Test 3

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Agreement for women's features judged by men

Cute-neotenous (childlike) features, large widely-spaced eyes, small nose & chin; Mature-prominent cheekbones, high eyebrows, large pupils, big smile

Latané and Darley's (1968) Experiment

smoke-filled room experiment showed that people will risk harm to themselves rather than possibly look foolish.

situational norms

Guide behavior in a given situation or environment

Procedures used to determine facial features associated with attractiveness

Identifying attractive individuals and discovering what characteristics they share; creating a composite image of combined faces

Resisting Obedience

If one is reminded that they, not the authority figure, will be held responsible for their actions, they are much less likely to obey.

Cialdini Low Balling Study

Lowball group: More than 50% agreed to participate; more than half kept their appointments; Control: Less than 33% agreed; less than 25% showed (1978)

Asch's (1950s) Research on Conformity

Participants were asked to indicate which of three lines matched a standard line in length; 76% conformed at least once to the group's false judgment; Overall, they agreed with the errors 37% of the time

direct effect of emotions on attraction

Positive affect leads to liking others, negative affect leads to disliking others.

Social norms

Rules regarding how people are expected to behave in specific situations

Festinger's social comparison theory

Similar others provide consensual validation of one's beliefs (1954)

Autokinetic phenomenon

The apparent movement of a single, stationary source of light in a dark room; often used to study the emergence of social norms and social influence

repeated exposure effect

Zajonc's (1968) finding that frequent contact with any mildly negative, neutral, or positive stimulus results in an increasingly positive evaluation of that stimulus

affect

a person's emotional state: positive and negative feelings and moods

Conformity

a type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or behavior in order to adhere to social norms

Reciprocal Altruism

cooperative behavior among unrelated individuals that benefits both individuals

Lowball Procedure

an offer or deal is changed to make it less attractive to the target person after this person has accepted it

Environmental spoiling

any time you live or work close to others you'll encounter people whose lifestyles differ and may conflict with our own; proximity may lead to hostility and conflict.

Appearance-Rejection sensitivity

apprehension or worry about whether one's physical appearance is adequate and about the possible negative reactions of other people; can lead to anger and dissatisfaction with oneself

Group size

as group size increases, conformity increases

Affect-Centered Model of Attraction

attraction stems from emotions; framework in which attraction is assumed to be based on positive and negative emotions

Normative Social Influence

based on the desire to be liked or accepted by others

Informational Social Influence

based on the desire to possess accurate social perceptions

need for affiliation

basic motive to seek and maintain interpersonal relationships

Personality Dispositions

behavioral tendencies based on genetics, learning experiences, or both, which tend to be stable over time and across situations

First impressions

can arouse strong affect and may overcome the effects of proximity; indicates the influences of past experiences, stereotypes, and attributions that do not apply to a particular person, but yet are used in the evaluation of him or her

Minority influence

can influence majorities when they are consistent, flexible, and congruent with social trends; can provoke majorities to engage in systematic processing of the issues; often must form strong arguments to defend their positions and may overestimate the support for their views.

Altruistic Personality

combination of dispositional variables associated with prosocial behavior

Physical attractiveness

combination of traits that are evaluated as beautiful or handsome at the positive extreme and as unattractive at the negative extreme

Empathy

complex affective and cognitive response to another person's emotional distress; feeling the other person's emotions, feeling sympathetic, trying to solve the problem, and taking the perspective of others

Inclusive Fitness

concept that natural selection applies not only to individuals, but also involves behaviors that benefit other individuals with whom genes are shared (kin selection)

Social Influence

efforts by one or more individuals to change the attitudes, beliefs, perceptions, or behaviors of one or more others

appearance anxiety

excessive worry about appearance and concern about negative reactions from others; women are more likely than men to feel this

Moreland and Beach Study (1992)

female research assistant posing as a member of a class, No interation; end of semester, members of class shown her photo and asked how much they liked her

Obedience

form of social influence in which one person simply orders one or more others to perform some action(s)

principles that underlie compliance

friendship/liking, commitment/consistency, reciprocity, scarcity, social validation (related to informational social influence), authority

Prosocial Behavior

helpful action that benefits other people without necessarily providing any direct benefits to the person performing the act, and may even involve a risk for the person who helps

diffusion of responsibility

how much responsibility falls on each person depends on how many bystanders are present in the situation. If one is alone when an emergency arises, he/she is 100% responsible. If there are one hundred bystanders, however, each person assumes only 1% of the responsibility

Incidental similarity

idea that if we draw attention to a small similarity between ourselves and a target person (e.g., that we have the same birthday), this increases liking and, in turn, increases the likelihood of compliance; studied by Burger and colleagues (2004).

Indirect or associated effects on attraction

if another person is simply present when our emotions are aroused, we feel increased attraction if we are in a good mood (e.g., we just received a good test grade) or we feel decreased attraction if we are in a bad mood (e.g., we just received a bad test grade).

Commitment/Consistency

if we have made a commitment to a position or action, we tend to comply with requests for actions that are consistent with the position or action as opposed to requests that are inconsistent.

