Terms at Grammar Bytes!

•Absolute Phrase

An absolute phrase combines a noun and a participle with any accompanying modifiers or objects. The pattern looks like this:

•Adverb

Adverbs tweak the meaning of verbs, adjectives, other adverbs, and clauses. Read, for example, this sentence: Our basset hound Bailey sleeps on the living room floor. Is Bailey a sound sleeper, curled into a tight ball? Or is he a fitful sleeper, his paws twitching while he dreams? The addition of an adverb adjusts the meaning of the verb sleeps so that the reader has a clearer picture: Our basset hound Bailey sleeps peacefully on the living room floor. Adverbs can be single words, or they can be phrases or clauses. Adverbs answer one of these four questions: How? When? Where? and Why? Here are some single-word examples: Lenora rudely grabbed the last chocolate cookie. The adverb rudely fine-tunes the verb grabbed. Tyler stumbled in the completely dark kitchen. The adverb completely fine-tunes the adjective dark. Roxanne very happily accepted the ten-point late penalty to work on her research essay one more day. The adverb very fine-tunes the adverb happily. Surprisingly, the restroom stalls had toilet paper. The adverb surprisingly modifies the entire main clause that follows. Many single-word adverbs end in ly. In the examples above, you saw peacefully, rudely, completely, happily, and surprisingly. Not all ly words are adverbs, however. Lively, lonely, and lovely are adjectives instead, answering the questions What kind? or Which one? Many single-word adverbs have no specific ending, such as next, not, often, seldom, and then. If you are uncertain whether a word is an adverb or not, use a dictionary to determine its part of speech. Adverbs can also be multi-word phrases and clauses. Here are some examples: At 2 a.m., a bat flew through Deidre's open bedroom window. The prepositional phrase at 2 a.m. indicates when the event happened. The second prepositional phrase, through Deidre's open bedroom window, describes where the creature traveled. With a fork, George thrashed the raw eggs until they foamed. The subordinate clause until they foamed describes how George prepared the eggs. Sylvia emptied the carton of milk into the sink because the expiration date had long passed. The subordinate clause because the expiration date had long passed describes why Sylvia poured out the milk. Avoid an adverb when a single, stronger word will do. Many readers believe that adverbs make sentences bloated and flabby. When you can replace a two-word combination with a more powerful, single word, do so! For example, don't write drink quickly when you mean gulp, or walk slowly when you mean saunter, or very hungry when you mean ravenous. Form comparative and superlative adverbs correctly. To make comparisons, you will often need comparative or superlative adverbs. You use comparative adverbs—more and less—if you are discussing two people, places, or things. You use superlative adverbs—most and least—if you have three or more people, places, or things. Look at these two examples: Beth loves green vegetables, so she eats broccoli more frequently than her brother Daniel. Among the members of her family, Beth eats pepperoni pizza the least often. Don't use an adjective when you need an adverb instead. You will often hear people say, "Anthony is real smart" or "This pizza sauce is real salty." Real is an adjective, so it cannot modify another adjective like smart or salty. What people should say is "Anthony is really smart" or "This pizza sauce is really salty." If you train yourself to add the extra ly syllable when you speak, you will likely remember it when you write, where its absence will otherwise cost you points or respect! Realize that an adverb is not part of the verb. Some verbs require up to four words to complete the tense. A multi-part verb has a base or main part as well as auxiliary or helping verbs with it. When a short adverb such as also, never, or not interrupts, it is still an adverb, not part of the verb. Read these examples: For his birthday, Frank would also like a jar of dill pickles. Would like = verb; also = adverb. After that dreadful casserole you made last night, Julie will never eat tuna or broccoli again. Will eat = verb; never = adverb. Despite the approaching deadline, Sheryl-Ann has not started her research essay. Has started = verb; not = adverb.

The Clause

Clauses come in four types: main [or independent], subordinate [or dependent], adjective [or relative], and noun. Every clause has at least a subject and a verb. Other characteristics will help you distinguish one type of clause from another. Main Clauses Every main clause will follow this pattern: Subject + Verb = Complete Thought. Here are some examples: Lazy students whine. Students = subject; whine = verb. Cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs. My dog loves pizza crusts. Dog = subject; loves = verb. The important point to remember is that every sentence must have at least one main clause. Otherwise, you have a fragment, a major error. Subordinate Clauses A subordinate clause will follow this pattern: Subordinate Conjunction + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought. Here are some examples: Whenever lazy students whine Whenever = subordinate conjunction; students = subject; whine = verb. As cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter As = subordinate conjunction; cola = subject; spilled, splashed = verbs. Because my dog loves pizza crusts Because = subordinate conjunction; dog = subject; loves = verb. The important point to remember about subordinate clauses is that they can never stand alone as complete sentences. To complete the thought, you must attach each subordinate clause to a main clause. Generally, the punctuation looks like this: Main Clause + Ø + Subordinate Clause. Subordinate Clause + , + Main Clause. Check out these revisions to the subordinate clauses above: Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Russell throws chalk erasers at their heads. Anthony ran for the paper towels as cola spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Because my dog loves pizza crusts, he never barks at the deliveryman. Relative Clauses A relative clause will begin with a relative pronoun [such as who, whom, whose, which, or that] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. The patterns look like these: Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought. Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb = Incomplete Thought. Here are some examples: Whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser Whom = relative pronoun; Mrs. Russell = subject; hit = verb. Where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm Where = relative adverb; he = subject; chews, drools = verbs. That had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter That = relative pronoun; had spilled, splashed = verbs. Who loves pizza crusts Who = relative pronoun; loves = verb. Like subordinate clauses, relative clauses cannot stand alone as complete sentences. You must connect them to main clauses to finish the thought. Look at these revisions of the relative clauses above: The lazy students whom Mrs. Russell hit in the head with a chalk eraser soon learned to keep their complaints to themselves. My dog Floyd, who loves pizza crusts, eats them under the kitchen table, where he chews and drools with great enthusiasm. Anthony ran to get paper towels for the cola that had spilled over the glass and splashed onto the counter. Punctuating relative clauses can be tricky. You have to decide if the relative clause is essential or nonessential and then use commas accordingly. Essential relative clauses do not require commas. A relative clause is essential when you need the information it provides. Look at this example: A dog that eats too much pizza will soon develop pepperoni breath. Dog is nonspecific. To know which dog we are talking about, we must have the information in the relative clause. Thus, the relative clause is essential and requires no commas. If, however, we revise dog and choose more specific words instead, the relative clause becomes nonessential and does require commas to separate it from the rest of the sentence. Read this revision: My dog Floyd, who eats too much pizza, has developed pepperoni breath. Noun Clauses Any clause that functions as a noun becomes a noun clause. Look at this example: You really do not want to know the ingredients in Aunt Nancy's stew. Ingredients = noun. If we replace the noun ingredients with a clause, we have a noun clause: You really do not want to know what Aunt Nancy adds to her stew. What Aunt Nancy adds to her stew = noun clause.

•Adjective

Dan decided that the fuzzy green bread would make an unappetizing sandwich. What kind of bread? Fuzzy and green! What kind of sandwich? Unappetizing! A friend with a fat wallet will never want for weekend shopping partners. What kind of friend? One with money to spend! A towel that is still warm from the dryer is more comforting than a hot fudge sundae. What kind of towel? One right out of the dryer.

