Theo 107 FINAL EXAM

The Five Great Vows Jainism

Ahimsa - Do no harm to any living thing Satya - Speak the truth Achaurya/Asteya - Do not steal Brahmacharya - Be chaste Aparigraha - Renounce all possessions

Therapeutic/Antitherapeutic Ritual

Attempts to heal or cause sickness

Revitalization Ritual

Attempts to revitalize a culture or religion seen as dying

Salvation Ritual

Attempts to save a person from a corrupt, polluted, sinful, or lost state

Kinds of Yoga

Bhakti - discipline of devotion to the divine Karma - discipline of action; performing selfless acts & acting according to one's dharma Jnana - discipline of knowledge; overcoming of ignorance and false views that keep us bound Hatha - discipline of postures; the most popular kind of yoga in the US Raja - based off of the Yoga-sutras of Patanjali

Mary Douglas (1921-2007)

British anthropologist In 1949, she did field work with the Lele people in the Congo Published Purity & Danger in 1966 Douglas argued that religious purity rules are not related to our modern conceptions of hygiene

Free Will Theodicy

Evil comes out of our own actions. God does not actively create evil in response to our sings; rather, the evil comes forth from our sin

Recompense Theodicy

Evil exists as the result of deserved punishment. When people sin, God punishes them. Predestination is a version of recompense theodicy, in which sin is predetermined

Exclusivism

Only one religion is true, and the rest are false People who are not a member of your religion are destined for a bad end Many missionary religions are exclusivist

Cluster Definitions

Rather than trying to find an "essence" of religion, cluster definitions instead try to find "family resemblances"

Women in Patriarchal Religions

Six of the ways that women act within patriarchal religions: Acceptance Rejection Creativity within existing structures Active protest Retrieval Reappropriation

Social Constructionist Def.

Social Constructionist definitions leave it to the members of a society to define religion Thus: Something is a religion if its members say it is a religion The word "religion" itself will mean different things for different cultures Alan Aldridge (2007) argues that Scientology should be considered a religion because that is how they conceive of themselves

Purity

Some religions have concepts of "purity" and "impurity," and there are certain things that you cannot do while you are impure Impure Brahmins, for example, cannot perform their daily worship to the gods; they need to wash first Many have theorized that concepts of purity derive from an intuition about our modern understandings of germ theory S.H. Kellog (1841): "It is probable that the chief principle determining the laws of this chapter will be found in the region of hygiene and sanitation" However, this doesn't explain some of the purity laws common in religions Why is pork banned in Judaism and Islam, when we know it's safe to eat? Why is cooked food more likely to pass on impurities than uncooked food?

Extrovertive mysticism

The unity of all things is seen beyond the multiplicity (Stace)

Substantive Definitions

What a religion is Davis v. Beason (1890): Religion has reference to one's views of his relations to his Creator, and to the obligations they impose of reverence for his being and character, and of obedience to his will Max Weber (1905): Religion is belief in a superior or supernatural power that is above nature and cannot be explained scientifically Paul Tillich (1963): Religion is the state of being grasped by an ultimate concern, a concern which qualifies all other concerns as preliminary and which itself contains the answer to the questions of the meaning of life

War

While most religions advocate for avoiding war as much as possible, they do not outright prohibit it Most religious traditions admit that war can be unavoidable, and even good, at times. They will, however, set up rules for when and how a war is to be fought Jus ad bellum and Jus in bello

Wiccan Mysticism

Wicca is a mystic religion within Paganism. We are an organic and evolving religion. As more people take part, we will continue to grow, change and evolve

Expressive Function of Myth

- myths are good stories that entertain - humans like telling them

Archetypes and Mythology

-In the mythologies of the world, we come across similar types of characters and themes -For example, both the creation myths of Babylon and Judaism contain ideas of cosmos and chaos (order & disorder)

Communal Meal Sacrifice

-Sacrifices arose out of community meals, and the desire to include the divine in them

ideological ritual

A ritual that delineates codes of proper behavior, promotes community solidarity, articulates the community's worldview, and assists the community in managing crises. Seeks to change the mood, behavior, sentiments, motivations, or values of the people, usually for the sake of the community as a whole

Misconceptions About Hijra Continued

One of the key differences between transgender and hijra is the ritual of leaving one's home This ritual is time honored and is more of a forcing out than a leaving After one leaves the home they undergo a clan of hijras led by an elder known as a nayak and after, the new inductee is now known as a chela Nayak's and chela's have their own codes of conduct and they sometimes speak in variations of local languages in order to keep secrecy

Jain Teachings

One's soul (jiva) is eternal, and karma determines how one will be born Moksha is a blissful state of existence, free from all karma One dwells in Siddhashila (apex of the universe) with infinite knowledge and perfection Jains do not believe in a creator God; gods exist, but they are also subject to samsara The universe itself is also subject to something like samsara; humanity goes through a series of 21,000-year long ages in which morality improves and declines We are currently in a period of decline; no one can currently attain moksha

Sama (Sema) Sufi Whirling Dervishes

Participants spin around in an attempt to focus on God who is the center and source of their world. Members of the Mevlevi order in Turkey have travelled to perform the sema in public in Sicily, Jerusalem, Granada, Cairo, Karlsruhe, Bavaria, Helsinki and Stockholm as well as several places in the USA. Some Muslims reject the tradition because it wasn't practiced by the prophet Muhammad and early Muslims. Some scholars see it as the foreign world leaking into their religious tradition.

The Affirmations of Humanism

Paul Kurtz is considered the Father of Secular Humanism Paul Kurtz wrote these affirmations to show the vision of the world that secular humanists strive for

Where do religions come from?

Phenomenologists: Religions cannot be reduced to non-religious factors. The supernatural (or mystical, for non-theistic religions) is at work in the religions of the world. Reductionists: Religions can be explained by cultural, biological, social, historical, economic, psychological, etc. factors

Islamic Scripture

Quran - Revelations to Muhammad by Allah through Gabriel Contains 114 surahs, or chapters Precisely memorized by Muhammad and written down by his companions (sahabah) Hadith - "Words, deeds or silent approval" of Muhammad

The Problem of Spiritual Community

Rahner believes that one's faith must also be expressed externally How does this work for the anonymous Christians? Non-Christian religions can serve as a substitute "Not to be thought of as ways of salvation independent of Christ, who is the unique source of the grace by which their adherents are saved." Non-Christian religions have "supernatural elements in them, which make them apt to serve as mediations of [the] divine grace" Non-Christian religions can still have negative effects, but one cannot discount the positive effects they could have in reaching salvation

Karl Rhaner

Rahner was born on March 5th, 1904 in Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany He was a German Jesuit and Roman Catholic priest He began his Jesuit formation in the North German Province in 1922 He was ordained on July 26th, 1932 He studied at the University of Freiburg and eventually received his doctorate at the University of Innsbruck He later taught at the University of Innsbruck from 1937 to 1939 In 1939, Rahner began working for the Pastoral Institute in Vienna At this point, he became active in pastoral work. In 1964, he accepted the Chair for Christianity and the Philosophy of Religion at the University of Munich and taught there until 1967. He died on March 30th, 1984 at the age of 80 in Innsbruck, Austria

Rahner's Philosophy

Rahner was considered to be a part of the Transcendental Thomism school of philosophical thought He's now best known for his work in Christology His ideas integrated personalism and Thomistic realism They put self-consciousness of man and self-transcendence in a sphere in which God was viewed to be the ultimate determinant A lot of this is seen in the Anonymous Christian His first dissertation was titled Geist in Welt, meaning Spirit in the World, and was an interpretation of Thomas Aquinas' epistemology It also included concepts from other philosophers; transcendental Thomism from Joseph Marechal and existentialism from Martin Heidegger In short, his dissertation taught how man's search for meaning is rooted in the endless horizon of God's own being experienced throughout the world

Vedanta Hinduism

Reality is made up of the Brahman (monism) Brahman - impersonal, all-pervading, both synonymous with the universe (imminent) and transcendent of it Everything is a manifestation of the Brahman, including Hinduism's many gods, such as Shiva, Vishnu (Rama, Krishna), Devi, and Brahma People believe that they are separate from the Brahman because of maya ("illusion") Moksha is achieved when one realizes that one's atman is identical with the Brahman

Reductionists

Religions can be explained by cultural, biological, social, historical, economic, psychological, etc. factors

Phenomenologists

Religions cannot be reduced to non-religious factors. The supernatural (or mystical, for non-theistic religions) is at work in the religions of the world.

Religion and Morality

Religions identify moral norms Religions legitimate moral norms Religions motivate people to follow moral norms Usually, this happens through theories of retribution Religions offer a chance for people to renew their moral commitments Religions offer a way for people to overcome their moral failings Religions criticize moral norms in the name of a higher morality

Separation (Politics)

Religious institutions and states operate independently of one another This separation can be understood in either a "separationist" or an "accommodationist" view. Separationist: Religion must be banished from the public square Accommodationist: Pure banishment means that citizens cannot express their religious freedom; "separation" should be limited to the establishment of a national religion and everything else should be permitted Examples: US First Amendment: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof." France: Uses the principle of laïcité, "secularity," to make its decisions

Feminist Critique of Religious Studies

Religious studies suffers from what Rita M. Gross calls "androcentric thinking" The male norm and the human norm are collapsed and become identical. It is assumed that the generic masculine habit of thought, language, and research is adequate; "To study males is to study humanity" When women are considered, they are discussed as an object exterior to mankind, needing to be explained and fitted into one's worldview, and not as a Co-Subject in a mutual attempt to understand human sexual differentiation and all its manifestations

Return

Resurrection Apply what the Hero learned to the Ordinary World Final showdown All lives are at stake Return with Elixir Final Reward Shared with others and the audience Resolution

TRC Positive Effects

Reverend Beyers Naude, left his whites-only church in the late 1970's and joined a black parish within the Dutch Reformed church. The SACC was the most active organization in opposing apartheid. In 1998 the DRC finally declared apartheid as a wrongful and sinful action. Certain individuals within faith communities rose to prominence in the Anti-Apartheid movement as a result of their religious beliefs Anglican Archbishop Desmond Tutu one of South Africa most beloved figure, he connected faith within a political issue to change the situation of South Africa Tutu expresses God intervene in South African liberation. The Institutional Contextual Technology in 1985 produced the Kairos document that rejected state theology and the meek responses of the mainline churches to apartheid. The SABC had become important components of the movement against apartheid both inside the nation and internationally. Afrikaner Minister Veters Badye left the Dutch reformed Church after denouncing its racist teachings. Seen as a traitor to many Afrikaners be became a strong opponent of apartheid. In 1983 Dr. Boesak founded the creation of the United Democratic front to form massive anti government protests.

