The Enlightenment, Changes in the 18th Century

Gender Roles

Women are starting to take a bigger role in more events

Empiricism

idea that you search for knowledge and that it comes through massive amounts of observation and experimentation -John Locke was the most famous Empiricist of the time

Maria Theresa

Austria (1740-1780) -waged wars both with and against Prussia -reduced serfdom more than any other Eastern European ruler before her ~limits the power of the nobles

Joseph II

Austria (1765-1790) -Maria's son; most enlightened ruler of the time period -they were co-rulers between 1765 and 1780 -a year after his mother's death, he abolished serfdom altogether -grants economic freedom to all peasants -incorporated freedom of speech, press, and religion -creates a more equal justice system -makes German the official language to help minorities and help everyone communicate more effectively which increases both trade and governmental work -increases the government's control over education -Austria can't keep up with all his reforms after he dies and is let in economic and political turmoil

Agricultural revolution

there was a need for change as there was not enough food for the growing population

Frederick II "The Great" of Prussia

(1740-1786) -Prussia became a European power in the years following the 30 years war 1. Frederick as a War Leader -first part of his reign were he is focused on war, conquest, and increasing the power and prestige in Prussia War of the Austrian Succession (1749-1748) -war over who would take the throne in Austria -2 sides: Prussia, France, Spain, Boveria vs. Austria and Russia -all three major central powers are involved -Prussia and its alliance are victorious and take territory of Silesia from Austria -establishes Prussia as the most powerful of the Germanic states in the former HRE Seven Years war (1756-1763) -also known as the French and Indian war in American History -two areas (or theaters) of war -Prussia is fighting against France, Russia, and Austria -France is fighting against England in America for control over both the colonies and parts of Canada -early on in the war, Britain allies with Prussia because they recognize that France fights Prussia in Europe and Britain in the Americas -the British went to give assistance to prolong the war in Europe -Prussia is outnumbered by their enemies 15:1 -near the end of the war when Russia is about to destroy Prussia, Peter III, leader of Russia, lets them off the hook and they make peace -Treaty of Paris (1763) brings an end to the war in both Europe and the Americas -England wins in the Americas 2. Frederick as Reformer - refers to himself as "First servant of the state" -his goal is to do what's right for the overall population of Prussia -incorporates all progressive reforms -encourages immigration to build up their economy -Prussia remains with social sections of the class system and it is very hard to move up- especially in the middle class -serfdom is still in effect and junkers have privilege

Baron de Montesquieu

-"Spirit of Laws" (1748) is his most famous work -believed that only though separation of powers and a system of checks and balances could a government be prevented from becoming a tyranny-> absolute governments control people and make laws without considering the needs of the people -the government should have 3 distinct branches 1. judicial to interpret the law; court system 2. legislative to make the law; parliament 3. executive to enforce the law; president -many of his ideas are the foundation of our government -believed in the rights of the individual citizen and the duty of the government to protect people's natural rights and freedom

open field system

-A method of farming used by almost everyone during the Middle Ages -about 30 to 50% of all fields lay fallow -they didn't form on it -they didn't need to grow on the rest of the land because they were already producing enough for their people and there was no point in overworking

Paul d' Holbach

-Believe that humans are machines governed by outside forces -believe that Deism in a religion combined with philosophy was garbage -any idea of religion or God is ridiculous to him; no free will -stated that we are basically machines governed by outside forces and that our environment reacts with us and we are reacting to it

Adam Smith

-English man that wrote wealth of Nations in "1776" -firmly believed and lassiez fair capitalism -Believe this because it would produce greater wealth for a nation -natural laws of economics 1. Law of supply and demand -if there is a want or a need for a product someone will supply it -The most innovative businesses recognize a potential need or want and create those things 2. Law of Competition -suppliers must meet the consumer needs and abilities to pay -they offer their goods out a price you're willing to pay - charge too much and not selling enough charge to little lose money -multiple companies can have the same product but competition is created by advertisements, sales, etc. 3. Law of self interest -The self interest of the business owner to make money keep the economy going -No need for the government to interfere because the population will run the economy -a flaw of his theory is that it is virtually impossible in today society for a government to not be involved