The Correlative Conjunction

Either ... or, neither ... nor, and not only ... but also are all correlative conjunctions. They connect two equal grammatical items. If, for example, a noun follows either, then a noun will also follow or. Read these examples: In the fall, Phillip will either start classes at the community college as his mother wishes or join the Navy, his father's hope. Neither the potted ivy on the counter nor the dirty dishes in the sink have enjoyed water on their surfaces for the past week. Professor Wilson not only requires a 3,000-word research essay but also assigns a 500-word reaction paper every single week

The Collective Noun

Each noun from the list above is a single thing. That thing, however, is made up of more than one person. You cannot have a committee, team, or family of one; you need at least two people to compose the unit. Because people behave as both herd animals and solitary creatures, collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on context. In writing, this double status often causes agreement errors. How do you tell if a collective noun is singular or plural? What verbs and pronouns do you use with the collective noun? Here is the key: Imagine a flock of pigeons pecking at birdseed on the ground. Suddenly, a cat races out of the bushes. What do the pigeons do? They fly off as a unit in an attempt to escape the predator, wheeling through the sky in the same direction. People often behave in the same manner, doing one thing in unison with the other members of their group. When these people are part of a collective noun, that noun becomes singular and requires singular verbs and pronouns. As you read the following examples, notice that all members of the collective noun are doing the same thing at the same time: Every afternoon the baseball team follows its coach out to the hot field for practice. Team = singular; follows = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the team arrive at the same place at the same time. Today, Dr. Ribley's class takes its first 100-item exam. Class = singular; takes = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the class are testing at the same time. The jury agrees that the state prosecutors did not provide enough evidence, so its verdict is not guilty. Jury = singular; agrees = a singular verb; its = a singular pronoun. All members of the jury are thinking the same way. Now imagine three house cats in the living room. Are the cats doing the same thing at the same time? Not this group! One cat might be sleeping on top of the warm television. Another might be grooming on the sofa. A third animal might be perched on the windowsill, watching the world outside. There is one group of animals, but the members of that group are all doing their own thing. Members of collective nouns can behave in a similar fashion. When the members are acting as individuals, the collective noun is plural and requires plural verbs and pronouns. As you read these examples, notice that the members of the collective noun are not acting in unison: After the three-hour practice under the brutal sun, the team shower, change into their street clothes, and head to their air-conditioned homes. Team = plural; shower, change, head = plural verbs; their = a plural pronoun. The teammates are dressing into their individual outfits and leaving in different directions for their individual homes. After the long exam, the class start their research papers on famous mathematicians. Class = plural; start = a plural verb; their = a plural pronoun. The students are beginning their own research papers—in different places, at different times, on different mathematicians. The jury disagree about the guilt of the accused and have told the judge that they are hopelessly deadlocked. Jury = plural; disagree, have told = plural verbs; they = a plural pronoun. Not everyone on the jury is thinking the same way. Whenever you cannot decide if a collective noun is singular or plural, exercise your options as a writer. You have two ways that you can compose the sentence without causing an agreement error: 1) insert the word members after the collective noun [jury members, committee members, board members], or 2) use an entirely different word [players instead of team, students instead of class, soldiers instead of army]. Then you can use plural verbs and pronouns without worrying about making mistakes or sounding unnatural.

The Noun

George! Jupiter! Ice cream! Courage! Books! Bottles! Godzilla! All of these words are nouns, words that identify the whos, wheres, and whats in language. Nouns name people, places, and things. Read the sentence that follows: George and Godzilla walked to Antonio's to order a large pepperoni pizza. George is a person. Antonio's is a place. Pizza is a thing. Godzilla likes to think he's a person, is as big as a place, but qualifies as another thing.

The Subordinate Conjunction

Some sentences are complex. Such sentences have two clauses, one main [or independent] and one subordinate [or dependent].

•Antecedent

The English language includes pronouns, such as she, it, or they. Pronouns are generic words that have little meaning on their own. If you hear a friend say, "She is beautiful," you know your friend is referring to a singular, feminine being or object, but with just the pronoun she, you don't know if the discussion concerns a woman, a cheetah, or an automobile. You cannot picture the she until you know the antecedent, the word that this pronoun refers to or replaces.

•Abstract Noun

When Joseph dived into the violent waves to rescue a drowning puppy, his bravery amazed the crowd of fishermen standing on the dock.

The Subordinate Clause

A subordinate clause—also called a dependent clause—will begin with a subordinate conjunction or a relative pronoun and will contain both a subject and a verb. This combination of words will not form a complete sentence. It will instead make a reader want additional information to finish the thought.

The Apostrophe

Although the apostrophe might look like a comma defying gravity, this mark of punctuation has three distinct jobs: to show possession, make contractions, and form odd plurals.

The Essential Clause

An essential clause is a relative clause that limits a general, ambiguous noun. The essential clause tells the reader which one of many the writer means. Read these examples: The man who ordered another double anchovy pizza claims to have a pet dolphin in his backyard pool. Which man among the billions of human males on the planet? The one who ordered the double anchovy pizza! Freddie hopes to return to the city where he met a woman with haunting green eyes. Which of the many cities on the planet? The one where Freddie met a memorable woman! The student who needs an A on the final exam is copying statistics formulae on her bare ankle. Which of the many students in the class? The one who needs an A on the test! Note that the exact same clauses above—in sentences with minor alterations—can become nonessential. Read these versions: Mr. Hall, who ordered another double anchovy pizza, claims to have a pet dolphin in his backyard pool. Freddie hopes to return to Cairo, where he met a woman with haunting green eyes. Veronica, who needs an A on the final exam, is copying statistics formulae on her bare ankle. In place of ambiguous nouns like man, city, and student, we now have Mr. Hall, Cairo, and Veronica, specific proper nouns. The information in the relative clauses might be interesting, but it's not necessary, for we already know which man, which city, and which student. Because these clauses are now nonessential, they require commas to separate them from the rest of the sentence. A proper noun won't always signal that the relative clause is nonessential. In a passage of more than one sentence, you will sometimes find such a well-defined common noun that the relative clause is a mere accessory. Read this example: As we sped through the neighborhood, we spotted crows eating French fries tossed on the road. They did not fly to a tree as we expected. The birds, which never showed fear of the vehicle, watched as we swerved around them. The relative clause which never showed fear of the vehicle is nonessential since we know which birds. Thus the clause requires commas.

The Interrupter

An interrupter is a word, phrase, or clause that significantly breaks the flow of a sentence. Read the examples that follow: Please take those smelly socks to the garage, Kris, and put them in the washing machine. My essay, to be perfectly honest, flew out of the bus window while I was riding to school. What you just ate, if you must know, was squid eyeball stew.

•Action Verb

Look at the examples below: In the library and at church, Michele giggles inappropriately. Giggling is something that Michele can do. Because of the spicy Jamaican pepper, David reached for his glass of iced tea. Reaching is something that David can do—happily, if his mouth is on fire. Carlos watched pretty women in skimpy bikinis parading on the beach. Watching is something that Carlos can do. The squirrel stuffed its cheeks with acorns. Stuffing is something that a squirrel can do. The hurricane stirred the ocean into a frenzy. Stirring is something that a hurricane can do. The alarm clock buzzed like an angry bumblebee. Buzzing is something that the alarm clock can do. The coffee maker gurgled on the kitchen counter. Gurgling is something that the coffee maker can do. If you are unsure whether a sentence contains an action verb or not, look at every word in the sentence and ask yourself, "Can a person or thing do this?" Read the sentence below: During biology class, Omesh napped at his desk. Can you during? Is during something you can do? Can you biology? Is there someone biologying outside the building right now? Can you class? Do your obnoxious neighbors keep you up until 2 a.m. because they are classing? Can you Omesh? What does a person do when he's Omeshing? Can you nap? Bingo! Sure you can! You'd probably prefer napping to listening to a biology lecture yourself. Can you at? Of course not! Can you his? Show me hising. Can you desk? Demonstrate desking for me! In the sentence above, there is only one action verb: napped.

The Participle

Participles come in two varieties: past and present. They are two of the five forms or principal parts that every verb has. Look at the charts below.

