theoretical grammar (exam)

22.Five criteria for testing the verb as a part of speech.

1. syntactic function - predicate (of verbs in the sentence is that of the predicate, i.e. the function establishing the connection between the situation (situational event) named in the utterance and reality, e.g., The work is/was/will be/should be done. The verb-predicate expresses the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice and mood.) 2. meaning - process presented dynamically (developing in time) Covers states and emotions: to stand, to sleep, to suffer (lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning of the verb is "process presented dynamically, developing in time. This general processual meaning is present in the semantics of all the verbs, inches the verbs that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude evaluations, etc., rather than actions. Thus, the verbs to stand, to sleep to suffer denote states rather than actions, but these states are present as processes developing in time, and come therefore within the rank of the lexico-grammatical meaning of the verb.) 3. the kind of modifier - adverb (The combinability of the verb is closely connected with lexico-grammatical meaning. The processual categorial meaning of the verb determines its characteristic combination with -a noun expressing both the doer of the action, its subject (e.g: Children go to school) and the recipient of the action, its object (e.g.: Open the window!); - an adverb as the modifier of the action (e.g.: Read loudly!).) 4. inflections - -s, -ed (inflection (or inflexion) is a process of word formation in which a word is modified to express different grammatical categories such as tense, case, voice, aspect, person, number, gender, mood, animacy, and definiteness. The inflection of verbs is called conjugation,) 5. word-forming elements - -ize, -ify (Typical suffixes: -en (brighten, moisten), -ify/-f

18.Five criteria for testing the Adjective as a part of speech.

18.Five criteria for testing the Adjective as a part of speech. 1. The meaning it expresses; • property of a substance or property of "thingness" • nominative part of speech Matter and all objects of reality have peculiarities of their own; Linguistically rendered by adjectivesQualities have gradation; Linguistically rendered in degrees of comparison Semantic grouping of AdjectivesDescriptors:Colour - denoting color, brightness: black, white, darkSize/quantity/extent - denoting size, weight, extent: big, deep, longTime - denoting chronology, age, frequency: annual, new, youngEvaluative/emotive attitudes -denoting judgements, affect, emphasis: beautiful, great, poorMiscellaneous descriptive: appropriate, complex, dead, sudden, empty Classifiers:Rational/classificational/restrictive -delimiting the referent of a noun: additional, average, complete, differentAffiliative - designating the national or religious group to which a referent belongs: Ukrainian, Christian, IrishTopical/Other - giving a subject-area or showing a relationship with a noun: environmental, legal, human, official, visual 2. The typical word-forming elements Derived adjectives:Derived adjectives formed with -al are overwhelmingly more common than adjectives formed with any other derivational suffix -ent, -ive, -ous are moderately common (different, serious, active)-ate, -ful, -less, -like, -type are relatively rare (appropriate, beautiful, endless, dreamlike, stereotype) Common adjectives:Common adjectives are words that describe nouns and do not require any suffix or alteration for their formation. They are basic adjectives that are not formed from other words but exist independently. (Red, happy, tall, fast, central, final) Adjectival compounds:Adjective + adjective: greyish-blueAdjective + noun: full-timeNoun + adjective: butter

46.Classification of composite sentences.

A General Outline of the Composite Sentence The composite sentence, as different from the simple sentence, is formed by two or more predicative lines. Being a polypredicative construction, it expresses a complicated act of thought, i.e. an act of mental activity that falls into two or more intellectual efforts closely combined with one another. In terms of situations and events this means that the composite sentence reflects two or more elementary situational events viewed as making up a unity. Each predicative unit in a composite sentence makes up a clause in it, so that a clause as part of a composite sentence corresponds to a separate sentence as part of a contextual sequence. E.g.: (1) When I sat down to dinner, (2) I looked for an opportunity to slip in casually the information (3) that I had by accident run across the Drifields; (4) but news travelled fast in Blackstable. This composite sentence includes four clauses that are related to one another on different semantic grounds. Coordination and Subordination Composite sentences display two principal types of construction: coordination (parataxis) and subordination (hypotaxis) The initial rise of parataxis and hypotaxis as forms of composite sentences can be traced back to the early stages of language development, i.e. to the times when language had no writing. By coordination (parataxis) the clauses are arranged as units of syntactically equal rank, i.e. equipotently, e.g.: (1) His eyes were bloodshot and heavy, (2) his face a deadly white, (3) and his body bent as if with rage. By subordination (hypotaxis) the clauses are arranged as units of unequal syntactic rank, one clause is categorially dominated by the other, e.g.: It was just luck that he didn't catch the boat. Composite sentences in which two or more independent sentences are connected by way of coordi

50.The complex sentence. Relative and adverbial clauses.