Initiation

Reward Celebration of Success Item, knowledge, reconciliation Road Back Return back to the Ordinary World

The Noble Eightfold Path

Right View - the Four Noble Truths Right Intention - adopting the life of a religious mendicant Right Speech - no lying or crude speech Right Conduct - no killing or injuring, theft, sex, material desires Right Livelihood - beg to eat, possess only what is essential Right Effort - guard against temptations Right Mindfulness - never be absent-minded Right Concentration - practice meditation correctly

Mircea Eliade (1907-1986)

Romanian historian of religion, fiction writer, philosopher, and professor at UChicago Eliade's theories of sacred & profane spaces & times have a huge impact on religious studies Eliade was a phenomenologist: Places & times were sacred because they were made so by the divine By comparing sacred spaces & times across religions, we could learn something about the divine

Process of Sufi Teaching

Sharia - law Tariqa ; path or way During this stage there is intense intellectual work. Many exercises to develop concentration and perfect energy structures is taught and mastered. Marefat Meditative cognition of God Haqiqat "Haqq" means truth The full unity of the student with the Creator

Hindu Scriptures

Shruti - authorless Four Vedas: Rig-Veda Yajur-Veda Sama-Veda Artharva-Veda Containing four sections: Samhitas - hymns, chants, etc. Brahmanas - ritual instructions Aranyakas - Instructions for recluses Upanishads - Philosophical or religious speculations Smriti - authored, less authoritative Epics Mahabharata (of which the Bhagavad-Gita is a part) Ramayana Puranas - praises of gods and goddesses Legal and moral codes

Theories of Religious Experience

So far in the class, there has been an underlying debate concerning the origin of religion For Durkheim, religion arises out of a societal distinction between sacred and profane For Freud, religion arises out of ritual, and the impulses that it suppresses Today, we will discuss those for whom experience is primary Friedrich Schleiermacher, Rudolf Otto, Ninian Smart, and Charles Glock & Rodney Stark

Sociology of Religion

Sociologists have studied how religion helps to cohere a society together Émile Durkheim, for example, argued that religion is an integrative force in society because it has the power to shape collective beliefs. " A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden—beliefs and practices that unite its adherents into one single moral community called a Church." (The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life) Two other figures important to the sociology of religion are Karl Marx and Max Weber

Church over State

Spiritual power is superior to civil power The religious institution has power to discipline civil authorities if they do not conform to their roles as the church defines them Examples: Catholic Church in Middle Ages, Massachusetts colony In all three of the previous models, one religious institution is recognized as the true religion, and no (or very few) dissenters are allowed. Dissenters could be banished or executed if they refused to conform

Sikh Scriptures

Sri Guru Granth Sahib The first version, the Adi Granth, was compiled by the fifth Guru, Arjan, in 1603-4 CE The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh, stated that it and the Sikh community itself (Panth) would serve as the new Gurus Contains hymns and poems by the first five and ninth Guru, several Muslim and Hindu mystics, and poets associated with the Gurus

Theocracy

Subordinates human rule to the rule of God God does not literally rule, but the state is run by religious officials and laws come from the religion Modern Examples Vatican City: ruled by the Pope of the Roman Catholic Church Mt. Athos: the location of 20 monasteries ruled by the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople, not Greece Iran: theocratic republic, with a Supreme Leader, a Guardian Council, and a president Central Tibetan Administration: ruled by the Dalai Lama until 2011

Eschatological Theodicy

Suffering and evil exist now, but this state is temporary. Eventually, the world will be made right. Two types of eschatological theodicy: this worldly and other-worldly Ex: Mahadists, Apocalypticism

Mysticism Sufism

Sufism twin pillars: selfless service and love Sufi mystics seek to find the truth of knowledge and divine love through personal and direct experience with Allah. This path to God is not through reasoning but through emotions and spirituality Sufi mystics believe humans are on Earth to learn love.

Seven Sufi Teachings:

Surrender to Love Chant the Divine Name Work with your dreams Enter into Devotion and Service Revel in Rumi Dying before you die Honor the Divine Feminine

Case Study of Purity: Islam

Tahara Najasa (external impurities): Contact with blood, pus, urine, or feces Sweat, saliva, tears, and milk are considered clean Hadath (certain activities) Minor: intoxication, flatulence, urination, defecation, touching of genitals, skin contact between marriageable persons, sleeping, fainting Major: intercourse, menstruation, seminal emission Consequences of Impurity One must be clean before engaging in salat, touching or reading the Quran, or entering a mosque For major impurities, one must take a bath (ghusl) This includes the cleaning of the mouth, the nostrils, and the whole body For minor impurities, one must perform an ablution (wudu') This includes washing the face, hands, forearms, and feet If no water is available, one can perform a tayammum Wipe face, hands, and forearms with hands that have touched clean earth

Case Study of Purity: Judaism

Taharah Bodily Functions: bleeding, spitting, vomiting, intercourse, seminal emission, menstruation, childbirth Leprosy Death Contact with Torah also make a person impure Consequences of Impurity:One can't go to the Temple in Jerusalem You can still attend synagogue, study Torah, eat, etc. In order to become clean, usually one should wash in a mikveh Mikvah: a body of collected rainwater at least 40 seahs (~575 liters/152 gallons)

Ka'aba

The First Mosque, constructed by Abraham & Ishmael During the hajj, Muslims must perform Tawaf Walk around the Ka'aba 7 times, counter-clockwise The Ka'aba contains the Black Stone, which is thought to be the only surviving part of the original Ka'aba Other mosques have a niche in the wall called a mihrab that faces the qibla, the direction of Mecca

Buddhist Teachings

The Four Noble Truths Dukkha ("suffering") exists Suffering is caused by attachments Anicca - impermanence Anatta - no-soul To get rid of suffering, one must get rid of attachments One gets rid of attachments through the Noble Eightfold Path

Sexuality in Buddhism

The Four Noble Truths state that suffering comes from desires and that the way to be rid of suffering is to be rid of desires However, only monks and nuns follow a path of complete celibacy The fourth element of the Noble Eightfold Path, "proper action," is interpreted as refraining from killing, stealing, inappropriate sexual conduct, lying, and using intoxicants "Inappropriate sexual conduct" includes adultery and rape, but the Buddhist community is split on whether homosexual behavior is included in this Some Buddhists allow for same-sex relations in adolescent years, but there will be more social stigma for the adult who continues to engage in same-sex behavior In Theravada Buddhism, progress to enlightenment requires abstaining from sex; the Mahayana and Tibetan sects of Buddhism disagree. Both hetero- and homosexual relations can be good if it leads to a religious insight

Separation

The Ordinary World Identify with the Hero Call to Adventure Message Refusal of the Call Fears and risks Meeting the Mentor Learn from someone with wisdom Crossing the Threshold Commitment to the journey From Ordinary World to Special World

War in Islam

The Quran emphasizes both the sanctity of human life and the need to engage in war at times. Jihad - "to strive" or "to struggle" An individual's effort to live according to the will of God and to put into practice the message of justice in God's revelation Armed conflict is referred to as the "lesser jihad". Four possible reasons for armed conflict: self-defense, defense of Islam, to aid the oppressed, and to ward of evil The Quran requires notifying an enemy before an attack, forbids the targeting of children, women, and the elderly, forbids plundering and destruction, and demands the humane treatment of prisoners For many Muslims, oppression is worse than violence

Descent

The Special World Imaginary World Emotional Realm Tests, Allies, Enemies Approach the Inmost Cave Leads to the Journey's heart Preparation and questioning The Ordeal Life-or-death situation "Death"

Sexuality in Judaism

The Torah forbids masturbation, homosexual sex, bestiality, sex with menstruating women, incest, and adultery Polygamy and prostitution are not prohibited The Rabbis permit any sexual activity for married heterosexual couples Sex is allowed on the Sabbath In modern times, the traditional laws of Torah are debated. More liberal Jews allow for masturbation, sex before marriage (the "tefillin date"), and homosexual couples

Wiccan Spirit

The Universe of potential and the Universe of manifestation How Spirit reveals itself The common thread of many religions (if not all religions at their core)

Wiccan Energy

The energy that created the Universe exists without the confines of time and space. It exists everywhere including in every part of us. We are able to use this energy personally The energy present in every part of us is the is the whole of the energy that created everything, in the past and in the future in its entirety. The energy available to us is infinite.

Participation Theodicy

The evil and suffering that we endure now are insignificant in comparison to our greater goals. Your own interests are subordinated to the interests of the larger group. Ex: Chinese ancestor worship, aboriginal religion, army

Profane

The profane is that which is not sacred The word "profane" does not necessarily imply negativity; it is not necessarily something that is bad, but instead it is something that is religiously neutral Despite this, the profane can pose problems for the sacred if they interact

Wiccan Power

The purpose of a ritual or spell is to use energy plus intent to exercise control over a situation. The constant is energy, the variable is intent and the outcome is power. When you change the things you think about, the things you think about change.

Jain Scriptures

The purvas are the true scripture, but these have been lost Digambara ("sky-clad") canon Prakaranas - "Treatises" (1st century CE) Samayasara - "Doctrine" Mulacara - "Conduct" Aradhana - "Accomplishment" Anuyoga - "Supplements" Tattvarthadhigama Sutra - "Treatise on Attaining the Meaning of Principles" Shvetambara ("white-clad") canon Agama - "Tradition" Angas - "Limbs" Upangas - "Sub-limbs" Prakirnakas - miscellaneous writings Chedasutras - disciplinary writings Culikasutras - appendices Mulasutras - fundamental texts

Reference of God in South Africa after apartheid

The song "Nkosi Sikelel' iAfrika" Translates to God Bless Africa, was adopted the national anthem of South Africa in 1994 by late President Nelson Mandela aka (Madiba) The song refers to how God must protect and bless Africa for it to be peaceful and successful in the Lord's word. The song also calls for unity among citizens of the African continent It serves as the national anthem of Tanzania The anthem is a mix of the main languages of South Africa which are Xhosa, Zulu, Sesotho, Afrikaans, Dutch and English.

State over Church

The state regards itself as the protector and overseer of the religion Civil authorities have power to make rules for the religion, including doctrine and the appointment of ecclesiastical officials The state has the power to punish anyone who does not conform to the state's conception of the religion Examples: Byzantine Empire, Church of England

Gender

The word "gender" refers to the set of social and psychological characteristics that a society considers proper for its males and females The sets of characteristics assigned to men are called "masculinities" and those assigned to women are called "femininities" In this definitions, sex is biological and gender is social Cisgender: a person whose gender identity matches their gender assigned at birth Transgender: a person whose gender identity does not match their gender assigned at birth

Sex

The word "sex" refers to biological differences between men and women Chromosome pattern, types of genitalia, balance of sex hormones, etc. The idea that sex is a fixed binary between men and women is challenged by the existence of intersex people Intersex: People who are born with sex characteristics that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY) & Triple-X Syndrome (XXX)

Samkhya Hinduism

The world is dualistic, consisting of spirit and matter The goal is to leave the world of matter Essentially atheistic

Sects of Buddhism

Theravada Views itself as representing the original and authentic teaching of the Buddha Emphasizes pursuit of nirvana through one's own efforts This must occur through meditation, for which the monastic life is best suited Mahayana The largest of the Buddhist traditions Everyone is capable of achieving nirvana, not simply monks & nuns Indeed, it only takes one lifetime to achieve nirvana Showing compassion toward others helps them achieve their nirvana Some bodhisattvas (future Buddhas) remain in samsara in order to help others Vajrayana Tibetan Buddhism Its teachers are the lamas, such as the Dalai and Panchen Lamas

Misconceptions About Hijra

There are many misconceptions made between Hijras and people who are transgender There are many people that could be considered transgender who have existed in societies as long as those societies have existed. In South Asia however, there are distinct groups with histories and traditions that go back thousands of years Instead of using the word transgender, the term most commonly used is "third gender" Hijra could be seen as the western equivalent of transgender but there are differences that separate the two