The Coordinating Conjunction

when you see one. And, but, for, nor, or, so, and yet—these are the seven coordinating conjunctions. To remember all seven, you might want to learn one of these acronyms: FANBOYS, YAFNOBS, or FONYBAS. F = for A = and N = nor B = but O = or Y = yet S = so Y = yet A = and F = for N = nor O = or B = but S = so F = for O = or N = nor Y = yet B = but A = and S = so Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses. Look at the examples that follow: The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious. The squid eyeball stew is so thick that you can eat it with a fork or spoon. Rocky, my orange tomcat, loves having his head scratched but hates getting his claws trimmed. Rocky terrorizes the poodles next door yet adores the German shepherd across the street. Rocky refuses to eat dry cat food, nor will he touch a saucer of squid eyeball stew. I hate to waste a single drop of squid eyeball stew, for it is expensive and time-consuming to make. Even though I added cream to the squid eyeball stew, Rocky ignored his serving, so I got a spoon and ate it myself.

The Comma Splice

A comma splice, also called a run-on, occurs when a writer has connected two main clauses with a comma alone. A main clause makes a complete thought, so you should not find a wimpy comma struggling to join two such powerful clauses. The problem looks like this: Main Clause + , + Main Clause. Here is an example: Fanning the slice of pizza with a napkin, Jolene waited for it to cool, she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. The first main clause is Jolene waited for it to cool, and the second is she had already burned the roof of her mouth with the fried cheese sticks. Notice that the two clauses have only a comma connecting them.

•Complete Sentence

A complete sentence has three characteristics: •First, it begins with a capital letter. •In addition, it includes an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. •Most importantly, the complete sentence must contain at least one main clause. A main clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. Check out these examples: The banana rotting at the bottom of Jimmy's book bag has soaked his biology notes with ooze. Did you notice the cricket swimming in your cup of tea? I cannot believe that you tried one of those disgusting chocolate-broccoli muffins! If a main clause exists in the sentence, you can attach whatever other sentence elements you need. Look at the additions to the main clause below. All of the additions keep the original main clause complete. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. Buzzing around the picnic table, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, stinging the poor boy's tongue, which swelled up as big and as blue as an eggplant. Because it smelled the peach-flavored bubble gum, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth and tickled the poor boy's tonsils. Taking a wrong turn, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, but it buzzed back out before Peter swallowed

The Complete Sentence

A complete sentence has three characteristics: •First, it begins with a capital letter. •In addition, it includes an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. •Most importantly, the complete sentence must contain at least one main clause. A main clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. Check out these examples: The banana rotting at the bottom of Jimmy's book bag has soaked his biology notes with ooze. Did you notice the cricket swimming in your cup of tea? I cannot believe that you tried one of those disgusting chocolate-broccoli muffins! If a main clause exists in the sentence, you can attach whatever other sentence elements you need. Look at the additions to the main clause below. All of the additions keep the original main clause complete. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. Buzzing around the picnic table, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, stinging the poor boy's tongue, which swelled up as big and as blue as an eggplant. Because it smelled the peach-flavored bubble gum, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth. A bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth and tickled the poor boy's tonsils. Taking a wrong turn, a bumblebee flew into Peter's open mouth, but it buzzed back out before Peter swallowed.

The Direct Object

A direct object will follow a transitive verb [a type of action verb]. Direct objects can be nouns, pronouns, phrases, or clauses. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: Subject + Verb + what? or who? = Direct Object Here are examples of the formula in action: Zippy and Maurice played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree. Zippy, Maurice = subjects; played = verb. Zippy and Maurice played what? Soccer = direct object. Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin. Zippy = subject; kicked = verb. Zippy kicked who? Maurice = direct object. Sometimes direct objects are single words like soccer and Maurice; other times they are phrases or clauses. The formula nevertheless works the same. Sylina hates biting her fingernails. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? Biting her fingernails [a gerund phrase] = direct object. Even worse, Sylina hates when Mom lectures her about hand care. Sylina = subject; hates = verb. Sylina hates what? When Mom lectures her about hand care [a subordinate clause] = direct object. Direct objects can also follow verbals—infinitives, gerunds, and participles. Use this abbreviated version of the formula: verbal + what? or who? = direct object Here are some examples: To see magnified blood cells, Gus squinted into the microscope on the lab table. To see = infinitive. To see what? Blood cells = direct object. Gus bought contact lenses because he wanted to see the beautiful Miranda, his lab partner, more clearly. To see = infinitive. To see who? The beautiful Miranda = direct object. Dragging her seventy-five pound German shepherd through the door is Roseanne's least favorite part of going to the vet. Dragging = gerund. Dragging what? Her seventy-five pound German shepherd = direct object. Heaping his plate with fried chicken, Clyde winked at Delores, the cook. Heaping = participle. Heaping what? His plate = direct object.

The Sentence Fragment

A fragment occurs whenever you do these three things: •You begin a group of words with a capital letter. •You conclude this group of words with an end mark—either a period [ . ], question mark [ ? ], or exclamation point [ ! ]. •You neglect to insert a main clause somewhere between the capital letter at the beginning and the end mark concluding the word group. Every sentence must have at least one main clause. A main clause contains an independent subject and verb and expresses a complete thought. Once you have a main clause, you can then add other grammatical elements, but you must have the main clause as the base of the sentence. Read the main clause below, then the additions to it: Victor sneezed repeatedly. During the stressful chemistry test, Victor sneezed repeatedly. Because Julissa wore too much perfume, Victor sneezed repeatedly during the stressful chemistry test. Victor sneezed repeatedly, each time asking Janice for a new tissue to blow his nose. To deal with the stress building up in his head, Victor sneezed repeatedly as he slogged through the difficult chemistry test. Slogging through the stressful chemistry test, Victor sneezed repeatedly while John chewed his pencil and Julissa rubbed her lucky rabbit's foot. Without the main clause Victor sneezed repeatedly, all of the sentences above would be fragments.

The Fused Sentence

A fused sentence, also called a run-on, occurs when a writer has connected two main clauses with no punctuation. A main clause makes a complete thought, so you should not find two of them smashed together in a single sentence. The error looks like this: Main Clause + Ø + Main Clause. Here is an example: Driving home from school, Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem all the while the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. The first main clause is Brett vowed to protect the fragile ecosystem, and the second is the tires of his Cadillac Escalade flattened the toads hopping on the wet streets. Notice that the two clauses run together with no punctuation.

The Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase will begin with a gerund, an ing word, and will include other modifiers and/or objects. Gerund phrases always function as nouns, so they will be subjects, subject complements, or objects in the sentence. Read these examples: Eating ice cream on a windy day can be a messy experience if you have long, untamed hair. Eating ice cream on a windy day = subject of the verb can be. A more disastrous activity for long-haired people is blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down. Blowing giant bubble gum bubbles with the car windows down = subject complement of the verb is. Wild food adventures require getting your hair cut to a short, safe length. Getting your hair cut to a short, safe length = direct object of the verb require.

The Main Clause

A main clause—sometimes called an independent clause—must contain a subject and a verb as well as express a complete thought. Look at the examples below: Diane kicked the soda machine. Diane = the subject; kicked = the verb. A giant spider has made its home behind the shampoo bottle in Neil's bathroom. Spider = the subject; has made = the verb. Sima and Michele are skipping their chemistry class to sit by the lake and watch the sun sparkle on the water. Sima, Michele = the subjects; are skipping = the verb.

The Noun Phrase

A noun phrase includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the modifiers which distinguish it. You can find the noun dog in a sentence, for example, but you don't know which canine the writer means until you consider the entire noun phrase: that dog, Aunt Audrey's dog, the dog on the sofa, the neighbor's dog that chases our cat, the dog digging in the new flower bed. Modifiers can come before or after the noun. Ones that come before might include articles, possessive nouns, possessive pronouns, adjectives, and/or participles. Articles: a dog, the dog Possessive nouns: Aunt Audrey's dog, the neighbor's dog, the police officer's dog Possessive pronouns: our dog, her dog, their dog Adjectives: that dog, the big dog, the spotted dog Participles: the drooling dog, the barking dog, the well trained dog Modifiers that come after the noun might include prepositional phrases, adjective clauses, participle phrases, and/or infinitives. Prepositional phrases: a dog on the loose, the dog in the front seat, the dog behind the fence Adjective clauses: the dog that chases cats, the dog that looks lost, the dog that won the championship Participle phrases: the dog whining for a treat, the dog clipped at the grooming salon, the dog walked daily Infinitives: the dog to catch, the dog to train, the dog to adopt Less frequently, a noun phrase will have a pronoun as its base—a word like we, everybody, etc.—and the modifiers which distinguish it. Read these examples: We who were green with envy We = subject pronoun; who were green with envy = modifier. Someone intelligent Someone = indefinite pronoun; intelligent = modifier. No one important No one = indefinite pronoun; important = modifier.

