Test 4 Cognitive Psychology

The word frequency effect refers to the fact that we respond more

slowly to low-frequency words than high-frequency words.

The typical purpose of subgoals is to

bring the problem solver closer and closer to the goal state.

Given its definition, expected utility theory is most applicable to deciding whether to

buy first-class or coach tickets for a spring break trip

Terrell volunteers his time to campaign for Joel Goodman. He spent all afternoon putting up "Goodman for Congress" signs around his town and arrived back at headquarters just in time to watch the Goodman- Hernandez debate on TV. Terrell was eager to watch the candidates debate each other, even though he was 100 percent sure he was going to vote for Goodman. Terrell's first response to the debate will most likely be

"Goodman answered the question on job creation very well."

Finke's creating an object studies show that people were more likely to come up with creative uses for preinventive objects if they

made the objects themselves.k

Tuan bought a new leather jacket after saving for many months for the luxury purchase. On the first day he went out wearing the new garment, he found a $50 bill on the sidewalk outside of his office. He now refers to the jacket as his "lucky jacket" and believes that it has some magical power to give him good fortune. Tuan's belief in the jacket's cosmic ability is an example of

an illusory correlation.

Syntax is the

rules for combining words into sentences.

Coherence refers to the

representation of the text in a reader's mind, so that information in one part of the text is related to information in another part of the text.

Warmth judgments on nearness to a solution _________________ prior to the solution of an insight problem and _________________prior to the solution of a non-insight problem.

rise suddenly just; gradually rise

Newell and Simon were early pioneers in designing computer programs that could solve problems. Their research program was based on the idea that problem solving is a process that involves

search

The constraint-based approach to parsing states that

semantics is activated as a sentence is being read.

Stereotypes are reinforced by everything but

the falsification principle.

Which of the following statements would most likely invoke the operation of a permission schema?

If I get an A on my cognitive psychology exam, I can go out with my friends on Saturday night

From a thinking perspective, when faced with making a decision, the suggestion to "Go with your gut" would emphasize ________, while the suggestion "Take your time" would place emphasis on ________.

Type 1; System 2

Which of the following provides the best example of functional fixedness?

Using a juice glass as a container for orange juice

Consider the following sentences: "Captain Ahab wanted to kill the whale. He cursed at it." These two sentences taken together provide an example of a(n)

anaphoric inference.

From the perspective of the listener, as a person speaks, each sentence often is characterized by ________ until the sentence is completed.

ambiguity

People tend to overestimate

what negative feelings will occur following a decision more so than positive feelings.

The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable is called the _________________.

belief bias

The crucial question in comparing garden path and constrain-based approaches to parsing is ____________________ is involved.

when semantics

Of the following real-world phenomena, the confirmation bias best explains the observation that people

can cite several reasons for their position on a controversial issue but none for the opposing side.

Imagine you are interpreting a pair of sentences such as "The sidewalk was covered with ice" and "Ramona fell down." The kind of inference we use to link these sentences together would most likely be a(n) ____________________ inference.

causal

In written English, which punctuation mark has the most parsing power?

comma

What property below is not one of the characteristics that makes human language unique?

communication

Intermediate states can be created by

creating subgoals

If you are given the information that in order to vote in a presidential election, you must be at least 18 years of age, and that Will voted in the last presidential election, you can logically conclude that Will is at least 18 years old. This is an example of using _________________ reasoning.

deductive

What does NOT reflect the System 1 approach to thinking as proposed by Kahneman?

deliberate

Metcalfe and Wiebe gave participants problems to solve and asked them to make "warmth" judgments every 15 seconds to indicate how close they felt they were to a solution. The purpose of this experiment was to

demonstrate a difference between how people solve insight and non-insight problems.