Hijra Role Among Society

There are many parents that disown their children, so Hijras are forced to the streets like previously stated. They can never turn to police or higher authority, because it is believed that it is the own Hijras fault In cases like rape or sexual assault, Hijras do not have anywhere to turn to but their own community for help and guidance To increase awareness and respect for their community, they invest time in politics, and social media 6 Pack Band Rejection of the Transgender Persons Bill; leaving them left out and took away their culture

Types of Religious Experiences

There are two main types of religious experiences: Numinous: Emphasizes the duality of the worshipper and worshipped (or meditator and meditated) Mystical: Emphasizes the unity of the worshipper and worshipped (or meditator and meditated) This roughly correlates with the two ways of thinking about supernatural beings: Transcendent: The supernatural is something that is, wholly outside the physical world Immanent: The supernatural is manifested in the physical world

Toleration

There is an official religion that is supported by the state by various means (political preference, taxes, etc.) Unlike in the other two models, however, other religions are permitted to organize and worship freely Examples: UK, Scandinavian countries

Other Gurus

There was a succession of 10 gurus in Sikhism The third Guru, Amar Das (1479-1574 CE), abolished the caste system within Sikhism The fifth Guru, Arjan (1563-1606 CE), constructed the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and compiled the Adi Granth The tenth Guru, Gobind Singh (1666-1708), declared himself to be the last human Guru and installed the Granth Sahib as the eternal guru He also established the Khalsa, a holy order within Sikhism

Hijra Understanding Who They Are

They have been around for ages, their group was mentioned in the Kama Sutra that was written between 400 BCE and 200 CE. Hijras are born that way, they do not choose to become one, it is who the are from birth A significant figure they believe represents them is Shiva, who was principal Hindu deity, he merged with his wife Parvati to become the androgynous Ardhanari They were considered to be an incarnation, a third gender with a higher presence They have a recorded history of being in high regard and were bestowed with special powers of luck and fertility to bring to the people. They bless newborn babies, and couples looking to get married, because of the powers they possess This is Laxmi Narayan Tripathi, an advocate for the Third Gender community

Desmond Tutu

This man was the leading spokesman of passive resistance to apartheid in the 1980's. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1983 for his attempts to replace apartheid with a racially equal South African society. He was an Archbishop and was appointed chairman of the TRC. He advocated for preaching forgiveness He believed that forgiveness gave them the opportunity for a new start. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984 for his efforts

Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion (1922)

To define "religion," to say what it is, is not possible at the start of a presentation such as this. Definition can be attempted, if at all, only at the conclusion of the study. The essence of religion is not even our concern, as we make it our task to study the conditions and effects of a particular type of social behavior

Effects of Colonization

Travelers documented presence of "men wearing dresses" since 1650 British Raj Attempted to eradicate Hijras, claiming they promoted "public indecency" Labeled Hijras as a criminal tribe, 1871-1952 Western gender binary became international stigma Hijras were not officially recognized by the Supreme Court until 2014

Essential Definitions of Religion

Tries to get at the quality or set of qualities that makes something what it is an not something else Essence

The TRC and Religion

Tutu and Boraine Desmond Tutu - Archbishop Dr. Alex Boraine - Political figure against apartheid Two prominent Christian leaders that were also heads of TRC Hearings held in churches Hymns were sung, scripture was read Very much inspired by Christian sacrament of Penance Critics say because of the ritualistic nature, justice was left forgotten

How it compares to definitions learned in class

Versus substantive definitions, there's no authority found Versus functional and cluster definitions, there is no unity Versus social constructionist theory, they do not consider themselves to be a religion

Critiques of Virtue Ethics

Virtue ethics' biggest strength is also its biggest weakness: its flexibility Virtuous things to do depend on the context of the situation How do you know you're imitating someone virtuous?

Typologies of Mysticism

Walter T. Stace argued that there were two types of mysticism: Extrovertive - The unity of all things is seen beyond the multiplicity Introvertive - All sense and concept disappears, and the mystic experiences a state of pure consciousness R. C. Zaehner argued that there were three types of mysticism: Nature - Expansion of ego to include all of nature Soul/Monistic - Experience of pure consciousness, identifies with pure reality Theistic - ecstasy of union, but not identification, with the divine

Wiccan Ritual

We cleanse ourselves. We cleanse the space and tools (if needed). We cast a circle creating sacred space. We ask for the Energies of the God, Goddess, Spirit, Air, Fire, Water and Earth. We state our intention. We raise energy (static or ecstatic). We ground energy We thank all that are present We release the circle

Wiccan Principles

We practice rights to attune ourselves with the natural rhythm of life forces (phases of the moon and seasons). We recognize that we have been given a unique responsibility to care for our environment. We acknowledge a depth of power far greater than that apparent to many people. The "supernatural" to us is natural. We do not recognize a hierarchy. We do honor and respect those who share their knowledge and experience. We do not believe in good and evil outside forces that have the ability to control our life. We believe we are responsible for the choices in life. (there are no good or bad decisions. There are only decisions and they come with rewards and consequences).

Weber's Theory of Capitalism

Weber argued, contra Marx, that capitalism was caused by religion; specifically, the Protestant Reformation According to Weber, the Protestant Reformation brought two important new ideas that led to capitalism: Martin Luther suggested that all work could be sacred, not just the work of priests, monks, & nuns. John Calvin argued for predestination; your fate has already been determined. Predestination caused Calvinists to be anxious about their eternal fate At some point, it was suggested that your material success is reflective of how blessed you are. Thus, people were driven to be more materially successful, contributing to the formation of capitalism

Max Weber (1864-1920)

Weber was influenced by Marx, but he disagreed with him Weber argued that a person's motivations are complex and cannot be reduced to a single theoretical system Thus, the theories that explain religions need to be multiple and interacting

Functional Definitions

What a religion does Émile Durkheim (1912): A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and surrounded by prohibitions - beliefs and practices that unite its adherents in a single moral community called a church Milton Yinger (1970): Where one finds awareness and interest in the continuing, recurrent, permanent problems of human existence - the human condition itself, as contrasted with specific problems; where one finds rites and shared beliefs relevant to that awareness, which define the strategy of an ultimate victory; and where one has groups organized to heighten that awareness and to teach and maintain those rites and beliefs - there one has religion

Hijra in Modern Society

While a recognized part of Indian society, Hijra hold low social status Mostly excluded from mainstream social and economic life Hijra are often expelled from their families at an early age Hijra are often denied education Only about 40% of Hijra are literate, Compared to roughly 75% of the Indian population as a whole Due to this exclusion from society and education, many Hijra resort to sex work to provide for themselves Participating in sexual actions with Hijra is considered taboo

Trinitarianism

While all three Abrahamic religions are monotheistic, Christianity has a different understanding of God than Judaism and Islam Judaism and Islam are unitarian monotheists, which means they believe that God is one Christians also believe that God is one, but within that unity there are three "persons" - God is triune ("one in three") The three persons are: God the Father God the Son (Jesus) God the Holy Spirit

Antitheodicies

Why do you try to solve the problem of evil at all? Submission to the Mystery, the problem can't be solved; instead, know that God is powerful and that God knows what God is doing. Protest: the problem can't be solved, but I don't have to submit to God. Elie Wiesel puts God on trial

Jewish Scripture

Written Torah: The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) Torah ("Teaching") - Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy Nevi'im ("Prophets") Former Prophets - Joshua, Judges, Samuel, Kings Latter Prophets - Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel Minor Prophets - Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah Ketuvim ("Writings") Poetic - Psalms, Proverbs, Job Megillot - Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, Esther Historical - Daniel, Ezra-Nehemiah, Chronicles Oral Torah: The Talmud Mishnah Gemara - Commentary on the Mishnah

Eight Limbs of Raja Yoga

Yama - "restraints," withholding from certain behaviors, including theft, lying, sex, etc. Niyama - "disciplines," engaging in certain behaviors, including cleanliness, serenity, asceticism, study, etc. Asana - bodily postures, moving and contorting one's body so as to make the effort required to maintain that posture disappear Pranayama - regulation of breath, such that it becomes rhythmic and progressively slower Pratyahara - emancipation from sensory activity Dharana - concentration (through ekagrata, focusing on one point) Dhyana - meditation Samadhi - union between the meditator and the thing meditated

Hinduism

"Hinduism" is not a unified whole, but is made up of a number different belief systems What we call "Hinduism" today is the result of many different "Hinduisms" coming together and presenting themselves to the Islamic and Western worlds Hinduism can be: Polytheistic - the belief in multiple gods Henotheistic - the belief in multiple gods, but one God reigns supreme over those gods Shiva (Shaivas), Vishnu (Vaishnavas), and Devi (Shaktas) Monotheistic - the gods are embodiments of the one God Monistic - all things are emanations of a single Principle Atheistic

Messiah

"Messiah" came to mean a savior and liberator of the Jewish people King Cyrus of Persia is called the Messiah in Isaiah 45:1 A more specific Messiah began to be discussed, based on God's promise to David in 2 Sam 7:16 "Your house and your kingdom will endure forever before me; your throne will be established forever" The descendant was expected to come, overthrow the ruling power, and reestablish the dynasty of David

Wicca 5 Elements

"The Boundless" indefinite substance that makes up the entire universe Air- Our thoughts, intellect, learning, inspiration, etc. Fire - Passion, change, movement, doing without thinking. Water - Our emotions. Earth - Our foundation

Karl Rahner's "Anonymous Christian"

"[T]he 'Anonymous Christian' in our sense of the term is the pagan after the beginning of the Christian mission, who lives in the state of Christ's grace through faith, hope, and love, yet who has no explicit knowledge of the fact that his life is orientated in grace given salvation to Jesus Christ" "[E]ven outside the Christian body there are individuals — and they are to be found even in the rank of atheists — who are justified by God's grace and possess the Holy" - Doesn't know the teaching of Christianity, isn't considered Xtian -Can even not believe in any religious beliefs at all (atheists). As long as they are living the values of Christianity

Magick

(Spells)which is the the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will, using means not currently understood by traditional Western science, for the purpose of obtaining the Knowledge and Communication with higher powers. Millions of people over thousands of years have given energy and intent toward the meanings. Energy + Intent = Power Energy - The capacity to do work Intent - An aim or purpose Power - to gain control

Carl Jung: Archetypes

- Cognitive categories that human beings are born with to think, feel, perceive, and act in specific ways - Archetypes are not something that we perceive directly (since they are in the unconscious), but they manifest themselves in images, symbols, and mythology - Archetypes express themselves differently in each person

Psychological Functions of Myth

- establish a way of thinking about oneself - show us how we need to think and act in order to conform with this way of thinking

Carl Jung's Theory of Mind

- mind is made up of two parts: conscious (ego) and unconscious - ego is what we are aware of: thoughts, desires, sensory perception, etc. - unconscious is what we aren't aware of -unconscious is made up of two parts: personal and collective

Ideological Functions of Myth

- myths establish beliefs that form the basis of a political, economic, or religious system

Theistic Mysticism

ecstasy of union, but not identification, with the divine

Rationalistic Theory of Myth

- similar to the functionalist theory, but more specific - Myths are attempts to explain things, similar to scientific theories