The Participle Phrase

A participle phrase will begin with a present or past participle. If the participle is present, it will dependably end in ing. Likewise, a regular past participle will end in a consistent ed. Irregular past participles, unfortunately, conclude in all kinds of ways [although this list will help]. Since all phrases require two or more words, a participle phrase will often include objects and/or modifiers that complete the thought. Here are some examples: Crunching caramel corn for the entire movie Washed with soap and water Stuck in the back of the closet behind the obsolete computer Participle phrases always function as adjectives, adding description to the sentence. Read these examples: The horse trotting up to the fence hopes that you have an apple or carrot. Trotting up to the fence modifies the noun horse. The water drained slowly in the pipe clogged with dog hair. Clogged with dog hair modifies the noun pipe. Eaten by mosquitoes, we wished that we had made hotel, not campsite, reservations. Eaten by mosquitoes modifies the pronoun we.

The Phrase

A phrase is two or more words that do not contain the subject-verb pair necessary to form a clause. Phrases can be very short or quite long. Here are two examples: After lunch After slithering down the stairs and across the road to scare nearly to death Mrs. Philpot busy pruning her rose bushes Certain phrases have specific names based on the type of word that begins or governs the word group: noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase, infinitive phrase, participle phrase, gerund phrase, and absolute phrase. Noun Phrases A noun phrase includes a noun—a person, place, or thing—and the modifiers—either before or after—which distinguish it. The pattern looks like this: Optional Modifier(s) + Noun + Optional Modifier(s) Here are some examples: The shoplifted pair of jeans Pair = noun; the, shoplifted, of jeans = modifiers. A cat that refused to meow Cat = noun; a, that refused to meow = modifiers. A great English teacher Teacher = noun; a, great, English = modifiers. Noun phrases function as subjects, objects, and complements: The shoplifted pair of jeans caused Nathaniel so much guilt that he couldn't wear them. The shoplifted pair of jeans = subject. Jerome adopted a cat that refused to meow. A cat that refused to meow = direct object. With her love of Shakespeare and knowledge of grammar, Jasmine will someday be a great English teacher. A great English teacher = subject complement.

The Relative Clause

A relative clause—also called an adjective or adjectival clause—will meet three requirements. •First, it will contain a subject and verb. •Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. •Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one? The relative clause will follow one of these two patterns: Relative Pronoun or Adverb + Subject + Verb Relative Pronoun as Subject + Verb Here are some examples: Which Francine did not accept Which = relative pronoun; Francine = subject; did accept = verb [not, an adverb, is not officially part of the verb]. Where George found Amazing Spider-Man #96 in fair condition Where = relative adverb; George = subject; found = verb. That dangled from the one clean bathroom towel That = relative pronoun functioning as subject; dangled = verb. Who continued to play video games until his eyes were blurry with fatigue Who = relative pronoun functioning as subject; played = verb.

The Subject Complement

A subject complement is the adjective, noun, or pronoun that follows a linking verb. The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs. Then you have a list of verbs that can be linking or action: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. If you can substitute any of the verbs on this second list with an equal sign [=] and the sentence still makes sense, the verb is almost always linking. Read these examples: Brandon is a gifted athlete. Brandon = subject; is = linking verb; athlete = noun as subject complement. It was he who caught the winning touchdown Friday night. It = subject; was = linking verb; he = pronoun as subject complement. Brandon becomes embarrassed when people compliment his skill. Brandon = subject; becomes = linking verb; embarrassed = adjective as subject complement. Brandon's face will turn red. Face = subject; will turn = linking verb; red = adjective as subject complement. [Will turn is linking because if you substitute this verb with an equal sign, the sentence still makes sense.]

•Adjective Clause

An adjective clause—also called an adjectival or relative clause—will meet three requirements: •First, it will contain a subject and verb. •Next, it will begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or a relative adverb [when, where, or why]. •Finally, it will function as an adjective, answering the questions What kind? How many? or Which one?

The Appositive

An appositive is a noun or noun phrase that renames another noun right beside it. The appositive can be a short or long combination of words. Look at these examples: The insect, a cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large cockroach with hairy legs, is crawling across the kitchen table. The insect, a large, hairy-legged cockroach that has spied my bowl of oatmeal, is crawling across the kitchen table. Here are more examples: During the dinner conversation, Clifford, the messiest eater at the table, spewed mashed potatoes like an erupting volcano. My 286 computer, a modern-day dinosaur, chews floppy disks as noisily as my brother does peanut brittle. Genette's bedroom desk, the biggest disaster area in the house, is a collection of overdue library books, dirty plates, computer components, old mail, cat hair, and empty potato chip bags. Reliable, Diane's eleven-year-old beagle, chews holes in the living room carpeting as if he were still a puppy. Punctuate the appositive correctly. The important point to remember is that a nonessential appositive is always separated from the rest of the sentence with comma(s). When the appositive begins the sentence, it looks like this: A hot-tempered tennis player, Robbie charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. When the appositive interrupts the sentence, it looks like this: Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player, charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket. And when the appositive ends the sentence, it looks like this: Upset by the bad call, the crowd cheered Robbie, a hot-tempered tennis player who charged the umpire and tried to crack the poor man's skull with a racket.

The Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase will begin with an infinitive [to + simple form of the verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers. Here are some examples: To smash a spider To kick the ball past the dazed goalie To lick the grease from his shiny fingers despite the disapproving glances of his girlfriend Gloria Infinitive phrases can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples: To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap is Michelle's only goal tonight. To finish her shift without spilling another pizza into a customer's lap functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence. Lakesha hopes to win the approval of her mother by switching her major from fine arts to pre-med. To win the approval of her mother functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb hopes. The best way to survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures is a sharp pencil to stab in your thigh if you catch yourself drifting off. To survive Dr. Peterson's boring history lectures functions as an adjective because it modifies way. Kelvin, an aspiring comic book artist, is taking Anatomy and Physiology this semester to understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body. To understand the interplay of muscle and bone in the human body functions as an adverb because it explains why Kelvin is taking the class

The Intransitive Verb

An intransitive verb has two characteristics. First, it is an action verb, expressing a doable activity like arrive, go, lie, sneeze, sit, die, etc. Second, unlike a transitive verb, it will not have a direct object receiving the action. Here are some examples of intransitive verbs: Huffing and puffing, we arrived at the classroom door with only seven seconds to spare. Arrived = intransitive verb. James went to the campus cafe for a steaming bowl of squid eyeball stew. Went = intransitive verb. To escape the midday sun, the cats lie in the shade under our cars. Lie = intransitive verb. Around fresh ground pepper, Sheryl sneezes with violence. Sneezes = intransitive verb. In the evenings, Glenda sits on the front porch to admire her immaculate lawn. Sits = intransitive verb. Flipped on its back, the beetle that Clara soaked with insecticide dies under the refrigerator. Dies = intransitive verb.