In the movie Apollo 13, astronauts aboard a damaged spacecraft have to build a carbon dioxide filter out of random items that are aboard the ship with them. If they do not, they will all die rapidly of carbon dioxide poisoning. The fact that they are able to do so with the help of experts on Earth is similar to the _________________ approach developed by Ronald Finke.

divergent thinking

Ling is sure that if her boyfriend proposes, she will feel elation. This is an example of an

expected emotion

Phoenix Decorating Company is responsible for designing and building many of the floral floats seen in the Tournament of Roses Parade every New Year's Day. Phoenix's designers start preparing the floats for the next year's parade soon after the first of the year. For each corporate sponsor, Phoenix gets their best advertising team members, and they sit in a room for several hours throwing out every idea they can come up with, no matter how good or bad it is. After a substantial list has been created, they then go through every idea and rate its merits or deficits, until they come up with the best idea to pitch to the corporate sponsor. This process demonstrates

group brainstorming.

In New Guinea, tribes that had been isolated for centuries were found that they

had a large number of sophisticated language systems.

what is not a part of a complete definition of a problem?

has one correct answer

Noam Chomsky proposed that

humans are genetically programmed to acquire and use language.

"You can't have any pudding unless you eat your meat," says a man to his son at the dinner table. This is an example of

permission schema

Many people receive unsolicited calls from telemarketers or unwanted "junk" mailers advertising offers for products such as cable or Internet services or cellular phone companies. Most people do not consider these offers and do not make a change to the plans or services that they receive because they do not want to make a decision that requires serious consideration or thought. This is an example of the _________________ bias.

status quo

When two people engage in a conversation, if one person produces a specific grammatical construction in his or her speech and then the other person does the same, this phenomenon is referred to as

syntactic priming

The concept of language can best be thought of as a ________.

system

Experts _________________ than novices.

take a more effective approach to organizing the solution to a problem

Illustrative of functional fixedness, people are more likely to solve the candle problem if

the box is empty

Insight refers to

the sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Most of the coherence in text is created by

inference

If human speech is represented as a string of taffy on a candy-making assembly line, then what function does speech segmentation serve at the candy factory?

It cuts the taffy into pieces.

What is not true about divergent thinking?

It has a single correct answer.

Yoda, a central character of the Star Wars movies created by George Lucas, has a distinctive way of speaking. His statement, "Afraid you will be," violates which property of the English language?

Language has a structure that is governed by rules.

Lydia is 48 years old, single, outspoken, and very bright. She majored in philosophy as an undergraduate. As a student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and she participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. Which of the following alternatives is most probable?

Lydia is a U.S. Congresswoman

Subgoals serve a key role in which of the following?

Means-end analysis

Gick and Holyoak consider which of the following to be the most difficult step to achieve in the process of analogical problem solving?

Noticing that there is an analogous relationship between problems because most participants need prompting before they notice a connection

In a study, participants listened to the following tape recording: Rumor had it that, for years, the government building had been plagued with problems. The man was not surprised when he found several spiders, roaches, and other bugs in the corner of the room. As participants heard the word "bugs," they completed a lexical decision task to a test stimulus flashed on a screen. To which of the following words would you expect participants to take the longest to respond to?

SKY

What is not a factor in parsody?

Semantics

Consider the following argument: Observation: Here in Nashville, the sun has risen every morning. Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Nashville tomorrow.

The argument is strong because there are a large number of observations.

Consider the following syllogism: Premise 1: All dogs are cats. Premise 2: All cats say "meow." Conclusion: Therefore, all dogs say "meow." Which statement below describes this syllogism?

The conclusion is valid

The text's discussion of the research on in vivo problem solving highlighted that _________________ play(s) an important role in solving scientific problems.

analogies

Which term best describes the task of factoring the equation 9x 2 + 5x - 7 = 4x 2 - 2x + 8?

analytical

In Kaplan and Simon's experiment, they presented different versions of the mutilated checkerboard problem. Participants in the _________________ group had the fastest response time.

bread and butter

Rosa is in a convenience store considering which soda to buy. She recalls a commercial for BigFizz she saw on TV last night. BigFizz is running a promotion where you look under the bottle cap, and one in five bottles has a voucher for a free soda. If Rosa decides to purchase a BigFizz based on this promotion, which is framed in terms of _________________ , she will use a _________________ strategy.

gains; risk-aversion

The idea that the rules governing the grouping of words in a sentence is the primary determinant of the way a sentence is parsed is part of the ____________________ approach to parsing.

garden path

Experts categorize problems based on

general principles that problems share.

