a very large number of other students. For example, they measure reading comprehension skills of third0grade students across the country. Standardized tests serve a variety of purposes in addition to measuring student achievement. They are useful to compare different groups of students or schools. They can help educators make decisions about which teaching programs are working and which are not. They can report on an individual student's progress. Goals 2000 During the 1990s, most Americans were feeling the impact of the back-to-basics movement. After wide distribution of the report, President George H.W. Bush and the nation's governors set six educational goals to reach by the year 2000. These goals, along with two additional goals added by Congress, gained wide approval and Congressional support in the Goals 2000 Act of 1994. Implementation of these goals, however, was up to the states and local school districts. Translating the goals into specific plans took time, and there was little opportunity to remedy complex problems within the last years of the twentieth century. No Child Left Behind Act In January 2001, just three days after taking office, President George W. Bush announced his plan for educational reform. The No Child Left Behind Act was passed later that year. The goal of this act was to improve the performance of schools in the United States. Important components of this act included increased accountability, more choices for parents when choosing schools for their children, and an increased focus on reading. The underlying premise of the act was the belief that high expectations and goals would result in success for all students. One of the most controversial features was the expectation that every child should meet state standards in reading, math, and science. One method of measuring achievement was the use of standardized tests at specific grade levels. Standardized tests and other measures of evaluation were encouraged. The receipt of federal educational funds was tied to school performance. Schools demonstrating success in meeting high standards would receive more money. Parents would have the opportunity to move their children from low-achieving schools to higher-achieving schools. While few argued with the need for higher achievement, many expressed concerns about the provisions of the No Child Left Behind Act. Some pointed out that the characteristics of students and funding levels varied widely among schools. Those schools starting with a higher percentage of students already behind grade level would have difficulty meeting the goals, especially if their funding was poor. There were complaints that teachers were encouraged to spend much of their time specifically preparing students for the standardized tests at the expense of other content information and educational experiences. One impact of the No Child Left Behind Act was an increase in the variety of school options. In some states, more charter schools were established. A charter school is a public school that operates with freedom from many of the regulations that apply to traditional public schools. Charter schools often use innovative teaching practices. Each has a charter that establishes the school's mission, goals, students served, programs, methods of evaluating programs, and ways to measure success. Parents must specifically choose to send their children to charter schools. Not all states have approved charter schools. Proponents believe parents need choices and competition among schools will improve public education. Opponents worry about schools becoming competitive in nature, and leaving some students behind. Others worry that experimental methods will not work or that long-established, traditional public schools will see reductions in funding. Competing in the Global Economy Schools play a crucial role in preparing future workers with the necessary skills to compete in a global economy. In the United States, even before the financial crisis, many jobs formerly performed by American workers had shifted abroad. Part of the reason was that wages and benefits in the United States were higher than those of other nations. The availability of many highly educated workers was also a major factor. In many countries around the globe, students and societies see education as their best hope for a better life. With falling math and science scores and many students not completing high school, there has been real concern that the United States may lose its competitive edge. It may be one of the countries that fall behind economically. The most important factor in remaining competitive in a global market is having a skilled and well-educated workforce. This is the job of schools. As in earlier times, there has been debate about how education must change to meet these challenges. Career Clusters Since a skilled workforce is a key to prosperity, one essential goal of education is to prepare students to succeed in the workplace. The United States government partnered with business and industry professionals, colleges, trade schools, and high schools to discuss how to help students prepare for successful careers. Based on predictions that today's students will change careers a number of times during their working life, the group developed a system of career clusters. Career clusters are a framework of 16 general career areas or categories. Each career cluster has a range of career pathways-or subcategories of related career options. By developing the essential knowledge and skills identified through industry validation for a cluster, students can pursue a variety of career options within the cluster and its pathways. Educators can use career clusters and pathways to design and create curriculum. They also develop programs of study-rigorous sequences of career and technical and academic courses—to prepare students for successful transition from high school to postsecondary education/credentialing and employment.