Revelational Experience

- the person is taken into the confidence of the divine, and is given divine knowledge - the one who has the religious experience comes away with new, divine knowledge Individual - information revealed is relevant to the person Communal - information revealed is relevant to the community

Sacrifices

-A sacrifice is the act of giving something up =>There are three elements to a sacrifice: the one making the sacrifice, the victim, and the recipient -A religious sacrifice is a sacrifice in which one or more of the central parties involved is believed to be, or to represent, an agent of the superhuman realm =>The divine is usually the recipient of the sacrifice -The most discussion surrounding religious sacrifice has been about the victim, the thing sacrificed

Freud & Sexual Development

-According to Freud, a human male goes through rapid sexual development early in life (from 1-5) -During this development, he becomes aware of his parents' sexual relationship and becomes jealous of it -Oedipus Complex: the desire to kill one's father and to replace him as his mother's sexual partner

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

-Austrian neurologist and founder of psychoanalysis -Developed the theories of the unconscious mind & repression -Like the Myth & Ritual School, Freud believed that rituals were primary for religions -However, they were not based on imitating the natural world, but in psychology

Freud's Theory of Unconscious

-Basic biological impulses exist in the unconscious because they cannot exist in the conscious =>Have you ever "thought hungry?" No, you simply are hungry, and then think about where to eat -Thoughts & emotions can also end up in the unconscious in one of two ways: =>They drift down & become memories =>They are actively repressed -Repressed thoughts & emotions don't simply go away, but they come back out in the form of actions: movements, fears, attachments, behaviors, and rituals

Exchange/Thanksgiving Sacrifice

-Exchanges =>One gives up something in order to get something else in return -Thanksgiving =>One gives up something because they have already gotten something else in return

René Girard (1923-2015)

-French historian, literary critic, and philosopher of social science -Girard's research focused on comparative literature -Published Violence and the Sacred in 1972 -Girard sees sacrifice as the root of religion, and attributes it to what he calls "mimetic desire"

Rituals & Neuroses

-Freud noticed a parallel between religious rituals and the repetitive activities of neurotic people =>Both place great emphasis on doing things in a patterned, ceremonial fashion =>Both feel guilty if the action is not performed perfectly -This led him to argue that both neuroses and religious rituals are actions born out of repression =>Religious rituals result from the repression of selfishness =>Freud called religion "a universal obsessional neurosis"

Myth & Ritual School

-In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, many scholars argued that myths & rituals were linked -These scholars usually argued that ritual arose first and that myths were created to explain the rituals -In order to understand a myth, then, one would need to understand the ritual with which it was associated -Eventually, the ritual would die out, leaving the myth without context -Thus, many in this school attempted to reconstruct the ritual patterns that myths were based upon, including in more recent works, like those of Shakespeare & F. Scott Fitzgerald

Freud's Theory of Mind

-Like Jung after him, Freud believed that the mind was divided into two parts: the conscious and the unconscious -He also divided the unconscious into two parts: => Preconscious: The part of the unconscious that a person can immediately call upon => Unconscious: The hidden part of the mind that houses our deeper desires (both physical & emotional)

Enuma Elish (Babylonian Genesis)

-Marduk, the champion of the young gods in their war against Tiamat - In the beginning, there was only undifferentiated water swirling in chaos. Out of this swirl, the waters divided into sweet, fresh water, known as the god Apsu, and salty bitter water, the goddess Tiamat. Once differentiated, the union of these two entities gave birth to the younger gods -Tiamat, once the supporter of the younger gods, now is enraged that they have killed her mate. She make war on the younger gods -Ea, Enki, and the younger gods fight against Tiamat futilely until, from among them, emerges the champion Marduk who swears he will defeat Tiamat -Marduk defeats Quingu and kills Tiamat by shooting her with an arrow which splits her in two; from her eyes flow the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Out of Tiamat's corpse, Marduk creates the heavens and the earth, he appoints gods to various duties -Ea created mankind/On whom he imposed the service of the gods, and set the gods free

Jung: Four main Archetypes

-Persona—ways to behave in a society -Shadow—repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, shortcomings -Animus/ma—the male part of the female psyche/the female part of the male psyche -Self—unified unconsciousness and consciousness

Phenomenology vs Myth/Ritual School

-Phenomenologists were not fans of the Myth & Ritual School -For phenomenologists, myths are a way of understanding the supernatural; to claim that they were based on rituals, the activity of humans, was to undercut this understanding -Thus, phenomenologists minimized the importance of ritual => Eliade, for example, argued that rituals were secondary, a way of human beings to react to the myths and symbols they had => Rituals help human beings participate in sacred time

Rituals

-Ritual involves stylized, symbolic bodily gestures and actions (including verbal actions) usually repeated in specified ways on occasions of significance and in special contexts frequently involving what the participants take to be sacred presences

Types of Rituals

-Technological: Seek to produce or prevent a change of state in nature for the benefit of people -Therapeutic/Antitherapeutic: Attempts to heal or cause sickness -Ideological: Seeks to change the mood, behavior, sentiments, motivations, or values of the people, usually for the sake of the community as a whole -Salvation: Attempts to save a person from a corrupt, polluted, sinful, or lost state -Revitalization: Attempts to revitalize a culture or religion seen as dying

Enuma Elish Commentary/Meaning

-The Enuma Elish would later be the inspiration for the Hebrew scribes who created the text now known as the biblical Book of Genesis - themes of chaos to order -In revising the Mesopotamian creation story for their own ends, the Hebrew scribes tightened the narrative and the focus but retained the concept of the all-powerful deity who brings order from chaos. Marduk, in the Enuma Elish, establishes the recognizable order of the world - just as God does in the Genesis tale - and human beings are expected to recognize this great gift and honor the deity through service.

Freud & Sacrifice

-The repression of the Oedipus complex results in neurotic behavior -For Freud, human males redirect their desire to kill their fathers into the killing of a sacrificial victim =>He thought that there was an actual historical event behind this: A band of brothers, wanting to be with their mothers, overtook their father, killed him, and ate him to absorb his power. Consumed with guilt (and perhaps worried that they would suffer the same fate), the brothers install a "totem," or an animal to represent the power of the father. -Thus, sacrifice is one of humanity's "universal obsessional neuroses"

Substitution Sacrifice

-The victim - in this case, the scapegoat - substitutes for -What did the victim represent? =>Sigmund Freud - the victim substitutes for the father =>René Girard - the victim substitutes for the rival

The Scapegoat

-This violence is redirected into a "scapegoat" => Scapegoat: an unrelated entity that becomes the victim of violence -"When unappeased, violence seeks and always finds a surrogate victim. The creature that excited its fury is abruptly replaced by another, chosen only because it is vulnerable and close at hand" -The scapegoat is expelled from the society, either literally (through banishment) or through death -It must be unable to retaliate from the violence done to it -It must also be part of the community -Once killed, the scapegoat may be remembered as a "savior" of the society

Social Functions of Myth

-explain the origin of a social group - encourage group cohesion - reinforce the current social order - criticize the current social order

Symbolic Theory of Myth

-myths do not explain anything, instead they contain symbolic representations of things - some have argued that they represent social organizations or transcendent sacred realities - Sigmund Frued: symbols in myths represent individual conscious - Carl Jung: symbols in myths reflect ideas from collective unconscious

Functional Theory of Myth

-myths exist because they perform some sort of function - these functions can be: manifest: reveal something holy or sacred latent: not intended

Phenomenological Theory of Myth

-myths not reducible to natural causes - myths are manifestations of the sacred - comparative mythology is incredibly important => can uncover patterns that unearth certain truths

Purusharthas

-pursuits of Hinduism: Moksha Dharma - fulfillment of social, moral, and religious duty Artha - material wealth and success Kama - pleasure

Structuralist Theory of Myth

-the structure of a myth, not its component parts, is what is important - myths are like grammar in language - narrative of myths move from one binary to another, and that binary highlights something important to the culture that produced the myth - For example, the Enuma Elish, moves from chaos, disorder to order, tells us that order was important/desirable to ancient Babylonians

Dualism (Theodicy)

A bad force actively fights the good force and causes evil in the world. EX: Zoroastrianism, Christianity

Normative Claim

A claim about how things ought to be -should be -theologian - infers that idea is normal -passes judgement right/wrong

The Idea of Universal Salvation

A critique of the idea that most people are damned to an eternal life in hell Responds to St. Augustine: "How can you believe in the victory of the cross of the eternal Son of God and at the same time see no problem in the fact that apparently enormous numbers of people are damned? Does this not testify to an indescribable coldness in your heart?" "Though the Christian must refrain from judging others, he nonetheless must also have unlimited optimism for the salvation of all. Not to profess such optimism is to doubt the success of the Christevent."

Process Theology

A minority position within monotheistic religions holds that God is not omnipotent or omniscient. God can't do so, or God is bound by time and thus does not know the future. God can't eliminate evil, but God can minimize the damage. Some process theologians hold that God even makes mistakes and learns from them.

Eliade's Theory of Sacred Space

A place is sacred because it reveals true reality A sacred space serves as an axis mundi ("center of the world") Zeus lets loose two birds, one at each end of the world, and they meet at Delphi. Thus, Delphi serves as the "center of the world," around which everything else is oriented As a result, it also serves as a imago mundi ("image/prototype of the world"), a representation of the cosmos The sacred represents cosmos while the profane represents chaos Sacred space can be both natural and constructed

Withdrawl

A religion withdraws from worldly power (to the extent that they can) They will not participate in the political sphere; for example, they will not vote or serve the monarch Examples: Early Christians, Amish communities

Religious Experiences

A religious experience can be any kind of experience, from visions and voices to intense feelings of love and devotion, that the person having the experience believes to be religiously significant

Theodicy

A theodicy is a proposed solution to the problem of evil that reconciles the existence of an all-good and all-powerful God with the evil that exists in this world. More broadly, used to describe the problem of evil.