Jean Jacques Rousseau

-Most influential of the philosophes to the French Revolution -most famous work is "the social contract" -Believed in the equality of all people, but that woman should be subordinate to men -favored a government based on the general will-the desires of the majority->individuals put aside their personal interest to create a general will that observes what is best for the collective group -The government has the responsibility to do what is best for the majority of their population and the majority of the population is often peasants -opposed to any political or social restrictions placed by the government -"Man is born free and everywhere is in chains" Constantly constrained by laws that serve to benefit a small percentage

Methodism

-New religion that taught the need for spiritual real wakening and a moral life that demonstrates the reality of the conversion -John Wesley is the key leader of this movement. Carried over into the United States during what was known as the "great awakening"

Cornelius Vemuyden

-Noticed that they had to drain the excess water to get it out -The drained soil was rich in nutrients because it had never been used -His method was also incorporated in the low lands in Britain

Mary Wollstonecraft

-One of Europe's first true feminist Wrote vindication of the rights of woman in 1792 -Heavily in support of women's education and a role in politics -very outspoken and advocated for women to have true equality -recognize that education and politics could give them power

Low Countries

-The area north of France and west of the Holy Roman Empire -Much of the land is very swampy -A lot of the land went on used because it was simply too wet -Populations increased and they needed more food -Cornelius Vemuyden was very important in this process

Cottage industry

-also known as the "putting out system" -Merchants created special agreements with farmers on the outside of the city -Merchants would go up to each form and buy the products/manufactured goods and then market up to make profit -Many people transition to urban areas as a result

Enlightened Despotism

-although the Enlightenment is led by intellectual elites, it will begin to impact the lower class -are the monarchs going to acknowledge that people want change

John Locke

-argued in "Two Treatises on Civil Government" that the people should have more power (parliament) -the government's role is to protect natural rights -his views become more prevalent in 1700's -talked about humanity and how we should be advancing in or society -wrote "Essay Concerning Human Understanding" in 1690 -created the concept of the Tabula Rasa, meaning blank slate and that you 're free of any sort of beliefs and expectations -how you develop is entirely dependent on your environment- both physically and mentally -if individuals are this way, it must be true that everyone is this way -ultimately arguing that we should become educated -foundations of the future of public education

Rationalists

-argued that reason is the authority for any action -as long as you can argue that it is a rational decision, it should be considered to be acceptable -Rene Descartes was a famous rationalist -many believed in logic and the deductive method -Baruch Spinoza was a rationalist

American Revolution

-begins in 1776 and the Declaration of Independence is issued -The ideas of mini enlightenment philosophers impacted the document -John Locke's ideas for seem very heavily in the document -War between the colonists and the British -France help the colonies because they wanted to get back at Britain -The colonists would not have gained independence as early as I did if they do not have -French assistance -The league of armed neutrality formed -Band together to if you still allowed Britain to control trade against them -Made up of Russia Prussia Sweden Denmark Ottomans -Netherlands was also fighting against England as they were still upset over trade

Marquis de Condorcet

-believed that human progress would continue to occur -led to perfection and the idea of a society being perfect -idea that since we have the power to progress, we should strive for the best

David Hume

-believed that our ability to reason and understand everything has limitations - skeptic that undermined some key enlightenment philosophies before him -emphasize nature and passion as key things that people needed to appreciate influence the early romanticist period

Enclosure movement

-brings an end to crop rotation and the idea of communal fields -Agriculturalists close the land and then divided then sold off -Somewhat problematic for the peasants because they were left with very small in poor quality plots of land -Many governments began to pass game laws and started to restrict people of hunting certain animals without a special license -Problematic for the presence as this is how they got their source of protein -Caused a lot of friction between the lower class in the upper class -Possibly gave poor people a reason to move to urban areas