Altruism

involves actions that are motivated by selfless concern for other people

Interpersonal attraction

involves factors that form the basis for our relationships; people may come together because of shared interests, mutual friends, or being in close proximity with one another; reflects our attitude toward another individual

Pluralistic ignorance

refers to our tendency to use social comparison to figure out what to do in a given situation, even though typically, no one is completely sure as to what is happening

Proportion of Similarity

number of specific topics on which two people express similar views divided by the total number of topics discussed

Selective altruism

occurs when there are more people in need than we could possibly help, but we can help one person

Evolutionary factors

offer an explanation regarding why affect is a basic component of human behavior

Milgram's Obedience Study

participants told to deliver increasing levels of shock to a "learner" each time he made an error on a learning task; 65% obeyed to the fullest extent (proceeded to the end of the series, to the final 450-volt level)

"halo" effect

people show a tendency to attribute more desirable traits to physically attractive people than to unattractive people

Individuation

people's need to be distinguishable from others in some respects

Normative Focus Theory

proposes that norms will have an influence on our behavior only if they are personally relevant; predicts that people are more likely to conform to injunctive norms when they are salient to them

Genetic Determinism Model

prosocial behavior is driven by genetic attributes that evolved because they enhanced the probability of transmitting one's genes to future generations

Negative-State Relief Model

prosocial behavior is motivated by the bystander's desire to reduce his or her own uncomfortable negative emotions

Empathic Joy Hypothesis

prosocial behavior is motivated by the positive emotion a helper anticipates experiencing as the result of having a beneficial impact on the life of someone in need

Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis

prosocial behavior is motivated solely by the desire to help someone in need; people are more likely to help others for whom they feel much empathy.

External Determinants of Attraction

proximity and observable characteristics

Heroism

refers to behaviors that involve "courageous risk-taking" in order to achieve a socially valued objective

bystander effect

refers to the consistent finding that the probability of prosocial behavior is affected by the number of other people present in the situation. As the amount of bystanders goes up, the likelihood that any one individual will help goes down. In addition, for those who do provide help, there is an increase in how much time passes before help is provided.

Door-in-the-face Technique

requesters begin with a large request and then, when this is refused, retreat to a smaller one

Foot-in-the-door Technique

requesters begin with a small request and then, when it is granted, escalate to a larger one

Ingratiation

requesters first induce target to like them; use flattery, improve one's appearance, emit positive nonverbal cues, do small favors for target person

That's Not All Technique

requesters offer additional benefits to target persons before they have decided whether to comply with or reject specific requests

Destructive Obedience

seen in Milgram's studies, may have occurred because the person in authority is assumed to take the responsibility for the consequences of one's actions.

Interactive Determinants of Attraction

similarity and mutual liking

Injunctive Norms

specify what ought to be done; can increase conformity

repulsion hypothesis

stated that increases in attraction are not the result of similar attitudes, rather attraction is decreased when dissimilar attitudes are present; offered by Rosenbaum (1986)

Playing Hard to Get

suggesting that a person or object is scarce and hard to obtain

Deadline Technique

target persons are told that they have only limited time to take advantage of some offer or to obtain some item

Mimicry

the automatic tendency to imitate those with whom one interacts, and results in the increase in one's prosocial tendencies

Cohesiveness

the degree of attraction felt by an individual toward an influencing group; When high the pressure to conform is magnified(i.e., when we like and respect people and feel closely tied to them); When low, we feel little pressure to conform (because we do not want to be like those people that we do not like or respect)

Internal Determinants of Attraction

the need to affiliate and the basic role of affect

proximity

the physical closeness between two individuals with respect to where they live, where they sit in a classroom, where they work, and so on; Smaller physical distances are related to an increased likelihood that two people will come into repeated contact and exposure to each other, feel positive affect, and develop mutual attraction.

adaptive response

traits and actions that increase the chances of reproductive success for the self or for others with similar genes

Compliance

type of social influence involving direct requests from one person to another

Friendship/Liking

we are more likely to comply if a friend or someone we like makes a request as opposed to a stranger or someone we do not like.

Authority

we are more likely to comply if the request comes from an authority figure (it can be someone with real authority or someone who "appears" to have authority).

Reciprocity

we are more likely to comply if the request comes from someone who has done a favor for us in the past.

Social Validation

we are more likely to comply if we believe that similar others are behaving in the same way.

Similarity-dissimilarity effect

we respond positively to indications that another person is similar to us and negatively to indications that another person is dissimilar from us

Scarcity

we tend to comply with a request if it involves outcomes or objects that are relatively scarce.

Descriptive Norms

what most people do in a given situation; can increase conformity

Contrast effect

what someone has been looking at (e.g., pictures of attractive people) prior to rating the attractiveness of a stranger influences the rating given

Effect of affect on evaluation is greatest

when the audience is uninformed, when they are unaware that their emotional state is being manipulated, when they are engaged in making decisions

symbolic social influence

where our behavior can be influenced by another person who is not even with us at the time


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