Chaz is listening to his grandma reminisce about the first time she danced with his grandpa 60 years ago. When his grandma says, "It seemed like the song would play forever," Chaz understands that it is more likely his grandma was listening to a radio playing and not a CD. This understanding requires Chaz use a(n)

instrument inference.

Sanfey and coworkers' "ultimatum game" experiment revealed that people tended to make the _________________ decision of ____.

irrational; accepting only high offers

The validity of a syllogism depends on

its form

The analogical paradox refers to problem-solving differences between

laboratory and real-world settings.

Lilo can't wait for school to start. This year is the first time she gets to take a foreign language class, and she is taking Japanese. Dr. Nabuto is a professor interested in studying how people learn additional languages later in life, and he is including Lilo's class in his research. Dr. Nabuto is most likely studying

language acquisition

Gick and Holyoak proposed that analogical problem solving involves the following three steps:

noticing, mapping, and applying.

Actions that take the problem from one state to another are known as

operators

Utility refers to

outcomes that achieve a person's goals

When the "abstract" version of the Wason four-card problem is compared to a "concrete" version of the problem (in which beer, soda, and ages are substituted for the letters and numbers),

performance is better for the concrete task.

The application of a(n) _________________ makes it easier to solve the "drinking beer" version of the Wason problem.

permission schema

Within the realm of conversational speech, knowledge refers to the

previously understood information that we bring into the conversation.

One of Chomsky's most persuasive arguments for refuting Skinner's theory of language acquisition was his observation that children

produce sentences they have never heard.k

The expected utility theory of decision making is grounded in which of the following?

rationality

Considering the fortress and the radiation problems together, the fortress problem represents the _________________ problem.

source

When the front part of a sentence can be interpreted more than one way, but the end of the sentence clarifies which meaning is correct, we say that the sentence is an example of

speech segmentation

In analogical problem solving, the _________________ problem is the problem that an individual is trying to solve, and the _________________ problem, which has been solved in the past, is used as a guide for reaching that solution.

target; source

The evolutionary approach proposes that the Wason problem can be understood in terms of people's

tendency to detect when others are cheating.

Brain imaging studies reveal that semantics and syntax are associated with which two lobes of the cerebral cortex?

the frontal and temporal lobes

Lexical ambiguity studies show that people access ambiguous words based on

the meaning dominance of each definition of the word.

Which term best reflects a musical composer who writes a film score in the key of E?

tonic

Consider the following syllogism: All cats are birds. All birds have wings. All cats have wings. This syllogism is

valid

Which of the following activities would require Type 2 cognitive processing?

Choosing an entree from a menu

The process of analogical encoding is focused on ________.

finding similarity

One hundred students are enrolled in State University's course on introductory physics for math and science majors. In the group, 60 students are math majors and 40 are science majors. Sarah is in the class. She got all As in her high school science courses, and she would like to be a chemist someday. She lives on campus. Her boyfriend is also in the class. There is a _________________ chance that Sarah is a science major.

40%

Pollack and Pickett's experiment on understanding speech found that when participants were presented with individual words taken out of conversations (single words presented alone with no context), they could identify

50 percent of the words spoken by their own voices.

Dr. Chan is doing a follow-up study to the mutilated checkerboard problem experiment. In this new study, participants solve the following shoe problem before tackling the checkerboard problem. By doing this, Dr. Chan is studying the effect of _________________ on problem solving. The shoe problem: A first-grade class is using a trampoline in gym class, so all the children have removed their shoes, which are all jumbled in a large pile. One of the students, Miguel, is leaving early, so the teacher tells him to grab his shoes and report to the lobby. In his hurry, Miguel grabs two identical left-footed, size 6 red sneakers and runs to his mother still sock-footed. Will the remaining students be able to shoe-up with the remaining shoes without getting a foot-ache?

analogies

Which of the following correctly pairs a problem-solving stage with a process under Basadur's model?