Important Events in Jewish History

Abraham made a covenant (a deal) with God Abraham will become the father of a great nation He and his descendants will worship God & be circumcised The Jewish people are enslaved in Egypt God sends Moses to free them from that slavery (Exodus) Moses made a covenant with God God gives Moses the Law and vows to care for the people The people must follow the Law Jews enter the Promised Land (Canaan)

Abrahamic Religions

Abrahamic religions are monotheistic Monotheism - the belief that there is only one God Abrahamic religions worship the same God According to some in those religions; others will argue that they worship a different God Their perspectives on that one God differ In Judaism, God is called Adonai (Lord) In Christianity, the one God is made up of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit In Islam, God is called Allah Abrahamic religions trace their heritage back to Abraham

Aristotle

According to Aristotle, the virtuous thing to do will change depending on the situation Virtue exists in the Golden Mean Courage exists between the extremes of cowardice and recklessness.Honesty exists between the extremes of brutal honesty and not saying what needs to be said. Virtue is not learned from a school, but by emulating virtuous people You should learn to become virtuous because virtue will lead to a life well lived and human flourishing (in Greek, eudaimonia)

Islam & Other Abrahamic Religions

According to Muslims, Muhammad is Allah's final prophet The list of prophets of Islam includes Abraham, Moses, and Jesus "Islam" means surrender; the religion teaches complete submission to Allah Muhammad did not think that he was founding a new religion. He believed that the religion that was revealed to him was the same religion that was founded by Abraham, one that had been corrupted over the centuries by the Jews and Christians

Otto & the Holy

According to Otto, "the Holy" is something that exists outside of oneself It is ganz andere, wholly other It is sui generis, in its own category The Holy engenders a response of terror and intrigue (numinous) Mysterium tremendum et fascinans - a terrifying and fascinating mystery He argued that the core of religious experience is a numinous feeling, a feeling of awe arising as a response to the Holy Rather than coming from inside (finitude), it comes from outside (Holy)

How Secular Humanists view themselves

According to a book by the British Humanist Association, "They have considered the questions religions claim to answer and found religious answers unsatisfactory. Often people don't choose not to believe; they simply cannot believe in ideas they find incredible or false, and decide to face reality without myths or pretense or false comfort." No commonalities found like those in other common religions

Shi'a and Sunni Islam

After Muhammad died, Muslims were split on who should succeed him as caliph Caliph - someone who has religious, political, and military authority Some Muslims thought the caliphate should be hereditary, and argued that his son-in-law Ali should take over This group became the Shi'a sect (15% of the current Muslim population) Many more Muslims thought that the community should be able to pick a successor This group became the Sunnis (85% of the current Muslim population)

Homosexuality in Hinduism

Again, perspectives vary wildly The Kama Sutra encourages it, using the title "third nature" to describe a man who is attracted to other men The Kama Sutra also describes same-sex sexual activity in the context of both man-man and woman-woman friendships The Rajatarangani suggests that male prostitution was a part of regal life prior to the Islamic invasion However, both the Dharmasastras and the Arthasastras have fines for homosexual behavior Atmans transcend gender

War in Hinduism

Ahimsa, the principle of non-violence, is present in all Indian religions, but it is strongest in Jainism. In Hinduism, sometimes it is your dharma to fight a war. Warfare should adhere to the principles of dharmayuddha. Jus ad bellum War can only be waged to combat injustice or to defend the gods Jus in bello War must be fought in the open - guerilla warfare is forbidden Equals fight equals: chariots fight chariots, cavalry fight cavalry, etc. No one should attack someone without a weapon Pillaging is forbidden Rig Veda 6-75:15: Don't poison the tip of your arrow, don't attack sick, old, women, or children, and do not attack from behind

Introvertive Mysticism

All sense and concept disappears, and the mystic experiences a state of pure consciousness

Thomas Aquinas' Influence on Rhaner

Aquinas was Rahner's self proclaimed most important influence on his thought He first discovered him through his studying of scholastic philosophy As stated previously, Rahner's first dissertation was entirely an interpretation of Aquinas' epistemology Rahner today is historically considered a Transcendental Thomist; a group that preserves Aquinas' philosophy His central beliefs on the reason being God in all parts of life was taken from Aquinas In short, a lot of Rahner's central beliefs still widely known today and many of his writings take from the work of Aquinas

Nagara-style Hindu Temple

Ardhmandapa - an intermediary space between the temple exterior and the garbhagriya or other mandapas Mandapa - a pillared outdoor hall for public rituals Garbhagriya - the holy of holies, containing the murti (idol) of the deity Generally, only pujari (priests) are allowed in the garbhagriya

TRC Negative Historical Effects

As Africans and people of mixed race converted to the religion of of Presbyterian organization the debated question of racial separation became in play. Pressure grew for racially separate congregations and the issue became complex as blacks wanted their own church and congregation. Racial separation was only widely accepted in church in the early twentieth century, as nabt Afrikaners came to believe their own survival was threatened and the belief in racial separation was gaining acceptance among white South Africans in general. As the system of Apartheid was called into question in the nation between the 1970's and 1980's. Church leaders were more committed to Apartheid than many of their followers. The church became an obstruction to the Political reform. Parish finances were controlled by the church's highest authority who supported Apartheid

Religion & Gender

As something that is societally constructed, religions have a lot of influence on its members' attitudes towards how genders are supposed to act Some religions treat gender as a binary, only acknowledging the existence of men and women and ignoring non-binary or transgender people These ideas are not true of all religions; on Friday, we'll discuss the hijra, a "third gender" within Hinduism

Sexuality in Hinduism

As we've discussed before, Hinduism is extremely diverse, and its perspectives on sexuality are likewise diverse The least of the four goals of life is kama (pleasure) The Kama Sutra is a manual for love, desire, discernment between good and bad types of desires, and sexual positions The second stage of the varṇāśrama (stages of life within the class-system) encourages a young man to become a householder, take a wife, and have children However, the potency of sexuality can entrap a person in desire, and later on in life men and women are encouraged to denounce it Most yogas are sex-negative or sex-neutral, with Tantra as a notable exception

Zoroastrian Scripture

Avesta Contains Gathas - 17 hymns of prayer written by Zarathustra himself

William P. Alston's 9 Religious Characteristics (1967)

Belief in supernatural being A distinction between sacred and profane objects Ritual acts focused on sacred objects A moral code believed to be sanctioned by God/the gods Characteristically religious feeling (awe, sense of mystery, sense of guilt, adoration), which tend to be aroused in the presence of sacred objects and during the practice of ritual, and which are connected in idea with the gods Prayer and other forms of communication with God/the gods A worldview, or general picture of the world as a whole and the place of the individual therein. This picture contains some specification of an overall purpose or point of the world and an indication of how the individual fits into it A more or less total organization of one's life based on the worldview A social group bound together by the above

TRC General Effects

Black South Africans formed a majority in all large Christian churches in South Africa, except the Dutch Reformed churches In the churches many people became involved in efforts to reverse of to ameliorate the effects of apartheid policies, with a varying degree of militancy. However there were difference among them The Roman Catholic Church opposed apartheid, but a group of Catholics formed the defence league to condemn the church political involvement. Anglican church opposed apartheid but their leaders disagreed in how to do it. Some whites opposed the church involvement in politics and blacks became more involved in it even stepping as leader of such movements

Humanists: Secular vs. Religious

Both maintain humanistic beliefs, but religious believe in the Christian God Difference in the purpose of God. Fred Edwords, of the AHA, states that most secular humanists view the religious ones as "humanists not yet out of the church habit."

Buddhist Scripture

Buddhavacana - Words of the Buddha (-ish) Theravada - Pali Canon Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline Basket) Sutta Pitaka (Sutra/Saying Basket) Abhidhamma Pitaka (Buddhist Doctrines) Mahayana - Pali Canon + Prajnaparamita Sutra Contains the Lotus Sutra, the Heart Sutra, and the Diamond Sutra Vajrayana - Pali Canon + some Mahayana texts + Kangyur Contains texts said to have the Buddha's own words

Karma Solution to Evil

But evil does exist, so does God exist? The Solution: Karma Karma: any act, intentional or unintentional, moral of amoral that have the potential/power to bring about a particular result or consequence in the future Evil, in this case being categorized as misfortune occurring to those undeserved of it, therefore cannot exist because all suffering is the consequence of the victim's previous actions.

Messianic Judaism in the First Century CE

By the turn of the millennium, the Jewish people had been under the rule of a series of empires Babylonian, 586-539 BCE Persians, 539-332 BCE Alexander the Great, 332-323 BCE Ptolemaic, 301-198 BCE Seleucids, 198-167 BCE Roman, starting in 63 BCE A few Jews began to believe in the coming of a Messiah Mashiach (משׁיח) - "anointed one," esp. in reference to a king's anointing during coronation

Value bias

Classifies religions based on the subjective perspective of the definer

The Failure of Cluster Definitions

Cluster definitions, like essentialist definitions, are prone to biases. Some scholars argue that the category of religion itself is a Western construct and should be done away with

Yoga

Comes from the root yuj, meaning "to bind together," "hold fast," "yoke" The word yoga designates any ascetic technique and any method of meditation There have been many different kinds of yoga, each evaluated differently by different practitioners Eliade on yoga: "The purpose of all this is to unify the spirit, to do away with the dispersion and automatism that characterize profane consciousness. For the 'devotional' (mystical) schools of yoga this 'unification,' of course, only precedes the true union, that of the human soul with God."

Theory bias

Depending on how the definer perceives the world, the definition will reflect sociological, theological, economic, etc. assumptions

Western bias

Depicts Western religions (especially Christianity) as normative, compares all other religions based on them

Karma within Hinduism

Derived from the sanskrit word karman, meaning act Karma is the belief that your actions will determine your standing in the next life If you perform bad actions, this leads to bad karma and an undesirable birth in the next life. If you perform good actions, this leads to good karma and a desirable birth in the next life Kessler describes the ideas of karma linked with both the caste system, dharma, and samsara The doctrine of Karma goes along with the idea of samsara, which is the cycle of life, death, and rebirth In the ancient caste system, karma determined which caste you would belong to in the next life.

The Wiccan Rede

Do as you will as long as it harms none. "Do what you will shall be the whole of the law. Love is the law. Love under will." -Alister Crowley

Dualism

Dualism is the belief that there are two forces in the world that oppose one another, one good and one evil In its strongest form, dualist religions pit two gods against one another Marcion (85-160 CE) - Early Christian thinker who believed that the god of the Hebrew Bible was an evil god, set against the Father of Jesus Zoroastrianism is dualistic, pitting Ahura Mazda against the daevas and Angra Mainyu ("Hostile Spirit")

TRC Land Redistribution

During Nelson Mandela Presidency and after there has being efforts to redistribute the land so South Africans native might have claim to the land. However as of 2006 70% of the land is still owned by whites even with all the government efforts. Land reforms to ensure economic victories for the oppressed were guaranteed as promise in the mid 1980's based on the fact that Apartheid was nearing an end. An abolition of the 1913, 1936 and 1945 Land Acts was done with the enactment of The Abolition of the Racially-Based Land Measures Act and The Upgrading of Land Tenure Rights Act in 1991. Constitution Act 200 of 1993 gave land rights to the dispossessed. It included Property rights were guaranteed and a market-based land reform endorsed. Act 3 of 1996 makes provision for labour tenants to purchase land. Also apartheid government's mission was brought to conclusion. After Nelson Mandela presidency many South Africans had felt dissatisfied with the afterward governments In February 14th, 2018 President Jacob Zuma had to resign to office based on corruption scandals. In August of 2018 many disconents were felt by many groups based on government expropriation of certain private properties.

Becoming Hijra

Emasculation Hijra castrate themselves during ritual sacrifice in return, they become spiritually powerful beings with the ability to bless and curse Hijras who have undergone the ceremony of castration are known as nirvana Hijras This is not universal however Many Hijras have not undergone the ceremony of castration and are referred to as akwa Hijras in spite of having male genitals, they have earned their place in the Hijra community Natural born Hijra Many Hijra are born without sexual organs, or with deformities, and are assigned to be Hijra at birth

Developments in Women's Religions

Emphasis is placed on activities and issues that traditionally fall to women as bearers and caretakers of children. Explicit attention is paid to the issue of patriarchy and its effects on women's lives. The effects of gender on the form and content of women's religions are not all that different from men's religions Both men's and women's religions "worship supernatural beings, perform rituals of thanks and appeasement, utilize techniques that induce alter states of consciousness, and provide devotees with persuasive explanations for the ultimate conditions of existence."