Edward Gibbon

-famously wrote "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" -targets Christianity as one of the key reasons for the decline of the Roman Empire -felt that the church has too much influence on society

Immanuel Kant

-greatest of the later period of enlightenment thinkers -separated science and morality into two separate branches of knowledge -believe that there are some spheres that science cannot explain and what's right and wrong-morality- is one of those things -believed that science can explain the natural phenomena of the natural world but cannot provide a guide for how we should act -believed that religion was necessary to provide a guide to morality -argued that John Locke's Tabula Rasa theory wasn't right and the mind does not reflect the world around it but imposed "categories of understanding" -we all process the world differently because of power mind is organized -our perceptions are as much a product of her own minds activity as they are of the experiences that we have.

Inventions

-mainly in the area of cloth production/textiles -Weaved cloth more effectively -Began with wool but really began to pick up with cotton -Fairly cheap to make cotton which allowed people to have more outfits and improving sanitation

Progressive Reforms

-monarchs adopting some level of Enlightenment ideas -first reforms to be made that have new ways of thinking as their basis

Impact of the American Revolution

-no one expected to colonies to win and when they did Britain give up on the colony -Inspired many liberals and progressive minded people to seek change -Burdened the French treasury as they use their money to help the colonies

Voltaire

-pen name was Voltaire but real name was Francois-Marie Arouet -used wit and satire to promote the concept of a limited monarchy -emphasized freedom of speech and religion and felt that everyone should have them as a natural right -opposed all forms of discrimination and intolerance, including slavery -strongly against the RCC as he felt it was abusive in the past and during his time and wanted to control too much -believed that through reason, society could toward more liberty and make injustices disappear -"Candid"- novel about noblemen and how silly it was that he had so much money while others were struggling to survive -"Letters concerning the English"- spent time in England and admired their form of government, believing that France should adopt the idea of parliament -Anti-Semite: he was intolerant of Jews -"I may disapprove of what you say, but I will defend tot he death your right to say it"

Importance of the New world

-provided products such as lumber, fish, and tobacco -Huge market for British goods as there is a large population in the 13 colonies -Sleeves are very important to making as much money as they did -Spain is still very wealthy as they take part in a significant amount of trade -Portugal was over Purcell which is made up of 50% of slaves

Francois Quesnay

-referred to as a Physiocrat -his studies led him to believe that mercantilism was among one of the worst forms of economy -recognize that the mercantilist theory only benefits a very small group -advocated for complete reform of the economic system of France and Europe -wanted to make the economy more agrarian based to benefit more people

Crop rotation

-shifting the crops you grow on different fields -Allows the soil to naturally replenish itself of nutrients -If you plant the same crap continually the amount you grow will reduce -Came upon this method with experimentation/ scientific method

Salons

-social gatherings take place mainly in Paris France -A lot of intellectual things taking place such as a music performances poetry readings different arts and forms of entertainment -most important artist writers and scientists are meeting together to discuss and share ideas -brilliant people working together meant more advancements -Influential women played a key role in organizing salons and being patronesses and hostesses of them -many woman who did this were connected to royalty -Women were often overlooked as just party planners when mini actually took part in the discussions during salons

Baruch Spinoza

-very interested with nature -believed the universe is very mechanical -pantheist-equates God with nature -focuses on natural law -thinks that there is no such thing as free will and our decisions are reactions

Thomas Paine

-wrote "The Age of Reason" -explained and advocated in his book for deism -believed that God created the universe then stepped back and kept it running which is sometimes referred to as the "clock-maker theory" because a clock keeps running

Changing society in 1700s

1. Child rearing -before the 1700s, children were viewed as small adults and were often mistreated for not being mature enough as they did not understand brain development -"spare the rod, spoil the child"-give them some slack as they are just children -More efforts to educate children; mainly reserved for upper and middle classes 2. Health -The higher the class, the better the house because a better diet and more access to doctors -Health improving overall -First vaccine is created by Edward Jenner -Created for smallpox by testing on animals in on himself -Hospital perform begins to become mandated in separate institutions 3. Religious reform -regulation of local religion by state government in reforming the church hierarchy