The Prepositional Phrase

At the minimum, a prepositional phrase will begin with a preposition and end with a noun, pronoun, gerund, or clause, the "object" of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have one or more modifiers to describe it. These are the patterns for a prepositional phrase: Preposition + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause Preposition + Modifier(s) + Noun, Pronoun, Gerund, or Clause Here are some examples of the most basic prepositional phrase: At home At = preposition; home = noun. In time In = preposition; time = noun. From Richie From = preposition; Richie = noun. With me With = preposition; me = pronoun. By singing By = preposition; singing = gerund. About what we need About = preposition; what we need = noun clause. Most prepositional phrases are longer, like these: From my grandmother From = preposition; my = modifier; grandmother = noun. Under the warm blanket Under = preposition; the, warm = modifiers; blanket = noun. In the weedy, overgrown garden In = preposition; the, weedy, overgrown = modifiers; garden = noun. Along the busy, six-lane highway Along = preposition; the, busy, six-lane = modifiers; highway = noun. Without excessively worrying Without = preposition; excessively = modifier; worrying = gerund.

The Conjunctive Adverb

Conjunctions have one job, to connect. They join words, phrases, or clauses together to clarify what the writer is saying. Their presence provides smooth transitions from one idea to another. When the job of an adverb is to connect ideas, we call it a conjunctive adverb. Here is the list: Conjunctive Adverbs accordingly also besides consequently conversely finally furthermore hence however indeed instead likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless otherwise similarly still subsequently then therefore thus A conjunctive adverb can join two main clauses. In this situation, the conjunctive adverb behaves like a coordinating conjunction, connecting two complete ideas. Notice, however, that you need a semicolon, not a comma, to connect the two clauses: Main Clause + ; + Conjunctive Adverb + , + Main Clause. Read these examples: The dark skies and distant thunder dissuaded Clarice from her afternoon run; moreover, she had thirty calculus problems to solve for her morning class. Leon's apartment complex does not allow dogs over thirty pounds; otherwise, he would have bought the gangly Great Dane puppy playing in the pet store window. The cat ate a bowlful of tuna; then, to the squirrels' delight, the fat feline fell asleep in the rocking chair. A conjunctive adverb will also introduce, interrupt, or conclude a single main clause. In this situation, you will often need commas to separate the conjunctive adverb from the rest of the sentence. Check out these examples: At 10 a.m., Paul was supposed to be taking his biology midterm. Instead, he was flirting with the pretty waitress at the coffee house. Maria declined Jeff's third invitation to go out. This young man is determined, nevertheless, to take her to dinner one night soon. After mowing the yard in the hot sun, Pedro was too hungry to shower. He did wash his dusty hands, however. If the break is weak, do not use comma(s). Anna called to say her car would not start. Rafael will therefore have to walk to school. Weak interruption = no commas. The long noodles splashed tomato sauce all over the front of Brenda's shirt. Ordering fettuccine was a mistake indeed. Weak interruption = no comma.

The Gerund

Every gerund, without exception, ends in ing. Gerunds are not, however, all that easy to identify. The problem is that all present participles also end in ing. What is the difference? Gerunds function as nouns. Thus, gerunds will be subjects, subject complements, direct objects, indirect objects, and objects of prepositions. Present participles, on the other hand, complete progressive verbs or act as modifiers. Read these examples of gerunds: Since Francisco was five years old, swimming has been his passion. Swimming = subject of the verb has been. Francisco's first love is swimming. Swimming = subject complement of the verb is. Francisco enjoys swimming more than spending time with his girlfriend Diana. Swimming = direct object of the verb enjoys. Francisco gives swimming all of his energy and time. Swimming = indirect object of the verb gives. When Francisco wore dive fins to class, everyone knew that he was devoted to swimming. Swimming = object of the preposition to. These ing words are examples of present participles: One day last summer, Francisco and his coach were swimming at Daytona Beach. Swimming = present participle completing the past progressive verb were swimming. A Great White shark ate Francisco's swimming coach. Swimming = present participle modifying coach. Now Francisco practices his sport in safe swimming pools. Swimming = present participle modifying pools.

The Auxiliary Verb

Every sentence must have a verb. To depict doable activities, writers use action verbs. To describe conditions, writers choose linking verbs. Sometimes an action or condition occurs just once—bang!—and it's over. Nate stubbed his toe. He is miserable with pain. Other times, the activity or condition continues over a long stretch of time, happens predictably, or occurs in relationship to other events. In these instances, a single-word verb like stubbed or is cannot accurately describe what happened, so writers use multipart verb phrases to communicate what they mean. As many as four words can comprise a verb phrase. A main or base verb indicates the type of action or condition, and auxiliary—or helping—verbs convey the other nuances that writers want to express. Read these three examples: Sherylee smacked her lips as raspberry jelly dripped from the donut onto her white shirt. Sherylee is always dripping something. Since Sherylee is such a klutz, she should have been eating a cake donut, which would not have stained her shirt. In the first sentence, smacked and dripped, single-word verbs, describe the quick actions of both Sherylee and the raspberry jelly. Since Sherylee has a pattern of messiness, is dripping communicates the frequency of her clumsiness. The auxiliary verbs that comprise should have been eating and would have stained express not only time relationships but also evaluation of Sherylee's actions. Below are the auxiliary verbs. You can conjugate be, do, and have; the modal auxiliaries, however, never change form.

The Verb Phrase

Every sentence must have a verb. To depict doable activities, writers use action verbs. To describe conditions, writers choose linking verbs. Sometimes an action or condition occurs just once—pow!—and it's over. Read these two short sentences: Offering her license and registration, Selena sobbed in the driver's seat. Officer Carson was unmoved. Other times, the activity or condition continues over a long stretch of time, happens predictably, or occurs in relationship to other events. In these instances, a single-word verb like sobbed or was cannot accurately describe what happened, so writers use multipart verb phrases to communicate what they mean. As many as four words can comprise a verb phrase. A main or base verb indicates the type of action or condition, and auxiliary—or helping—verbs convey the other nuances that writers want to express. Read these three examples: The tires screeched as Selena mashed the accelerator. Selena is always disobeying the speed limit. Selena should have been driving with more care, for then she would not have gotten her third ticket this year. In the first sentence, screeched and mashed, single-word verbs, describe the quick actions of both the tires and Selena. Since Selena has an inclination to speed, is disobeying [a two-word verb] communicates the frequency of her law breaking. The auxiliary verbs that comprise should have been driving [a four-word verb] and would have gotten [a three-word verb] express not only time relationships but also evaluation of Selena's actions.

The Compound Verb

Every subject in a sentence must have at least one verb. But that doesn't mean that a subject can have only one verb. Some subjects are greedy as far as verbs go. A greedy subject can have two, three, four, or more verbs all to itself. When a subject has two or more verbs, you can say that the subject has a compound verb. Check out the following examples: Before mixing the ingredients for his world-famous cookies, Bobby swatted a fly buzzing around the kitchen. Bobby = subject; swatted = verb. Before mixing the ingredients for his world-famous cookies, Bobby swatted a fly buzzing around the kitchen and crushed a cockroach scurrying across the floor. Bobby = subject; swatted, crushed = compound verb. Before mixing the ingredients for his world-famous cookies, Bobby swatted a fly buzzing around the kitchen, crushed a cockroach scurrying across the floor, shooed the cat off the counter, picked his nose, scratched his armpit, licked his fingers, and sneezed. Bobby = subject; swatted, crushed, shooed, picked, scratched, licked, sneezed = compound verb.

The Compound Subject

Every verb in a sentence must have at least one subject. But that doesn't mean that a verb can have only one subject. Some verbs are greedy as far as subjects go. A greedy verb can have two, three, four, or more subjects all to itself. When a verb has two or more subjects, you can say that the verb has a compound subject. Check out the following examples: At the local Dairy Queen, Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on her banana split. Marsha = subject; gasped = verb. At the local Dairy Queen, Jenny and Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on their banana splits. Jenny, Marsha = compound subject; gasped = verb. At the local Dairy Queen, Officer Jenkins, Mrs. Lowery, the Williams twins, Harold, Billy Jo, Jenny, and Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on their banana splits. Officer Jenkins, Mrs. Lowery, the Williams twins, Harold, Billy Jo, Jenny, Marsha = compound subject; gasped = verb.