The Failure of Essentialism

Essentialist definitions fail one of two ways: They are so precise that they exclude phenomena that we would consider a religion Torcaso v. Watkins (1960): The government should not aid those religions based on a belief in the existence of God against those religions founded on different beliefs ... Religions in this country which do not teach what would generally be considered a belief in the existence of God [include] Buddhism, Taoism, Ethical Culture, Secular Humanism, and others They are so broad that they include phenomena that we would not consider a religion Peter Kreeft (2012): I challenge you to make a definition of religion that is broad enough to include Buddhism, but narrow enough to exclude Platonism Essentialist definitions are also prone to bias

Issues after Apartheid

Even though blacks are a majority in South Africa, there is still a lot of racist presence done by white South African population Many of them use the "K word" as a racist chant . Unlike America, the "K word" is way more offensive than the N word and is completely illegal to use in South Africa, no matter what race or ethnicity you identify with. Trevor Noah explained in his show the incident of white lady getting arrested for a sentence of three years by a black cop for repeating the "K word over 48 times". Washington Post last year wrote an article explaining why the South African government has felt the right to claim any private land they feel should be taken. However, many nations had condemn South Africa's government on extreme actions, however they emphasized they the have their own democratic right to do so. Either point could be debated and understood, is a complex issue to understand as their still seems to be division and frustrations among all sides.

Denial (Theodicy)

Evil doesn't really exist. Mary Baker Eddy: Illness and suffering exist in the material realm, and thus are not really real. In the real realm, the realm of Truth, there is no evil or suffering.

Soul-Making Theodicy

Evil exists because it makes us better people. John Hick: Creation does not stop; God is still in the process of creating us. Personal moral development must include experiences of pain and loss. The world exists in order to aid us in spiritual and moral growth

Christianity Exclusivism

Exclusivist Christians believe that salvation is only possible through faith in Jesus Christ

Islam Exclusivism

Exclusivist Muslims believe that belief in the one God is the only way to live a justified life

Nature Mysticism

Expansion of ego to include all of nature

Soul/Monistic Mysticism

Experience of pure consciousness, identifies with pure reality

Halal (Quran 2:173; 5:5; 6:118-19, 121)

Food must be slaughtered while mentioning the name of Allah Some fatwas (legal opinions) say the slaughterer must be Muslim; other fatwas argue that the slaughterer could be anyone from Abrahamic religions Forbidden foods include: Alcohol, carrion, blood Pork Insects (except locusts) Most reptiles Most pests (mice, rats, etc.) Predatory animals (lions, tigers, etc.) Birds of prey Any food not prepared by a member of the Abrahamic religions The Hanafi school of Islam forbids seafood that is not fish There is a difference of opinion concerning horse, mule, and donkey

Douglas' Theory of Purity

For Douglas, impurity is "dirt," which she defines as "matter out of place" She relates this to how the human brain makes categories, and how it deals with things that are outside those categories Things need to be in proper order when they interact with the sacred In most religions, being impure is not a moral judgment; rather, impure things are profane, and cannot come into contact with the sacred

Charles Glock & Rodney Stark, Religion and Society in Tension (1965)

For Glock & Stark, the theories about religious experiences up to now have been too dramatic; religious experiences can be much smaller in scale and scope According to them, there are four types of religious experiences: Confirming Responsive Ecstatic Revelational

Marxism & Culture

For Marx, culture is simply an outlet for the frustrations brought about by class struggle Family, government, art, philosophy, ethics, and religion are simply structures that suppress or provide a controlled release for the bitter animosities that arise from the clash between the haves & have-nots

Marxism & Religion

For Marx, religion is pure illusion Religion is alienating: It takes things that are human—goodness, beauty, truth, wisdom, love, steadfastness, strength of character—and removes them from humanity, projecting it instead onto a divine figure This alienation is a reflection of economic alienation Religion provides hope for the impoverished (heaven, e.g.) "Religious distress is at the same time an expression of real [i.e., economic] distress and the protest against real distress. Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, just as it is the spirit of a spiritless situation. It is the opium of the people." ("Critique of Hegel's Philosophy of Right"). Religion allows the upper class to spread its ideology

Schleiermacher & Dependence

For Schleiermacher, religion primarily arises out of individual religious experiences, not dogmas, rituals, or organizations The types of religious experiences are numerous, but they can all be reduced to a common core The common core of religious experiences is feeling of absolute dependence The moment we realize our lives are conditional and limited (finite) We are dependent upon an "Other"

Sikhism

Founded by Guru Nanak (1469-1539 CE) Guru Nanak lived in the Punjab region of India, where Hinduism and Islam intersected Nanak had a religious experience that caused him to claim, "There is no Hindu. There is no Muslim." Sikhism is influenced by both Hinduism and Islam Like Islam, Sikhism has one God (called Vahiguru or Akal Purakh) Like Hinduism, Sikhism believes in reincarnation

Buddhism

Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563-483 BCE), a prince in India The Four Passing Sights - an elderly man, a diseased man, a dead man, and a samana (wandering philosopher) He becomes an ascetic, but it did not help him reach enlightenment (nirvana) He develops the Middle Way and achieves nirvana while meditating under the Bodhi tree

Zoroastrianism

Founded by Zarathustra (Zoroaster) in Persia in c. 1200 BCE Zarathustra receives a revelation from the one true God Ahura Mazda Zoroastrianism has been characterized as dualistic The good Ahura Mazda and the evil Angra Mainyu battle for control over creation Human beings have free will and can choose which side to fight on At the end of life, their choices will land them in either paradise or the "House of the Lie" At the end of time, there will be a final judgment, and the wicked will die a second, permanent death

Principles of Secular Humanism

Free inquiry Separation of Church and State The Ideal of Freedom Ethics based on Critical Intelligence Moral Education Religious Skepticism Reason Science and Technology Evolution Education

Émile Durkheim (1858-1917)

French sociologist "A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and surrounded by prohibitions—beliefs and practices that unite its adherents in a single moral community called a church." This definition creates a dichotomy between the sacred and the profane

The Euthyphro Problem

From Plato's Euthyphro. Socrates asks Euthyphro: Are right actions right because God commands them? Or are right actions commanded by God because they are right?If you affirm the first question, then actions are not inherently good or evil, but are only good or evil because God decides that they are. If you affirm the second question, then God's power is limited, and thus, God is not omnipotent

War in Judaism

Generally, war is prohibited Deuteronomy 20 provides the rules for war in the Biblical period In the Rabbinic period, there are two permitted kinds of war: Milkhemet mitzvah - obligatory war A war that is either commanded by God or a required defensive war Milkhemet ha-reshut - discretionary war Wars for the glory of the king and for the purposes of expansion Requires the approval of the Sanhedrin to carry out Jus in bello The enemy must be offered peace terms Anyone who wishes to escape must be allowed to leave before fighting starts Sieges can only surround a city on 3 sides, to allow for escape The violence must be proportional; no one should be killed if they don't need to be

Rudolf Otto (1869-1937)

German Lutheran theologian, philosopher, and phenomenologist Liked Schleiermacher's theory, but thought it did not go far enough For Otto, Schleiermacher overemphasizes the feelings of the individual believer Otto believed something else was the root of religious experience, something he called "the Holy"

Karl Marx

German philosopher, economist, sociologist, political theorist, journalist, and socialist revolutionary Thought about history in terms of class struggles "Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another." (The Communist Manifesto)

Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834)

German theologian, philosopher, and biblical scholar Attempted to reconcile the criticism of the Enlightenment with traditional Protestant Christianity, and thus became the "Father of Modern Liberal Theology" Argued that all religious experiences had a common core to them

Confucianism

Good people live good lives and create good societies Ren - virtue, benevolence, human excellence, love Ren is not something that we are, but something that we can become through practice

Christian Scripture

Hebrew Bible (which they call the "Old Testament") Catholics add deuterocanonical texts Tobit Judith Wisdom of Solomon Sirach Baruch 1 & 2 Maccabees New Testament Gospels - Matthew, Mark, Luke, John Acts of the Apostles Epistles Pauline - Romans, 1 & 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians, Philemon Deutero-Pauline - Colossians, Ephesians, 2 Thessalonians Pastoral - 1 & 2 Timothy, Titus Hebrews James Petrine - 1 & 2 Peter, Jude Johannine - 1, 2, & 3 John Revelation

Defining Hijra

Hijra are a gender, traditionally placed throughout India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Southeast Asia Understood in society to be born as intersex, neither male nor female A Hijra's gender is intersex Biologically, the vast majority of Hijra are born as the male sex Roughly 1 Million people in India identify as Hijra First recognized in India during the 2014 census 490,000 people identified as Hijra on the census Transgender activists in India estimate this figure to be 2-3 times higher than the figure collected More complicated than just being a third gender...

Hindu Temples

Hindu temples need to be built near water and gardens, because "the gods always play where lakes are, where the sun's rays are warded off by umbrellas of lotus leaf clusters, and where clear waterpaths are made by swans who toss the white lotuses higher and thither; where swans, ducks, curleys and paddy-birds are heard and animals rest nearby in the shade of Nicula trees on the river banks" (Brihat Samhita 50.4-8; Bhavishya Purana 1.130.11-15)

Rahner's Influences

His mother Rahner's mother was said to have had a "profound religious personality" which greatly influenced his home environment and upbringing Ignatius of Loyola Influenced Rahner's decision to focus the next level of his formation on Catholic philosophy and modern German philosophers Joseph Maréchal Maréchal's views of transcendental Thomism deeply influenced a lot of Rahner's philosophy Martin Heidegger Referred to him as his teacher and utilizes a lot of his language in his work Rahner particularly takes from Heidegger's ideas of existentialism Immanuel Kant. Rahner uses Kantian language and pulls from his transcendental idealism in some works

Religion & Society

However, Weber did not always argue that religion created changes in society For example, he argued that the rise of Buddhism in ancient India was due to economic factors Instead, religion and society interact in several important ways Religion can reinforce or challenge the societal status quo Society can reinforce or challenge the religious status quo

Mimetic Desire

Human beings are imitative creatures: they imitate the actions & behaviors of others They also imitate the desires of others Theft or violence can erupt when two or more people desire the same thing When someone has something stolen from them or is injured, they desire revenge The alternation between violence & revenge can become a never-ending cycle

Sikh Beliefs

Human beings must align themselves with the hukam, the divine order of things, in order to break out of samsara and achieve mukti Mukti - union with God and final liberation Unlike in Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism, liberation is not achieved through one's karma, but through the grace of Vahiguru Sikhs believe in radical equality before Vahiguru. No one is greater than another human being, regardless of their caste, gender, nationality, or religion

Origins of Classes

Humanity is not motivated by grand ideals, but by very basic material concerns: food, water, clothes, shelter, sex The necessities and comforts of life must be produced somehow: hunting, fishing, shearing sheep, building homes, etc. According to Marx, the earliest societies held things in common: the tribe had a fishing boat that anyone could use, e.g. Soon, private property was introduced In order to use the boat, some sort of exchange needs to be made Because of talent, crime, and/or good fortune, some would come to own more than others. When agriculture was developed, the class problem was exacerbated: there are people who own the land and people who work the land

Are all religions the same?

Huston Smith compares religions to different paths up the same mountain: "At base, in the foothills of theology, ritual, and organizational structure, the religions are distinct. Differences in culture, history, geography, and collective temperament all make for diverse starting points.... But beyond these differences, the same goal beckons." Mahatma Gandhi "Belief in one God is the cornerstone of all religions." The Dalai Lama "The essential message of all religions is very much the same." Swami Sivananda "The fundamentals or essentials of all religions are the same. There is difference only in the non-essentials."