Philosophes' points of focus

1. Reason -idea that it is unreasonable to do certain things -philosophers moving more into the direction of equality 2. Nature -natural laws govern the physical world, along with the political and economic world -beneficial to a vast majority of people 3. Happiness -believed to be found if one in a society lives according to natural laws 4. Progress -in the hands of society 5. Liberty -people have the freedom to pursue their own goals as long they are not violating others

3 Major Progressive Reforms

1. Religious Toleration- willingness of many countries and leaders to tolerate more than just their main religions 2. Simplification of Legal Codes -making the law system more effective and smooth -includes the making of laws and defining the law -many laws were out of date and contradicted each other so monarchs had to fix them because more people could read and use the laws to their advantage by justifying rebellion 3. Promotion of practical education -an example of a public school school settings begins to be promoted -originated with John Locke -you need more educated people to develop new business types and help the economy improve

Internal Expansion in Europe

1700: 80% of Western European s were farmers (higher percentage in the East) and mostly lived in poverty -mainly subsisting on grains and a minimal diet because lack of variety -famine, disease, and war limited population growth After 1750: population explosion -reduction of the possibility of mass disease as people began to understand how they work and spread -improved sanitation also decreases the possibility of diseases -transportation allowed for Europe to transfer food within itself -increased food supply to provide for a growing population

Colonial Wars

Anglo-Dutch wars (1700s) -response to the British and the problems they were having with control over the Atlantic and restricting dutch trade -Significantly hurt that shipping and trade with the Americas -Brought an end to The golden age War of Spanish Succession (1701-1713) -as part of the treaty of Utrecht, Britain was able to send one ship of merchandise into panama -Spanish controlled colony -They noticed that they like the British goods in Panama -As they were only allowed to send one ship, they started sending goods in the slaves to the control of Asiento -Spain noticed they were doing this and begin random inspections War of Jenkin's Ear (1739) -during one of the random inspections, a scuffle broke out -Captain Robert Jenkins got involved in his ear was cut off but he preserved his ear in alcohol -Went in front of Parliament and put out his ear and showed how willing to Spanish word to stop to British -Lead to some discussions. Between Britain and Spain that erupted it into a war -Led into the war of Austrian succession War of Austrian Succession(1740-48) -Britain's supports Austrian France support Prussia Seven years War (1754-63) -same as previous

German Pietism

Argued for a need for a spiritual conversion and religious experience -Reincorporating people to what they had done before

England

Charles Townshend -Late 1600s to early 1700s -Experiments with crop rotation -Sometimes referred to as turn up town Shende because he mainly grew turnips -Recognized that you don't need to leave land unused at anytime you need to have a leaf or the lies the land using animal products drain the soil and irrigate the soil to replace the key nutrients of the water taken out -Allows you to get more production out of the land without ruining it Jethro Tull -Created the seed drill -An animal posted machine while it creates a hole in the ground it drops a seed -Made the planting of crops more efficient and less wasteful -One of the first people to experiment with the breeding of livestock to create the best animals

Denis Diderot

Credited with "Encyclopedia" -A collection of the greatest and most representative intellectual achievements of the philosophers of the enlightenment -compiles key parts of the major works and puts them into one volume -allows the average person to not have to buy each work

Significance of the Enlightenment

Enlightened despotism -Kings are starting to change some of their policies Revolutions -Took place in both the United States and Europe Educational reform -many governments are pressured to start being willing to offer broader-based education to more of their population Laissez-faire capitalism -more countries are moving away from mercantilism and looking at this economy system as more of a possibility -do United States is the first want to try and incorporate this style of economy