The Subject

In a sentence, every verb must have a subject. If the verb expresses action—like sneeze, jump, bark, or study—the subject is who or what does the verb. Take a look at this example: During his biology lab, Tommy danced on the table. Danced is an action verb. Tommy is who did the dancing. Look at the next example: The speeding hotrod crashed into a telephone pole. Crashed is the action verb. The hotrod is what did the crashing. Not all verbs are action verbs. Some verbs are linking: am, is, are, was, were, seem, and become, among others. Linking verbs connect the subject to something that is said about the subject. Take a look at this example: Ron's bathroom is a disaster. Bathroom is the subject. Is connects the subject to something that is said about it, that the bathroom is a disaster. Here is another example: The bathroom tiles are fuzzy with mold. The word tiles is the subject. Are connects tiles to something said about them, that they are fuzzy with mold. Generally, but not always, the subject of a linking verb will come before the linking verb.

The Indirect Object

Indirect objects are rare. You can read for pages before you encounter one. For an indirect object to appear, a sentence must first have a direct object. Direct objects follow transitive verbs [a type of action verb]. If you can identify the subject and verb in a sentence, then finding the direct object—if one exists—is easy. Just remember this simple formula: Subject + Verb + what? or who? = Direct Object Here are examples of the formula in action: Jim built a sandcastle on the beach. Jim = subject; built = verb. Jim built what? Sandcastle = direct object. Sammy and Maria brought Billie Lou to the party. Sammy, Maria = subjects; brought = verb. Sammy and Maria brought who? Billie Lou = direct object. To explain the broken lamp, we told a lie. We = subject; told = verb. We told what? Lie = direct object. When someone [or something] gets the direct object, that word is the indirect object. Look at these new versions of the sentences above: Jim built his granddaughter a sandcastle on the beach. Jim = subject; built = verb. Jim built what? Sandcastle = direct object. Who got the sandcastle? Granddaughter = indirect object. So that Darren would have company at the party, Sammy and Maria brought him a blind date. Sammy, Maria = subjects; brought = verb. Sammy and Maria brought who? Blind date = direct object. Who got the blind date? Him = indirect object. To explain the broken lamp, we told Mom a lie. We = subject; told = verb. We told what? Lie = direct object. Who got the lie? Mom = indirect object. Sometimes, the indirect object will occur in a prepositional phrase beginning with to or for. Read these two sentences: Tomas paid the mechanic 200 dollars to fix the squeaky brakes. Tomas paid 200 dollars to the mechanic to fix the squeaky brakes. In both versions, the mechanic [the indirect object] gets the 200 dollars [the direct object]. When the direct object is a pronoun rather than a noun, putting the indirect object in a prepositional phrase becomes a necessary modification. The preposition smoothes out the sentence so that it sounds natural. Check out these examples: Leslie didn't have any money for a sandwich, so Smitty purchased her it. Blech! That version sounds awful! But now try the sentence with the indirect object after a preposition: Leslie didn't have any money for a sandwich, so Smitty purchased it for her. Locating the indirect object her in a prepositional phrase lets the sentence sound natural! Now read this example: After Michael took generous spoonfuls of stuffing, he passed us it. Ewww! This version sounds awful too! But with a quick fix, we can solve the problem: After Michael took generous spoonfuls of stuffing, he passed it to us. With the indirect object us in a prepositional phrase, we have an improvement!

The Item in a Series

Items in a series occur whenever a sentence includes a list of two or more things. The items can be any type of grammatical unit, such as nouns, verbs, participles, infinitives, or subordinate clauses, to name a few. Read the examples that follow: To make her famous muffins, Paulette bought fresh broccoli, baker's chocolate, flour, sugar, and eggs. Broccoli, chocolate, flour, sugar and eggs = all nouns. After Chad clutched his heart, swooned, and fell to the floor, Mrs. Borglum nudged him with her foot, ordering him to the front of the class to make his speech. Clutched, swooned, and fell = all verbs. When Harold saw his girlfriend Gloria across the crowded airport, he sprinted toward her, leaping over luggage, colliding with travelers, and dodging potted palms. Leaping, colliding, and dodging = all present participles. Because Tara is hungry but broke, she hopes to spot Anthony in the cafeteria, flirt with him over a pizza, and then get the poor boy to pay for the meal. To spot, to flirt, and to get = all infinitives. My dog Floyd bolts under the bed whenever thunder booms, strangers knock on the door, or I reach for the flea shampoo. Whenever thunder booms, whenever strangers knock on the door, and whenever I reach for the flea shampoo = all subordinate clauses.

The Linking Verb

Linking verbs do not express action. Instead, they connect the subject of the verb to additional information about the subject. Look at the examples below: Keila is a shopaholic. Ising isn't something that Keila can do. Is connects the subject, Keila, to additional information about her, that she will soon have a huge credit card bill to pay. During the afternoon, my cats are content to nap on the couch. Areing isn't something that cats can do. Are is connecting the subject, cats, to something said about them, that they enjoy sleeping on the furniture. After drinking the old milk, Vladimir turned green. Turned connects the subject, Vladimir, to something said about him, that he needed an antacid. A ten-item quiz seems impossibly long after a night of no studying. Seems connects the subject, a ten-item quiz, with something said about it, that its difficulty depends on preparation, not length. Irene always feels sleepy after pigging out on pizza from Antonio's. Feels connects the subject, Irene, to her state of being, sleepiness. The following verbs are true linking verbs: any form of the verb be [am, is, are, was, were, has been, are being, might have been, etc.], become, and seem. These true linking verbs are always linking verbs. Then you have a list of verbs with multiple personalities: appear, feel, grow, look, prove, remain, smell, sound, taste, and turn. Sometimes these verbs are linking verbs; sometimes they are action verbs. How do you tell when they are action verbs and when they are linking verbs? If you can substitute am, is, or are and the sentence still sounds logical, you have a linking verb on your hands. If, after the substitution, the sentence makes no sense, you are dealing with an action verb instead. Here are some examples: Sylvia tasted the spicy squid eyeball stew. Sylvia is the stew? I don't think so! Tasted, therefore, is an action verb in this sentence, something Sylvia is doing. The squid eyeball stew tasted good. The stew is good? You bet. Make your own! I smell the delicious aroma of a mushroom and papaya pizza baking in the oven. I am the aroma? No way! Smell, in this sentence, is an action verb, something I am doing. The mushroom and papaya pizza smells heavenly. The pizza is heavenly? Definitely! Try a slice! When my dog Oreo felt the wet grass beneath her paws, she bolted up the stairs and curled up on the couch. Oreo is the wet grass? Of course not! Here, then, felt is an action verb, something Oreo is doing. My dog Oreo feels depressed after seven straight days of rain. Oreo is depressed? Without a doubt! Oreo hates the wet. This substitution will not work for appear. With appear, you have to analyze the function of the verb. Swooping out of the clear blue sky, the blue jay appeared on the branch. Appear is something a blue jay can do—especially when food is near. The blue jay appeared happy to see the bird feeder. Here, appeared is connecting the subject, the blue jay, to its state of mind, happiness.

The Misplaced Modifier

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description to sentences. Typically, you will find a modifier snuggled right next to—either in front of or behind—the word it logically describes. Take the simple, one-word adjective blue. If we add it to the sentence that follows, where should it go? At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a truck from a salesman with a comb over. Should we locate blue next to dealership? A blue downtown dealership? A blue Kara? A blue salesman? Of course not! Logic dictates that blue can describe only one word, truck, so we must place the modifier next to that word: At a downtown dealership, Kara bought a blue truck from a salesman with a comb over. In a similar manner, multi-word phrases and clauses often go right next to the word they describe. Here are some examples: Gazing out the window, Paul missed the homework assignment that Prof. Zuromski wrote on the board. Gazing out the window is a participle phrase describing Paul, the noun that follows. Sam gobbled the sandwich, which was soggy with tomato juice, as he rushed to class. Which was soggy with tomato juice is an adjective clause describing sandwich, the noun before it. As the hurricane approached, we watched the tree branches waving in the strong breeze. Waving in the strong breeze is a participle phrase describing branches, the noun in front. Sometimes a writer places the modifier too far away from the word it should describe. Born in the confusion is a misplaced modifier, an error. Read these examples: Churning in the Atlantic Ocean, we anxiously watched the weather report for information about the hurricane. Churning in the Atlantic Ocean is a participle phrase. In the current sentence, it is describing the pronoun we. How illogical! We cannot churn in an ocean! Raymond wore his one collared shirt to the job interview, which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard. Which was unfortunately stained with yellow mustard is an adjective clause. In the sentence above, it is describing interview, the noun in front. But an interview can't get stained with mustard! Professor Jones, who was late with another essay, waited for the slacker student. Who was late with another essay is an adjective clause. In this sentence, it is describing Professor Jones, the noun before it. But he's not the identified slacker! The student is!