The American Common School Period (1840 - 1880)

The American Common School Period in education extended from 1840 to 1880. These years marked events that significantly altered the American way of life. In the 1840s, the Oregon Trail was opened—the only practical route for people to emigrate from Independence, Missouri to the western United States, primarily Oregon and California. After discovery of gold in California, the expansive west gave many people new hopes and dreams of finding their fortune and starting a new life. Labor-saving devices, including sewing and washing machines, gave people more time for other interests and pursuits. Throughout the 1850s, the country moved closer to the internal split of the Civil War. Some Americans realized the injustice of slavery and worked actively to end it. In the South, slavery was a great economic influence. In the 1860s, the Civil War claimed many lives in both the North and South. Ultimately, the freeing of slaves and the triumph of the Union cause altered American life. At the beginning of the American Common School Period, most American children received minimal schooling, if they received any at all. By the end of the period, education including free public education for many—was much more widely available. One reason for the improvement in educational opportunity and quality was the influence of Horace Mann. Horace Mann Horace Mann served as the first secretary of the State Board of Education in Massachusetts. In this role, he made an impact on education nationally, as well as in his state. Mann worked hard to establish free, public education for every boy and girl in Massachusetts. He believed that everyone had the right to an education. The first public state-supported schools were called common schools, giving the same education to people from different levels of society. Horace Mann tried to improve and standardize schools. One key innovation was the establishment of teacher-training schools called normal schools. (The term "normal school" reflected the hope that through teacher training, all schools would become normalized, or similar, to each other to improve quality.) Mann advanced education in other ways, as well. He successfully advocated the establishment of free libraries. He increased state funding for public schools by using state taxes to pay for education. This provided money to raise teachers' salaries and improve educational materials and equipment. Because taxpayer dollars were the source of school funding, Mann believed schools should be nonsectarian. They should not teach any specific belief system. His reasoning was that people should not be required to pay through taxes) for education that might teach religious principles contrary to their own religious beliefs. Since the country was overwhelmingly Christian at the time, however, morality based on general Christian principles was still taught. Other states copied Horace Mann's efforts. Many of his ideas are still part of today's educational system. African-American Education In the years before the Civil War, very few enslaved African-Americans were able to read and write. Most who learned did so in secret. Laws existed in many places in the South prohibiting the education of African-Americans. Whites feared that education would lead to rebellion. Former slaves in northern states faced tremendous obstacles to education, both social and economic. Not many African-American schools existed, and Quaker schools were among the few other schools that allowed African-American students to attend. In addition, African-Americans, as a group, usually struggled with very low wages. Children often found work as soon as they were old enough to do so. After the Civil War, there was a real effort by many to improve educational opportunities. Educated African-Americans set up schools. Some northern churches sent missionaries to the South to start schools. It was then that the first African-American colleges were founded, including Howard University and Spellman College for women. At the same time, there was real debate among African-Americans about what type of education was best. Many of these efforts were short-lived. All were hampered by the fact that most schools remained strictly segregated. African-American schools lacked the funds to provide a truly equal education for those who attended. The Role of Teachers At the beginning of the American Common School Period, the country was still primarily rural. Most children were educated at home or in small country schoolhouses where one teacher taught all grades . Teachers in these schools were paid by community members. Often, their salaries were quite low. It was not that education was not valued, but running schools was expensive, and people had little money to spare. Because of Horace Mann's impact on education, teachers trained in normal schools were better prepared to teach. To gain entrance to a normal school, applicants had to take a test to show they had been properly educated. As a result, people had higher expectations of teachers' knowledge and teaching abilities. More women enrolled in normal schools and entered the teaching profession. This provided an opportunity for lhem to make a living on their own. School Curriculum The American Common School Period brought more change in how subjects were taught than in which subjects were taught. Significant changes included the establishment of kindergartens in public schools, the use of McGuffey's readers, and the passing of the Morrill Act of 1852. Kindergarten Friedrich Froebel, a German educator, developed the idea for kindergarten. He believed that young children learned best through play. Although his ideas were not widely adopted in Germany, American educators were interested in the concept. The intention of the first kindergarten classes established in America was to help poor children succeed in school. Using Froebel's ideas, songs and games were used in schools. His creative and social approach to learning worked well with young children. Educators and parents noticed the success of his methods. In the 1870s, public schools began to offer kindergarten programs. Prior to this time, young children did not attend school until they were about seven years of age. Today, play and social interaction are still the foundation for educational programs for young children. Preschoolers and kindergarteners have opportunities to choose their own activities, express their creativity, and interact with one another. This helps expand and reinforce their learning. The McGuffey's Readers Textbooks became much more widely available during the American Common School Period. Reverend William Holmes McGuffey was asked to write a textbook series on reading for primary students. This was the beginning of the McGuffey's Readers, a series of books widely used in schools across the country. The books taught moral lessons along with reading, spelling, and other subjects. A reading story, for example, might show the importance of being honest or kind. Subsequent McGuffey's Readers taught other subjects, such as history, biology, botany, literature, and speech, along with lessons on proper behavior. Because they were used in so many schools, the McGuffey's Readers contributed to the standardization of American education. The Morrill Act In 1862, the Morrill Act, also known as the Land-Grant College Act, gave federal land to establish colleges in every state. These colleges were to provide practical education in agriculture, home economics, and other useful professions to people from all social classes. Land-grant colleges made higher education available to Americans nationwide. Many well-known universities of today began as land-grant colleges. A second Morrill Act in 1890 expanded the system.