Wiccan Intent

If energy is the constant (infinity) then intent is the variable. What is our intent? Is it really what we say it is? Is it limiting or freeing? Is it coming from the conscious or subconscious?

The Temple of Jerusalem

In Judaism, the most sacred place was the Temple in Jerusalem Stood on top of Mt. Zion The First Temple was destroyed by the Babylonians in 587 BCE The Second Temple was destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE The Western Wall is all that remains of the Second Temple

Mysticism

In Religious Studies, mysticism refers to religious experiences in which intimacy/unity with the divine or with the sacred object is of primary importance Within various world theologies, "mysticism" might have different definitions: The practice of religious ecstasies The attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths Contemplative dimensions of early Christianity Beliefs and ideologies related to extraordinary experiences and states of mind

Food Laws

In addition to purity laws, some religions have regulations on what one can eat and not eat In Judaism, this is called kosher In Islam, this is called halal Food laws differ from normal purity regulations in that they are things that can be avoided, and they can't be washed off

Jainism

In the current cosmic era, there have been 24 tirthankaras Tirthankaras are people who have achieved moksha They have also taught others how they could do the same The last one, Mahavira (599-527 BCE), is most revered Mahavira was born to an aristocratic family, but renounced that life at age 30 and became an ascetic He joins a group of the followers of Parshva, the 23rd tirthankara After 12 years of harsh asceticism, Mahavira achieved kevala ("omniscience") He taught and formed monastic communities until his death

Gender bias

In the vast majority of cases, the definer will assume a male perspective as normative

Myths

in religious studies, myths are not "false stories" as in the connotation today. - Myths are instead stories that are sacred for the people who tell and hear them - for members of a religion, myths are true (or, at the very least, contain truth)

Indian Religions

Includes Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism All Indian religions believe in samsara - the cycle of life, death, and rebirth The goal for all Indian religions is to break free from that cycle Sikhism - mukti Hinduism & Jainism - moksha Buddhism - nirvana For all Indian religions, one's position in life is affected by karma One's karma is the result of one's actions: good actions lead to good karma and a desirable rebirth, while bad actions lead to bad karma and an undesirable rebirth

Virture Ethics Morality

Instead of asking, "What do I need to do to be a good person?" virtue ethicists ask, "Who do I need to be to be a good person?" The focus is on a person's character, rather than on individual actions; become a good person, and good actions will follow Confucianism & Aristotle

People of the Book

Islamic attitudes towards Jews and Christians. It emphasizes the community of faith between possessors of monotheistic scriptures. It pays tribute to the religious and moral virtues of communities that have received earlier revelations They possess the message, but they do not put it into practice. They do not appreciate that Muhammad's teaching fulfills that message

Christian beliefs about Jesus

Jesus is fully divine and fully human Titles for Jesus "Christ," the Greek translation of "messiah" Son of Man (Dan 7:13-14) Son of God God

Christianity

Jesus of Nazareth (c. 4 BCE - 33 CE) Jewish man Descendent of David and the Son of God Baptized by John the Baptist Taught and performed miracles for about 3 years Crucified by the Roman Empire Rose from the dead 3 days later Ascended into heaven Jesus' followers claimed that he was the Messiah, but he didn't fit the expectations for the Messiah

Yom Kippur

Jewish Day of Atonement- fasting and reflecting on one's sins Leviticus 16 -Aaron comes to holy place invited by god -he bring a young bull- sin offering to make atonement for him and his household - must wear linen clothes - Aaron must bring 2 goats from congregation - one goat to Lord, one goat as scapegoat -puts blood on alter, covered, blood covers sins of people, yet doesn't completely wash them away -scapegoat presented alive, used for atonement, sent into wilderness -bull and other goat are burnt offering to Lord, everything burn, burn fat of sin offering - Aaron changes clothes, washes, joins people - Burn guy and scapegoat guy also bathe before joining people

Homosexuality in Judaism

Jews disagree with Christians about the cause of the punishment in the Sodom & Gomorrah story. The inhospitable treatment of Lot's guests brings the wrath of God, not homosexuality itself. The Talmud does not consider female homoerotic acts to be sex It also assumes that these women would go on to marry men Medieval commentators prohibited homosexual encounters, even as some of them wrote same-sex erotic poetry Modern synagogues have a more favorable attitude toward homosexuals, and some even serve as rabbis in Reform Judaism

The Real

John Hick proposes that no one religion understands God perfectly, but that they all revolve around a center This center he calls "the Real" Religions are historically and culturally conditioned expressions of what "the Real" is "The Real (to select this term from several equally available ones) in itself is present to us, or impinges upon us, all the time and that when this impingement comes to consciousness it takes the form of what we call religious experience."

War in Christianity

Just War Theory - war can only be waged for the maintenance of a just peace Acceptable reasons for going to war are: Self-Defense. Restitution: regaining of things wrongfully taken. Redress: seizing things owed that are wrongfully withheld Punishment: restoring the balance of justice by punishing wrongdoing. It must be waged by a legitimate authority. The intention must be to achieve peace. It can only be a last resort. There must be a reasonable chance for success. The harm done must be proportional, not exceeding the harm originally suffered

Kosher (Lev 11:3-8 and Deut 14:4-8)

Land animals who both chew the cud and have split hooves are considered kosher Non-kosher land animals include: camel, hyrax, hare, pig Birds of prey, fish-eating birds, and bats are not kosher Fish must have both fins and scales to be kosher Locusts (two types), crickets, and grasshoppers are also kosher Any product from non-kosher animals (eggs, milk, etc.) are not kosher Food prepared by non-Jews is not kosher Dairy products and meat cannot be served together Fish and meat may not be served together Most unclean animals are forbidden to eat, but not to touch or use

Inclusivism

Like exclusivists, inclusivists argue that their religion is true Unlike exclusivists, inclusivists argue that other religions are not false, per se, but contain partial truths

Sexuality in Islam

Marriage (nikah) and procreation are among the principal blessings of humankind Sex within marriage is good and leads to procreation, satisfaction of sexual desire, and companionship Sex outside of marriage is fornication (zina) Shi'a Islam has a practice called muta', which is a temporary marriage with a set divorce date Allows for the satiation of sexual desire without committing zina Acting upon homosexual desire constitutes zina and is punishable as such

Synagogues

Meeting places for study and prayer introduced by the Pharisees to foster study of the Law and adherence to the covenant code. - after 2nd temple was destroyed, priests disappeared, new center of worship - rabbis new religious leaders, explain scriptures + guide devotional practices - emphasize the piety of adherents, didn't need a priest to perform acts, live morally upright lives.

Mevlevi Sufi Order

Mevlevi theology is centered around travel through both geography and the mind. They believe the journey of the mind and soul to reach God is linked to the movement of the body through ritual. Based in present day Turkey. Founded just prior to the beginning of the Ottoman Empire in 1273 after the death of the mystic poet Rumi or Jalāl ad-Dīn Muhammad Rūmī Began a traveling movement in the 1970's to find new arenas to perform the sema. Journeys were considered a contemporary for of sacred travel and not a tourist theatrical activity. Seeking spiritual transformation. Dervish is a common term to describe a Sufi initiate.

Missionary Religions

Missionary religions attempt to grow by actively converting people. Three of the world's major religions are missionary: Buddhism Christianity Islam Of these three, Buddhism is not exclusivist As we've seen in places like Korea, Buddhism can coexist along native religions without replacing those religions Christianity and Islam, however, are more often exclusivist

Conversion vs. Adhesion

Missionary religions try to convert people Conversion - the act of leaving one religious tradition and entering another In the ancient world, people did not think of religions as exclusive, but they were more pluralistic in their thinking Thus, rather than conversion, ancient people more often practiced "adhesion" Adhesion - adding new gods to your pantheon

Class Struggle

Modern capitalism exacerbates the problem even more, creating great wealth for the few and little wealth for the rest Marx argued that this would inevitably lead to violent conflict The have-nots (proletariat) would grow to resent the haves (bourgeoisie) The haves would not give up what they have without coercion. Marxism itself has often been compared to a religion: it has its own mythology, its saints, its sacred spaces, and a utopian vision of the future. Some communists after Marx have argued that once the proletariat overthrew the bourgeoisie, they would abolish private property and justice & peace would return to humanity

Divine Command Theory

Morality is dependent upon God. Moral obligation is obedience to God's commands. Example: Sharia, a legal system that is based upon Quran, Sunna and analogical reasoning

Problem of Evil within Monotheism

Most monotheist religions will describe their God as: omnibenevolent, omnipotent, omniscient. If God is these three things, then why does evil happen?

Patriarchy

Most religions are patriarchal. Patriarchy: a form of social organization in which men have more power and dominate other genders In most religions, men hold leadership positions or a special status in the household that cannot be held by women Restrictions are placed upon women, such that they can't hold leadership positions or participate in sacred rituals

History of Islam

Muhammad (570 - 632 CE) In 610 CE, Muhammad was commanded to "Recite!" by the angel Gabriel Over the next 23 years, Muhammad received more revelations from Gabriel, and these revelations were compiled and became the Quran Muhammad began to preach in his hometown of Mecca, but the local polytheists rejected his message and persecuted him and his followers Muhammad escaped from Mecca and moved to Yathrib (modern-day Medina) in 622 CE In 630 CE, Muhammad marched back to Mecca and forced it to surrender Muhammad destroyed the city's idols Islam quickly spread through the Arabic-speaking world

Definition by William James (1842-1910)

Mystical experiences usually have these characteristics: Transient - temporary experience in which the person feels outside of space and time Ineffable - the person feels that they cannot describe their experience Passive - the experience happens to the person, without conscious control Noetic - the person feels that they have learned something during their experience that is normally hidden from human understanding

According to Campbell Monomyth

Myth can be decoded via symbols representative of the unconscious but maintains that a duality remains in humanity/divinity (vs Jung: there is union of unconscious and conscious) Symbols in myth and dreams are metaphor for larger universal, philosophical ideas (vs. Jung: symbols are the work of the human mind/unconscious; personal) Archetypes are are viewed through scope of mythology (vs Jung: Archetypes are viewed through the lens of Psychoanalysis) Hero archetype and myth is of great relevance to individuals and cultures of all of humanity (vs Jung: relatively Western-centered ideas) Important archetypes: Anim-a/-us, Shadow, Wise Old Man, Mother, Maiden, & Hero

Nelson Mandela

Nelson Mandela joined the African National Congress and adopted non-violent resistance to apartheid but late changed his stance. After being released from prison he formed a a multiracial democracy. Nelson Mandela focused on reconciliation policy. in 1996 he helped to create a new south African constitution which established a strong central government based on majority rule and prohibited discrimination against minorities including white. Improving social relations, discouraging blacks from retaliating against the white First black president of South Africa

What is Sufism?

Not a sect but a way of understanding Islam. Spiritual and mystical philosophy of Islam focused on a direct connection to God by forgoing material goods and relationships. A part of both Sunni and Shia denominations of Islam. Assistant Professor of Islamic studies at Georgetown calls it the "Extra Credit" actions. Those who practice Sufism, act as if "they can see God watching them all the time". In the 1100's and 1200's Sufism became a big part of Islamic culture. Example: Collective ritual chanting praising the prophet Muhammad Whirling Dervishes of the Mevlevi Sufi Order

What did Jesus conquer?