The Dangling Modifier

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that add description. In clear, logical sentences, you will often find modifiers right next to—either in front of or behind—the target words they logically describe. Read this example: Horrified, Mom snatched the deviled eggs from Jack, whose fingers were covered in cat hair. Notice that horrified precedes Mom, its target, just as deviled sits right before eggs. Whose fingers were covered in cat hair follows Jack, its target. Sometimes, however, an inexperienced writer will include a modifier but forget the target. The modifier thus dangles because the missing target word leaves nothing for the modifier to describe. Dangling modifiers are errors. Their poor construction confuses readers. Look at the samples below: Hungry, the leftover pizza was devoured. Hungry is a single-word adjective. Notice that there is no one in the sentence for this modifier to describe. Rummaging in her giant handbag, the sunglasses escaped detection. Rummaging in her giant handbag is a participle phrase. In the current sentence, no word exists for this phrase to modify. Neither sunglasses nor detection has fingers to make rummaging possible! With a sigh of disappointment, the expensive dress was returned to the rack. With a sigh of disappointment is a string of prepositional phrases. If you look carefully, you do not find anyone in the sentence capable of feeling disappointed. Neither dress nor rack has emotions!

The Modifier

Modifiers are words, phrases, or clauses that provide description in sentences. Modifiers allow writers to take the picture that they have in their heads and transfer it accurately to the heads of their readers. Essentially, modifiers breathe life into sentences. Take a look at this "dead" sentence: Stephen dropped his fork. Now read what several well placed modifiers can do: Poor Stephen, who just wanted a quick meal to get through his three-hour biology lab, quickly dropped his fork on the cafeteria tray, gagging with disgust as a tarantula wiggled out of his cheese omelet, a sight requiring a year of therapy before Stephen could eat eggs again. Modifiers can be adjectives, adjective clauses, adverbs, adverb clauses, absolute phrases, infinitive phrases, participle phrases, and prepositional phrases. The sentence above contains at least one example of each: Adjective = poor. Adjective clause = who just wanted a quick meal. Adverb = quickly. Adverb clause = as a tarantula wiggled out of his cheese omelet. Absolute phrase = a sight requiring a year of therapy before Stephen could eat eggs again. Infinitive phrase = to get through his three-hour biology lab. Participle phrase = gagging with disgust. Prepositional phrase = on the cafeteria tray. Without modifiers, sentences would be no fun to read. Carefully chosen, well-placed modifiers allow you to depict situations with as much accuracy as words will allow

The Common Noun

Nouns name people, places, and things. Every noun can further be classified as common or proper. A common noun names general items. Go into the kitchen. What do you see? Refrigerator, magnet, stove, window, coffee maker, wallpaper, spatula, sink, plate—all of these things are common nouns. Leave the house. Where can you go? Mall, restaurant, school, post office, backyard, beach, pet store, supermarket, gas station—all of these places are common nouns. Go to the mall. Who do you see? Teenager, grandmother, salesclerk, police officer, toddler, manager, window dresser, janitor, shoplifter—all of these people are common nouns. The important thing to remember is that common nouns are general names. Thus, they are not capitalized unless they begin a sentence or are part of a title. Proper nouns, those that name specific things, do require capitalization. Notice the difference in the chart below: Common Nouns Proper Nouns coffee shop waiter jeans sandwich chair arena country fire fighter Starbucks Simon Levi's Big Mac Roll-O-Rocker Amway Arena Australia Captain Richard Orsini Here are some sample sentences: Although there are five other chairs in the living room, everyone in Jim's family fights to sit in the puffy new Roll-O-Rocker. Chairs = common noun; Roll-O-Rocker = proper noun. Harriet threw the stale cucumber sandwich in the trash can and fantasized about a Big Mac dripping with special sauce. Sandwich = common noun; Big Mac = proper noun. Because we like an attentive waiter, we always ask for Simon when we eat at Mama Rizzoli's Pizzeria. Waiter = common noun; Simon = proper noun.

The Proper Noun

Nouns name people, places, and things. Every noun can further be classified as common or proper. A proper noun has two distinctive features: 1) it will name a specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item, and 2) it will begin with a capital letter no matter where it occurs in a sentence.

The Count Noun

Nouns name people, places, and things. Many nouns have both singular and plural forms. If you can add a number to the front of a noun and put an s at the end of it, you have a count noun. Check out these examples: Beatrice offered Jeremy a chocolate-chip cookie. Jeremy, an impolite pig, grabbed all seventeen cookies off of the plate. Cookie is a count noun. You can have one cookie, or you can be a pig like Jeremy and have seventeen cookies.

The Concrete Noun

Nouns name people, places, and things. One class of nouns is concrete. You can experience this group of nouns with your five senses: you see them, hear them, smell them, taste them, and feel them. See! Hear! Smell! Taste! Touch! See Hear Smell Taste Touch Check out the following example: Reliable, Diane's beagle, licked strawberry ice cream off her chin. Ice cream, for example, is a concrete noun. You can see the pink. You can taste the berry flavor. You can feel your tongue growing numb from the cold. Any noun that you can experience with at least one of your five senses is a concrete noun. Don't confuse a concrete noun with an abstract noun. Not all nouns are concrete. A second class of nouns is abstract. You cannot experience abstract nouns with your senses. Read this example: Diane pushed Reliable off her lap to register her disapproval. Disapproval is an example of an abstract noun. What color is disapproval? You don't know because you cannot see it. What texture is disapproval? Who knows? You cannot touch it. What flavor is disapproval? No clue! You cannot taste it! Does it make a sound? Of course not! Does it smell? Not a bit!

The Preposition

Prepositions are the words that indicate location. Usually, prepositions show this location in the physical world. Check out the three examples below: Arf! The puppy is on the floor. Bad dog! The puppy is in the trash can. Don't chew the cell phone! The puppy is beside the phone. On, in, and beside are all prepositions. They are showing where the puppy is. Prepositions can also show location in time. Read the next three examples: At midnight, Jill craved mashed potatoes with grape jelly. In the spring, I always vow to plant tomatoes but end up buying them at the supermarket. During the marathon, Iggy's legs complained with sharp pains shooting up his thighs. At midnight, in the spring, and during the marathon all show location in time. Because there are so many possible locations, there are quite a few prepositions. Below is the complete list.

The Object of the Preposition

Prepositions often begin prepositional phrases. To complete the phrase, the preposition usually teams up with a noun, pronoun, or gerund, or the object of the preposition. Here are some examples: At noon At = preposition; noon = noun or the object of the preposition. Behind them Behind = preposition; them = pronoun or the object of the preposition. Without sneezing Without = preposition; sneezing = gerund or the object of the preposition. The object of the preposition will often have modifiers that add description: At the kitchen counter At = preposition; the, kitchen = modifiers; counter = noun or the object of the preposition. Between us only Between = preposition; us = pronoun or the object of the preposition; only = modifier. Without completely finishing Without = preposition; completely = modifier; finishing = gerund or the object of the preposition. Infrequently, a clause will be the object of the preposition, as in this example: In class today, we talked about what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay. About = preposition; what Mr. Duncan expects in our next research essay = noun clause or the object of the preposition.