The American Progressive Period (1880 - 1921)

The American Progressive Period in education bridged the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The United States had been divided by, but survived, the Civil War. Women were gaining more rights. European immigrants poured into the nation's cities. At the same time, the Industrial Revolution continued to change the nature of both work and society. The Industrial Revolution was a period of complex economic, technological, and social change in America and worldwide. It was marked by a transition from home-produced goods and use of hand tools to innovative, technological advances in manufacturing processes involving power-driven machines. The Progressive Era was a time of business expansion and reform in the United States. Members of this reform movement called themselves Progressives. They wanted to regulate big business that often took advantage of both workers and consumers. Corrupt government officials were another target. Progressives wanted to make America a better and safer place to live, and education had a key role to play. Between 1880 and 1920, half of the rural population in America abandoned farming and moved to towns and cities to find work. In addition, over 15 million new immigrants came to the country, most from Ireland, Italy, and Eastern Europe. They, too, settled primarily in cities. The Industrial Revolution held the promise of work for many. Urban areas, however, quickly became overcrowded. Many of the new city dwellers lacked education, practical skills, and financial resources. Few social, charitable, educational, or government services were available to help these people meet basic needs. Poverty and disease became widespread. Those who did find work in factories found their lives profoundly changed during that time. Work hours were long. Working conditions were often hazardous. Many children worked alongside their parents, limiting their educational opportunities. Urban schools quickly became overcrowded, and conditions in the schools were poor. Progressives expected to make the world a more democratic place. They fought for better pay for women. They passed laws reducing the number of hours children could work in factories. By 1920, all states had laws requiring children to attend elementary school. Many policies and institutions from the Progressive Era remain central to American life today. Segregated Education Schools during the American Progressive Period were still highly segregated. African-American children attended separate public schools that received less funding. Educational materials were scarce and inferior, often the castoffs from the "white" schools. African-American teachers could only teach in African-American schools, and they received significantly lower pay than their counterparts. The Role of Teachers During the American Progressive Period, teachers were considered professionals. Teacher preparation programs in colleges replaced normal schools. More emphasis was placed on educational theories. Teachers were well trained and qualified to both run a classroom and teach a variety of subjects. Many teachers grew unhappy with the emphasis on standardization. They wanted more freedom in the classroom. As a result, the first teachers' labor union formed to protect the working rights of teachers. The union fought to improve the pay, status, and working conditions of teachers. During the Progressive Period, women entered the workforce in greater numbers. Many became teachers, and a few rose to positions as school principals. By the end of the Progressive Period, women had achieved the right to vote. Many believe that this change was a direct result of women's presence in classrooms. School Curriculum Progressives believed that schools should focus on students more as individuals. Many felt that the curriculum was too standardized. They felt that students should be encouraged to think critically and independently, rather than simply memorize information and accept facts. These changes were significant for education. Progressives believed that citizens trained to think and question would work to clean up corrupt city governments, improve working conditions in factories, and create better living conditions for those who lived in poverty. Schools could set students on this path. For example, a science class might focus on the need for water sanitation. One notable change during this era was the opening of thousands of public high schools. In 1880, there were only about 800 such schools. This movement allowed students to continue their education and prepare for a career, even if they were not attending college. A high school diploma became more important in finding a job. John Dewey John Dewey, an educational philosopher, psychologist, and writer, was a leading voice for progressive education during this time. His influence on what was taught and how it was taught was not to be underestimated. Dewey believed that classrooms were too rigid and inflexible, and did not adapt to the needs, interests, and abilities of individual students. Like Progressives in general, he believed that schools should place a greater emphasis on the development of problem-solving and critical-thinking skills. He saw these skills as a means of improvement of society. Dewey promoted the link between learning and experience. He believed that students learned best through real-life activities that linked new information to previous experiences. He also believed social interaction-working together on projects and discussing topics-aided learning. Other educators, influenced by his work, began focusing on the role of the teacher as guiding learning, rather than simply providing information. You can see evidence of John Dewey's theories in today's educational system. Maria Montessori Maria Montessori, Italy's first female doctor, tried to find ways to help children who had difficulty learning. The students with whom she worked had medical conditions that may have kept them from learning. The teaching program she developed had a significant impact on young children during the American Progressive Period. Her program remains well-recognized and accepted today. Montessori believed that young children are capable of great discovery and have motivation to explore the world. She believed that sensory experiences should come before learning to read and write. The educational program Maria Montessori developed is known today as the Montessori Method. How is it different? The Montessori Method considers all of a child's needs, not just intellectual needs. Montessori classrooms are stimulating environments. There are many opportunities for large- and fine-motor development and sensory exploration, along with language, science, art, geography, and math. Children direct their own learning with teachers as their partners. Teachers encourage children to judge their own progress and choose their own interests. Career and Technical Education The Smith-Hughes Act of 1917 established federal funds to support vocational education (now called career and technical education). Career and technical education prepared and still prepares) students for the many career opportunities in specific trades and occupations where skilled workers were needed. The funding provided greatly influenced the spread of the career and technical classes in public high schools.