Louis XV

France (1715) -ruled in a very absolute way like his predecessors -influence by one of his mistresses, Madame de Pompadour ~helped to make some key decisions in France -at this time, the nobility were dedicated to trying to prevent an absolute ruler from coming to government -the Parliament of Paris is created to try to block Louis XV's absolutist ambitions -Louis is able to get them to dissolve, allowing his to retain absolutism -France is driven further into debt as a result

Louis XVI

France (1774-1792) -reinstates the Parliament of Paris because of strong public opinion and pressure to avoid revolution -struggled with the nobility and the middle class -led to the French Revolution

religious opposition

Many religious groups fear that the enlightenment philosophers were encouraging people to leave their religions so they reached out and tried to combat it

Catherine the Great

Russia (1762-1798) -also known as Catherine II, wife of Peter III -least Enlightened of the kings and queens of this time-not a lot of change -continues the westernization process that began under Ivan IV ~mainly through importing European architecture, sculptures, and music -somewhat progressive forms that were also pretty limited -allowed religious toleration but to specific groups only -some level of educational movement but very minor -somewhat of local control of the Boyars (Russian nobles) over the population -reduced the amount of torture that the federal government used Pugachev Rebellion (1773) -largest peasant uprising in Russian history -Catherine realizes that she cannot rule over this large mass of land alone so she promises the Boyars more power in their local area if they end the war ~caused things to get better for the nobles and worse for the lower/middle class -Russia continues to expand its territory by taking over parts of Poland, Crimea, and the Caucasus mountain range

Great Britain

Strongest power in Europe during this time. They had territory and every single continent Experimenting with capitalism still primarily mercantilist Their colonies are in existence only to benefit the mother country Recognize that that trade was their main competitor Created the navigation laws that reduce dutch trade in the Atlantic ~ rebooting trade with another lens merchant ships in colonies ~ placed laws that produced and hurt dutch shipping and economy

Atlantic Economy

The Atlantic Ocean is becoming necessary to the success of Europe -Beginning's of globalization as no Country can depend on only itself to provide everything it needs -Spains empire begins to revitalize as they are making money off their colonies

Philosophes

Thinkers during the Enlightenment that made ideas available to a wider audience -more of the documents of this time are accessible and understandable to the average person who could read and write and the number of people able to do so is increasing -gained support by people reading

Deism

a belief system for the major thinkers of the time period -allowed them to reconcile their devotion to religion and belief in God with their belief in scientific thinking -grows out of Isaac Newton's theories regarding law -arguing that the book of Genesis is accurate but after creation, he just steps back and watches things go -belief in free will- acting on one's own discretion -if God has not taken a role in society and humanity after creation, that means in order for progress to occur, they had to rely on themselves

Physiocrat

an economic theorist who looked for natural law to explain how and economy could best function

Age of Reason

another term for the Enlightenment -period when new ideas spread that resulted in great change -for the average person, things weren't really changing in periods before the Enlightenment -more people in the middle and lower classes gained access to new ideas -beginnings of social changes that developed in the 1800's -a time when Enlightenment thinkers challenged traditional authority, including the church and absolute monarchs -encouraged the improvement of society through the use of reason -more people embraced secular over religious views of the world -making the best situation of people at large

France during the Enlightenment

center of the Enlightenment because they are also the center of European Absolutism -Bourbon dynasty is still ruling but has a hard time recovering from the rule of Louis XIV who left them economically burdened

Madame de Pompadour

famous mistress of Louis XV that held salons

bubble act

forbid the existence of Joint stock companies except those specifically chartered by the government

South Sea Company

joint stock company that exploded the Asiento -Existed to transport slaves to the British colonies -To increase people investing in the company they allowed people to turn in government bonds as payment for their stocks -The company began to worry that their stock values would go down and in 1720 the "south sea bubble" burst -As a result, the company took the bonds to government and told them that they owed them money because people used bonds as payment -This angered the government cause them to create the "bubble act" -Bubble act: forbid the existence of Joint stock companies except those specifically chartered by the government

Thomas Hobbes

views on government: -giving up individual rights to create independence that is embodied by the king in return for protection of each other -based out of self-interest