Pronoun Reference

Pronouns are chameleon words. In one sentence, for example, the pronoun he might mean Zippy the dog; in another sentence he might replace the rock star on stage, the President of the United States, or my lab partner Fred who picks his nose. Just as a chameleon changes its color to coordinate with its environment, a pronoun alters its meaning to match the nearby antecedent, the word that the pronoun is replacing. Problems occur when the antecedent is unclear or missing. If you say, "You should hear her purr," you might mean your cat Lucy, or you might mean the engine of your souped-up sports car. She could refer to either the living pet or the inanimate vehicle. In a conversation, we can ask, "You mean the cat, right?" but in a piece of writing that speaks in your stead, your readers remain confused. When you fail to confirm that a pronoun has a single, clear antecedent, you lose control of the picture you want the words to create in your readers' minds. If you're not careful, several common situations are likely to create unclear pronoun reference.

The Semicolon

The semicolon [ ; ] is a powerful mark of punctuation with three uses. The first appropriate use of the semicolon is to connect two related sentences. The pattern looks like this: Complete Sentence + ; + Complete Sentence. Here is an example: Grandma still rides her Harley motorcycle; her toy poodle balances in a basket between the handlebars. A semicolon can also team up with a transition—often a conjunctive adverb—to connect two sentences close in meaning. The pattern looks like this: Complete Sentence + ; + Transition + , + Complete Sentence. Check out this example: My father does not approve of his mother cruising around town on a Harley motorcycle; however, Grandma has never cared what anyone thinks. Finally, use the semicolon to avoid confusion when you have complicated lists of items. The pattern looks like this: Item + , + More Information + ; + Item + , + More Information + ; + and + Item + , + More Information Read the following example: On a Harley motorcycle, my grandmother and her poodle have traveled to Anchorage, Alaska; San Francisco, California; and Tijuana, Mexico. Keep these three things in mind when you use a semicolon: •The two main clauses that the semicolon joins should be closely related in meaning. •Don't capitalize the word that follows the semicolon unless that word is a proper noun, one that is always capitalized. •Limit your use of semicolons; you should not scatter them wantonly throughout your writing. Semicolons are like glasses of champagne; save them for special occasions.

The Interjection

To capture short bursts of emotion, you can use an interjection, which is a single word, phrase, or short clause that communicates the facial expression and body language that the sentence itself will sometimes neglect. Interjections are thus like emoticons. One writer might write the sentence like this: The burrito is vegan. :-) Or like this: The burrito is vegan. ☺ But another writer might use an interjection to express that same burst of happiness: The burrito is vegan. Yum! The interjection yum lets us see the emotional response to the information in the sentence. If the writer was really hoping for spicy ground beef in the burrito, notice how a different interjection communicates the disappointment: The burrito is vegan. :-( The burrito is vegan. ☹ The burrito is vegan. Yuck! Interjections are common in spoken English, so they are appropriate if you are capturing dialogue in your writing. Read this example: My colleague in the physics lab shouted, "Hooray! They made the right decision!" when she learned that the International Astronomical Union (IAU) demoted Pluto to dwarf planet. Interjections are also appropriate in informal communication, like texts or emails to friends: Groovy! IAU demotes Pluto!!! But when you read, you'll notice that writers seldom use interjections in professional publications like textbooks, newspapers, or magazines. Never, for example, would an important science journal include a sentence like this one: Oh, snap! The IAU has added gravitational dominance as a requirement for planethood. Good writers know that careful word choice can capture the same emotion and body language that the interjection communicates. In the sentence below, we recognize the writer's unhappiness even though we find no interjection: Worse than the refried beans was the disappointment that spread over my tongue as I bit into the vegan burrito.

The Infinitive

To sneeze, to smash, to cry, to shriek, to jump, to dunk, to read, to eat, to slurp—all of these are infinitives. An infinitive will almost always begin with to followed by the simple form of the verb, like this: To + Verb = Infinitive Important Note: Because an infinitive is not a verb, you cannot add s, es, ed, or ing to the end. Ever! Infinitives can be used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Look at these examples: To sleep is the only thing Eli wants after his double shift waiting tables at the neighborhood café. To sleep functions as a noun because it is the subject of the sentence. No matter how fascinating the biology dissection is, Emanuel turns his head and refuses to look. To look functions as a noun because it is the direct object for the verb refuses. Wherever Melissa goes, she always brings a book to read in case conversation lags or she has a long wait. To read functions as an adjective because it modifies book. Richard braved the icy rain to throw the smelly squid eyeball stew into the apartment dumpster. To throw functions as an adverb because it explains why Richard braved the inclement weather.

The Verb

Verbs are a necessary component of all sentences. Verbs have two important functions: Some verbs put stalled subjects into motion while other verbs help to clarify the subjects in meaningful ways. Look at the examples below: My grumpy old English teacher smiled at the plate of cold meatloaf. My grumpy old English teacher = stalled subject; smiled = verb. The daredevil cockroach splashed into Sara's soup. The daredevil cockroach = stalled subject; splashed = verb. Theo's overworked computer exploded in a spray of sparks. Theo's overworked computer = stalled subject; exploded = verb. The curious toddler popped a grasshopper into her mouth. The curious toddler = stalled subject; popped = verb. Francisco's comic book collection is worth $20,000.00. Francisco's comic book collection = stalled subject; is = verb. The important thing to remember is that every subject in a sentence must have a verb. Otherwise, you will have written a fragment, a major writing error.

Parallel Structure

Whenever you include a list of actions or items, you must use equal grammatical units. If the first item is a noun, then the following items must also be nouns; if the first action is a simple past tense verb, then make the other items simple past tense verbs as well. Nonparallel structure looks like this: Students Rubbery. , Delicious! , and Rubbery.. Students capped their pens, were closing their notebooks, and zipped their book bags as they tried to alert Professor Jones, rambling at the lectern, that the end of class had arrived. Capped and zipped are both simple past tense verbs, but were closing is past progressive, wrecking the parallelism. Parallel structure, the correct way to write, looks like this: Students Rubbery. , Rubbery. , and Rubbery.. Students Delicious! , Delicious! , and Delicious!. To establish parallelism, you can use all simple past tense verbs: Students capped their pens, closed their notebooks, and zipped their book bags as they tried to alert Professor Jones, rambling at the lectern, that the end of class had arrived. Or you can revise the sentence so that all of the items in the list are nouns: Students gathered their pens, notebooks, and book bags as they tried to alert Professor Jones, rambling at the lectern, that the end of class had arrived.

Pronoun Agreement

see it. Whenever you use a personal pronoun like she, it, or they, you first have to have an antecedent, the word that the pronoun is replacing. Read this sentence: Gustavo slowed to the speed limit when he saw the police cruiser in the rearview mirror. The pronoun he replaces Gustavo. Pronouns like he will keep you from repeating Gustavo, Gustavo, Gustavo over and over again. The pronoun must agree with its antecedent. To navigate this agreement successfully, you will need to know these singular and plural pronoun forms:

The Compound Subject

see one. Every verb in a sentence must have at least one subject. But that doesn't mean that a verb can have only one subject. Some verbs are greedy as far as subjects go. A greedy verb can have two, three, four, or more subjects all to itself. When a verb has two or more subjects, you can say that the verb has a compound subject. Check out the following examples: At the local Dairy Queen, Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on her banana split. Marsha = subject; gasped = verb. At the local Dairy Queen, Jenny and Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on their banana splits. Jenny, Marsha = compound subject; gasped = verb. At the local Dairy Queen, Officer Jenkins, Mrs. Lowery, the Williams twins, Harold, Billy Jo, Jenny, and Marsha gasped at the sight of pickle slices on their banana splits. Officer Jenkins, Mrs. Lowery, the Williams twins, Harold, Billy Jo, Jenny, Marsha = compound subject; gasped = verb.