Inclusion

The action or state of including or of being included within a group or structure must benefit the student.

American Education During the 1940s and 1950s

The first half of the 1940s was dominated by World War II. Production of war-related material, from tanks to uniforms, helped pull the country out of the Great Depression. Thousands of young men left each month to fight the war overseas. This created job vacancies in factories, offices, and classrooms. These positions were filled by women and African-Americans. Both of these groups also had expanded roles in the military during the war. Never before had so many women worked outside of the home. With the end of World War II (1945), the troops flooded back into civilian life. They looked forward to returning to normal life, but they, and society, had changed. Many war workers had to give up their jobs for veterans. Other soldiers took advantage of what was known as the GI Bill, federal legislation that included money for veterans to attend college or train to learn new skills. Young people married in record numbers. The result was a surge in the birth rate over the next years. This is often known as the baby boom. After the war, neither African-Americans nor women were willing to again accept the lower status they held during the prewar years. They had proven their capabilities in the workplace and in the armed forces. Long-held ideas began to change. Photographs and stories of the Holocaust—the mass slaughter of European civilians, especially those of Jewish descent by the Nazis during World War II—made people more aware of the tragic effects of prejudice. These changes aided the subsequent civil rights movement. The period after World War II was a time of new ideas and technology. As factories stopped producing products for the war effort, consumer goods finally became more available. There were new options in housing, home technology, fashion, and even food. Industries grew, jobs were available, and Americans were hopeful. It was also a time of social and political conservatism and a fear of the spread of communism. Education was not immune to this era of change. The children of the baby boom began to enter the public school system. Their sheer numbers resulted in the need for more schools and teachers. In addition, world events and social change had significant impact on American education. Keeping America Competitive In the late 1940s after World War II, tensions and competition increased between the Soviet Union on one side and the United States and its allies in Western Europe on the other. While no actual fighting broke out, this came to be known as the Cold War. This standoff continued for decades. Both America and the Soviet Union had programs to develop and test missiles. Americans were alarmed when the Soviets launched the first satellite, Sputnik, in 1957. There was a fear that the Soviets' emphasis on math and science in their schools was giving them a technological advantage that could later translate into a military advantage. In 1958, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act. This made money available to improve scientific equipment for public and private schools and to provide college scholarships and student loans. It encouraged schools to strengthen their math, science, and foreign language instruction. Schools responded by requiring students to take additional math and science courses. Foreign language programs were improved. Homework requirements increased in an effort to spur learning. Brown vs. the Board of Education In the early 1950s, many schools in America were still racially segregated based on "separate but equal" policies. Yet, African-American schools still were not equal in funding. Educational materials were inferior and usually outdated. African-American teachers were only allowed to teach in African-American schools, and they received significantly lower pay. School buildings were often in disrepair. In 1954, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case of Brown vs. the Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas. The court ruled that racial segregation of schools segregated schools were, by nature, unequal. As a result, public schools were ordered to desegregate. Some districts did so. Others used delaying tactics. Although school desegregation has gone through many phases since 1954, this initial Supreme Court ruling was critical to the civil rights movement. The civil rights movement-a social movement in the United States led primarily by African-Americans and their supporters sought to gain equal rights regardless of race. The push to integrate schools was the most radical, and potentially influential, aspect of the movement. Behaviorism Chapter 6 will describe a variety of learning theories, including B. F. Skinner's behaviorism. Behaviorism is the belief that how a person behaves is determined by that person's experiences. Skinner's book Science and Human Behavior was published in 1953. Many educators embraced Skinner's theory during the 1950s. They believed that by controlling the classroom environment and experiences, they could produce educated, well-behaved students. Appropriate behavior and achievement were rewarded. For example, young students were often given gold star stickers when they performed well. Punishments were also common. This way of approaching learning was widely accepted, and influenced American education for decades.