Problem Solving: Planning

Tanenhaus and coworkers' eye movement study presented participants with different pictures for interpreting the sentence, "Put the apple on the towel in the box." Their results showed the importance of ____________________ in how we understand sentences in real-life situations.

environmental context

In its discussion of expertise and problem solving, your text identifies the kind of scientists who are most likely to make revolutionary discoveries in their fields. This particular discussion suggests that _________________ may be more important than _________________ in creative thinking.

flexibility; experience

Holly was in her mother-in-law's kitchen preparing lunch for the family. When she was ready to dish up the soup, she searched all the cupboards and drawers for a ladle but couldn't find one. She decided to wait until her mother-in-law returned to ask her where the ladle was, leaving the soup in the stove pot. Her mother-in-law later explained that the ladle had been broken, so she told Holly to use a coffee mug to "spoon" the soup into bowls. Holly's ability to solve the "dish up the soup" problem was hindered by which of the following obstacles?

functional fixedness

Language consists of smaller components, like words, that can be combined to form larger ones, like phrases, to create sentences, which themselves can be components of a larger story. This demonstrates the ____________________ property of language.

hierarchical

Sandeep is a generally anxious person. His anxiety sometimes gets in the way when he tries to make decisions. The anxiety Sandeep feels is an example of an __________ emotion.

incidental

________ occurs when a person gives up trying to solve a tough problem and then suddenly comes up with the answer while doing something else.

incubation

Bonnie has ordered her monthly supply of medicines through the mail for the past five years. Except for one order, all orders have arrived within two business days. Bonnie placed an order yesterday, and she expects to receive her order tomorrow. Bonnie is using

inductive reasoning.

In the Tower of Hanoi problem, the _________________ state involves having three discs stacked on the left peg, with the middle and right pegs empty.

initial

Ron is an avid reader. He has a large vocabulary because every time he comes across a word he doesn't know, he looks it up in the dictionary. Ron encounters "wanderlust" in a novel, reaches for the dictionary, and finds out this word means "desire to travel." The process of looking up unfamiliar words increases Ron's

lexicon

Dictionaries commonly list the multiple definitions of a particular word in a numbered list, with the first definition as #1, the next definition as #2, and so on. Which concept does this reflect?

meaning dominance

Ty has finished work on his doctoral dissertation. He studied how most adults understand words, specifically the priming effects of categorically related words, and submitted a proposal to be included in a psychological conference to present his work to his peers. Presentations at the conference are grouped based on the particular topic in psychology under consideration. It is most likely that Ty's work will be presented in a conference session on

psycholinguistics

Which of the following is the core concept underlying the Gestalt perspective on problems?

representation

The circle problem, in which the task is to determine the length of a line inside a circle, was proposed to illustrate

representation and reconstructing

At a lunch meeting with a client, the CEO of Gossip Polls, Inc., was asked to determine America's favorite day of the week. Hundreds of Gossip employees across the U.S. started collecting data immediately, calling people at their residences. One hour later, the attitudes from 10,000 Americans, across all 50 states, were collected. A staff member called the CEO, still at her lunch meeting, to tell her the results of the poll: America's favorite day of the week is Monday. Given your text's discussion of inductive reasoning in science, we might suspect that the observations in this poll are not representative because

the people who are home to answer the phone in the early afternoon are not an appropriate cross-section of the U.S. population

Gabrielle is blonde, extremely attractive, and lives in an expensive condo. If we judge the probability of Gabrielle's being a model quite high because she resembles our stereotype of a model, we are using

the representativeness heuristic.

In an experiment that combined both physiological and behavioral approaches to the study of decision making, prefrontal cortex activity was recorded while participants accepted or rejected proposals to split a sum of money ($10). Prefrontal cortex activation was

the same for accepted and rejected offers.

Janet is alone in a room that contains a chair and a shelf with a book resting on top. She attempts to retrieve the book, but the shelf is a foot above her reach. How will Janet retrieve the book? Psychologists would NOT classify this scenario as a problem because

the solution is immediately obvious.