Not the Roman Empire, but the rule of Sin & Death Jesus died for the sins of humanity Sin keeps people away from God and causes death Jesus makes eternal life possible Hebrews: Jesus' death was a once-and-for-all sacrifice; the Jewish Temple is no longer required Jesus' death also annuls the Jewish Law Because of this, Jesus' disciples argued that Jesus was not only the savior of the Jewish people, but of the whole world

Tirthankara

people who have achieved moksha They have also taught others how they could do the same

Eschatological Myths

sacred stories about the end of history or the destruction of the world

Cosmomic/Cosmological Myths

the creation/ordering of the world

Ecstatic Experience

the deepening of awareness into an affective personal relationship - intimate contact with the divine that causes loss of control Possession - the divine takes control of the human subject Out-of-body - the human subject is removed from their body by the divine

International Gender Spectrum

Many cultures around the world recognize multiple genders outside the Western binary. Indonesia 3 sexes recognized 5 genders: makkunra, oroané, bissu, calaba, calalai Canada, USA (Blackfeet Nation) Ninauposkitzipxpe Madagascar Sekrata

imago mundi - Eliade

("image/prototype of the world"), a representation of the cosmos The sacred represents cosmos while the profane represents chaos

Torcaso v. Watkins (1961)

: outlawed religious tests for government office; defined Secular Humanism as a religion

TRC Structure

Came about after the unbanning of liberation movements and the release of Nelson Mandela from prison. The apartheid regime lasted 300 years upon negotiations it ended and the country had its first democratic elections. Nelson Mandela emerged the winner. During negotiations the apartheid regime demanded blanket immunity for all past crimes.Established in 1995 By the New South African Government to help heal the country after the truth about human rights violations during the apartheid period came to light. Main goal was not to prosecute individuals for past crimes but to uncover evidence and gather information from both victims and perpetrators. The TRC was made up of 17 commissioners. They investigated the circumstances, factors and context of human rights violations that occurred from 1960 - 1994. The goals were to grant amnesty, create an impartial historical record of the past and draft a reparations policy. The TRC was known for its transparency

What is Secular Humanism?

Can be traced back to ancient times Nonreligious; considered broader than atheism There is a religious branch, that believe the same things but do believe in God More of a belief in the way the world should be, rather than a belief in God or the supernatural Mostly democratic - the main branches of secular humanism believe democracy is the best way for humanity to function

Carl Jung: Collective Unconscious

Carl Jung's concept of a shared, inherited reservoir of memory traces from our species' history - Jung noticed similar patterns, themes, and symbols in the myths and religions of the world - This led Jung to postulate that there was a part of the mind that was pre-personal or transpersonal, i.e., they were common to everyone - The collective unconscious is inherited and consists of both instincts and archetypes

Sexuality in Christianity

Catholicism: Natural Law Theory Sex should lead to procreation, and any kind of sex that might hinder that is not permitted This includes homosexuality, masturbation, contraception, and non-vaginal intercourse According to Catholic teaching, being homosexual is not sinful, but acting upon it is Protestantism:Influenced by the sexual revolution, many liberal Protestant sects allowed for sex that did not produce offspring or occurred outside of marriage More conservative sects were also influenced; they have created an industry for Christian sex manuals A few Protestant sects carry out homosexual weddings, and some also ordain homosexuals

Secular Humanism in the United States

Controversy started as early as the 1940s US Supreme Court Case: Torcaso vs. Watkins (1961) Conservative Christians used this court case to argue that the "secular" view of sexual education and evolution should not be taught in public schools.

TRC Christian dominated Vision

Christianity has dominated South Africa for years with the government playing a big role as well. The apartheid regime forced christianity upon people. The TRC was lead by Archbishop Desmond Tutu and many of the commissioners were also christian leaders. It focused on forgiveness rather than punishment which is a big part of christian teachings.

Joseph Cambell

Dartmouth: Studies Biology & Mathematics, '21 Columbia: BA English Lit '25; MA Medeival Lit, '27 U. of Paris & U. of Munich: Sanskrit, Provençal, Old French (also, German & French), '27 - '29 Great Depression; Independently reads and writes, '29 - '31 Learns Russian (to read War and Peace), travels California and briefly to Alaska (with John & Carol Steinbeck), '31 - '32 Teaches at his former boarding school, '32 - '33 Moves to Woodstock to independently read & study, '33 - '34 Accepts position in Literature Dept. at Sarah Lawrence, '34 Assists new translation of The Gospel of Sri Ramakrishna, '40 Edits & completes 4 volumes by Indologist Heinrich Zimmer, '43

Natural Law Theory (morality)

God created the world according to natural laws—predictable, goal-driven systems whereby life is sustained and everything functions smoothly.Moral standards that govern human behavior can be objectively derived from the nature of human beings and the nature of the world.According to this theory, we don't need religion; our instincts and our observations of the natural world can show us how we should live

David

King David, king of Israel - slayer of Goliath -wrote many of the psalms - David captured Jerusalem - People came to believe that David and his descendants were chosen to reign over Israel

Pluralism

Pluralists argue that all religions contain partial truths, but that no one religion has a monopoly on truth

Apartheid in South Africa

Population Registration Act of 1950 Segregated people by race - Native Africans, Whites, Mixed, Other Forced People out of areas Native Africans can't own land Blacks had to have special documents Other Laws Can't marry interracially Segregated education Segregated Public facilities/public transit

Critiques to Natural Law Morality

Problem: If God created us with this ability to reason, why do people violate the natural law? Aquinas: Ignorance & Emotion David Hume's critique: Does "is" imply "ought?" Just because something is a certain way, does that mean it should be that way?

Schools of Hinduism

Samkhya Yoga Vedanta

The Five Pillars of Islam

Shahadah: "There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is his messenger." Salat: Daily prayer Zakat: Almsgiving Sawm: Fasting during Ramadan Hajj: A pilgrimage to Mecca, Muhammad's hometown and the site of the Kaaba

Technological Ritual

Seek to produce or prevent a change of state in nature for the benefit of people

Monomyth Cycle

Separation Descent Initiation Return

Women's Religions

Sered gives three factors for the rise of women's religions: Gender dissonance: Situations in which culturally accepted notions of gender are highly contradictory and/or rapidly changing Matrifocality: A cultural emphasis on the maternal role, often coupled with either matrilineality (kinship is based on the mother) and/or matrilocality (men leave their families and join women's families). A woman's role as mother is more important than her role as wife. Motherhood is ritually elaborated A high degree of personal, social, or economic autonomy for women

Sexuality

Sexuality" is a shorthand for everything related to sexual behavior: sexual acts, desire, arousal, etc. Sexual Orientation - a person's sexual identity in relation to the gender to which they are attracted Heterosexual - attracted to people of the opposite gender Homosexual - attracted to people of their own gender Bisexual - attracted to both men and women Asexual - do not experience sexual attraction at all

Wicca Beliefs

Spirit is both masculine and feminine. Believe in the afterlife (the Summerlands) and reincarnation. The body heals itself, everything has energy. Polytheistic.

Layout of the Second Temple

The courts, from outermost to innermost: Court of Gentiles Court of Women Court of Israel Court of Priests Holy Place The Holy of Holies

Eliade's Theory of Sacred Time

The difference between profane and sacred time is the direction in which it moves Profane time moves forward linearly Sacred time moves in cycles Many sacred times include rituals that reenact the time that is being celebrated

Common beliefs in Hinduism

The goal for Hindus is moksha, the act of one's atman breaking free from samsara Atman - one's eternal soul The force that regulates samsara is karma Karma - one's actions in this life has consequences for the next life Karma also dictates the caste into which one will be born into Ancient Hinduism had four varnas (castes): the Brahmins, the warriors, the farmers, and the laborers Today, the caste system is much more refined

Holy War

The idea that a war is blessed by the deity/deities and waged in their name Crusades Attempts by Christians to take back the Holy Land. First promoted by Pope Urban II in 1095. Deus vult, "God wills it" Muslim extremism. Buddhist violence in Myanmar. "For each potential soldier, if God is on his side he cannot easily refuse to fight, and his belief that the war will end in victory will be strengthened, thereby removing the fear of defeat and encouraging others to join the fight."

Confucianism Morality

The ideal moral character acts on the principle of shu & zhong Shu - Reciprocity, seeing someone like yourself Zhong - doing your best for others Models for appropriate behavior come from the Five Primary Relations and the traditional rites and customs of the Golden Age (li)

Descriptive Claim

a claim that asserts such and such is the case - how things are/is -how worshippers of religion view their believes -fact - reports religion as historical or cultural phenomena, doesn't judge

Truth and Reconciliation Commission

a court-like body assembled in South Africa after the abolition of apartheid, where witnesses who were identified as victims of gross human rights violations were invited to give statements about their experiences. Goals/Purposes Aimed to expose and hear to apartheid era crimes and violations against humanity, and grant reparations to victims who suffered The commission could pardon those who committed crimes if for political purposes Committees Human Rights Violations Committee Reparation and Rehabilitation Committee Amnesty Committee

Confirming Experience

a sudden feeling, knowing, or intuition that the beliefs one holds are true

Justice Potter Stewart:

dissented in Abington v. Schempp; argued that banning Bible readings in public schools was "not the realization of state neutrality, but rather ... the establishment of a religion of secularism"

Axis Mundi (Eliade)

center of the world, place is around which everything else is oriented

Numinous Function of Myth

creates a sense of awe and finitude with reference to divine - makes you feel small...

Cosmological Function of Myth

describe order of the universe, explain phenomena

Ritualistic Function of Myth

justification for ritual actions

Heroes and Saviors Myths

myths about important figures within religion. Ex: Moses in the Exodus story

Theological Functions of Myth

myths explain religious ideologies or practices 4 types: hierophantic, numinous, ritualistic, cosmological

Carl Jung

neo-Freudian who created concept of "collective unconscious" and archetypes, wrote books on dream interpretation - Swiss - collaborator w/ Sigmund Freud -Reductionist: believed religions could be explained by psychology

Responsive Experience

not only an awareness of the divine, but an awareness that the divine sees them

Etiological Myths

origin/story of something other than the world. Smaller beginning: mountain, sea, etc

Abington v. Schempp (1963):

outlawed Bible readings in public schools

Hierophantic Function of Myth

reveal something holy or sacred

Sacred

that which has been set aside, deemed to be special somehow Sociological: A place or time is sacred because the community deems it so Phenomenological: A place or time is sacred because the divine deems it so The word "sacred" does not imply something positive; it is not necessarily something that is good, but instead it is something that is religiously important While gods and places can be sacred, so can ghosts and demons

Karma Theodicy

the people to whom bad things happen deserve it. People's actions determine their future. If they act poorly they will have negative repercussions. Karma is a cycle. Karma regulates the reincarnation of the soul. Sikhism links karma with the doctrine of grace (Vahiguru).

Jus in Bello

the rules of conduct when engaged in warfare

Jus ad Bellum

what needs to happen in order to make a war just

Jewish Promised Land + People

when God made covenant with Abraham and other prophets, there was an understanding that God had chosen the Jewish people to be an example of righteousness to other nations obey = prosper disobey = punishment But, god will never completely abandon them Exodus story symbolizes gods protection and special relationship with the Jewish people (Passover)