The American Early National Period (1776 - 1840)

The second period of education began with the American Revolution. People of the time believed they could make a better society and were eager to try out new ideas. During the American Early National Period, America was still primarily a rural nation. Most children grew up on farms or in small towns and expected their adult lives to be much like those of their parents. Change occurred more quickly in cities. Their populations were more diverse, and people freely shared and discussed new ideas. Educational changes began in cities, eventually spreading to rural areas. During this time, educators came to believe that people could improve their lives and society through the use of reason. People able to think critically would be able to find rational solutions for problems. Schools were seen as a vehicle for making a better society. As America continued to grow and prosper as an independent nation, the ideas and traditions of Europe had less of an influence. Education was the way to promote the new nation's ideals of freedom and liberty. Religion played less of a role in education. Instead, growing communities focused on teaching skills to help students enter fields such as agriculture, business, and shipping. Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson were two influential political leaders of the time. They also helped to shape the development of schools during this period. Benjamin Franklin Benjamin Franklin was one of the most important early leaders in the colonies, urging independence from England (Figure 3.3A). He signed the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. In addition to serving as a politician, he was well respected as a scientist, writer, and inventor. Curious about everything, Franklin experimented with all sorts of scientific concepts, from electricity to the common cold. He believed that understanding science helped people understand people and societies. He read every book he could find. Wanting others to have this opportunity, Franklin began the first public library. Benjamin Franklin also worked to expand educational opportunities. He started a secondary school, or academy, in Philadelphia that offered a broad range of subjects, including practical ones. The school was open to anyone who could pay the tuition and attend, regardless of their religious beliefs. Because of Benjamin Franklin's influence, schools to this day teach good citizenship. Public schools are available to everyone and teach a wide variety of subjects. Although Franklin himself was primarily self-educated, he had a lasting impact on how the American education system developed. Thomas Jefferson Many consider Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, one of the most brilliant individuals in history. He was a politician, an architect, a philosopher, an inventor, a farmer, and a writer. His interests were limitless, and his accomplishments were vast. Jefferson also played a major role in establishing the current American educational system. He believed that education was the key to making the newly formed democracy a success. If common people were well educated, they could take part in democratic government, and it would thrive. Others countered his views. Alexander Hamilton, for example, believed only those who were wealthy and educated were suited to rule. Jefferson introduced legislation to divide counties in Virginia into smaller districts that were responsible for education-a public system of education. He wanted to make sure that elementary schools were available without cost. While he was only partially successful, the next century, his dream became the way America's public schools were organized. Another of Jefferson's major educational achievements was the establishment of the University of Virginia. The Role of Teachers During the American Early National Period, teachers continued to be positive models of good citizenship for their students. They were expected to be involved, making the community a better place through both church participation and effecting change in community issues. Teachers taught that citizenship involved obeying laws and rules and respecting authority. School Curriculum Schools continued to teach the basics of reading, writing, and math, along with Christian principles and citizenship. Students learned Greek, Roman, English history, and now American history, as well. Educational opportunities, however, remained limited, especially in less populated areas. Wealthy boys went on to study Greek, Latin, and English grammar plus advanced math, geography, literature, and science in preparation for university entrance. If girls received additional education, it was often through a tutor at home or in schools designed specifically for girls. Education, at that time, was mainly limited to those of European ancestry. Below is what students used to write their assignments on!

An IEP is an individualized education program is a written plan for providing a student with the most appropriate opportunity for learning.

True

Stereotypes exist in high school

True

Special Needs

a broad range of physical, mental, social, and behavioral challenges that impact learning

Kinestetic-Tactile Learners

are people who learn best by performing hands on or physical activities.

Learning Diversity

differences in learning based on abilities, interests, or experiences

Visual learners

people who learn best by seeing

Motivation

personal incentive or drive to succeed.

Pull Out Program

programs that allow students to leave the regular classroom for certain periods of time for additional instruction designed to g=fit their particular needs.

Talented

refers to those who have outstanding skills in other areas, such as music, art, theater, dance, or leadership.

Gifted

refers to who excel academically.