A complex sentence is a sentence that contains an independent clause (a complete thought) and at least one dependent clause (a fragment that cannot stand alone as a complete thought). The clauses in a complex sentence are typically joined by subordinating conjunctions (such as because, although, since, while) or relative pronouns (such as who, which, that).Complex sentence: · is built on the principle of subordination · consists of one or more principal and one or more subordinate clauses · clauses are not equal Whenever he was asked that question, the old man who lived in that house answered that the earth was flat. Relative clauses:A) Descriptive relative clause: This type of relative clause provides additional information about the antecedent (the noun it refers to). It adds descriptive details that are not essential to identifying the antecedent. The information provided by a descriptive relative clause is extra and can be omitted without significantly affecting the overall meaning of the sentence. Example: "The book, which was published last year, is a bestseller." B) Restrictive relative clause: This type of relative clause restricts or narrows down the meaning of the antecedent. It provides essential information that is crucial for identifying the antecedent. Omitting a restrictive relative clause can lead to ambiguity or a change in meaning. Example: "The book that was published last year is a bestseller." Adverbial clauses: Serve to express a variety of adverbial relations and they are introduced by a number of subordinating conjunctions. The position in the sentence is not rigid. 1) Localization: a) Temporal: These adverbial clauses provide information about when an action takes place. We use "when," "while," "before," and "after." Example: "She left the party after midnight." b) Spatial: These clauses

43.The Object as a secondary part of the sentence.

A term used in the analysis of grammatical functions to refer to a major constituent of sentence or clause structure, traditionally associated with the 'receiver' or 'goal' of an action,as in The cat bit the dog. Objects are differentiated on the basis of several criteria: · according to their morphological composition (i.e. by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of the object); · according to the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb (this difference is manifested by direct and indirect objects). According to their morphological composition, i.e. by the parts of speech or phrases which perform the function of the object, objects are classified into: · prepositional, e.g.: An idea had occurred to John. · non-prepositional (or prepositionless), e.g.: Don't forget to buy him a toy on his birthday. Non-prepositional objects, according to the type of their relation to the action expressed by the verb, are further divided · The direct object denotes something (or somebody) directly affected by the action of the verb, e.g.: He wrote a letter yesterday. · The indirect object usually denotes the person for whose benefit the action is performed or towards whom it is directed, e.g.: He sent me (indirect object) a letter (direct object). The indirect object usually precedes the direct object and cannot be withour it. Cognate object - in the sentences She slept a sound sleep. We live a happy life the verbs to sleep and to live, usually subjective, seem to take direct objects. But these objects are of peculiar nature: they do not denote anything that is outside the action and affected by it, as in the case with most objects. The nouns sleep and life are cognate with the verbs to sleep and to live, i.e. they are of common origin and kindred meaning.

26.The Verb: the category of aspect.

As there are two temporal categories in Modern English, i.e. primary time and prospective time, there are two aspective categories as well, such as: - the category of development with the "continuous" form as the marked component and the "non-continuous" as its unmarked counterpart, e.g., to work to be working, works is working, has worked has been working, etc. - the category of retrospective coordination with the "perfect" form as the marked component and the "non-perfect" as its unmarked counterpart, e.g., to arrive to have arrived, arrives - has arrived, to be studying to have been studying, etc. Thus, the continuous forms and the perfect forms make up two aspective categories: the aspective category of development and the category of retrospective coordination (retrospect). The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from temporal meaning, reflects the realization of the process irrespective of its timing. The aspective category of development is a system of two-member opposemes works - is working, i.e. the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite, forms of the verb. The categorial meaning of the continuous is "action in progress". The category of development shows the character of the action. The evolution of views in connection with the interpretation of the continuous forms has undergone three stages. The first stage - temporal interpretation of the continuous, which places continuous forms among the tense-forms of the verb defining them as actions going on simultaneously with some other actions. The second stage the continuous form was understood as a blend of temporal and aspective meaning. The existence of common aspect is denied. The combined temporal-aspective interpretation of the continuous was an essential step forward because it introduced the idea of aspective meanings in

44.The Attribute as a secondary part of the sentence.

Attributes are formally indicated only by the position they occupy, save the demonstrative pronouns (e.g., this, these, etc.) which agree in number with the word they modify. An attribute can either precede or follow the noun it modifies. Prepositive or postpositive attribute. The size of a prepositive attributive phrase can be large in Modern English, especially in humorous style, e.g: Here there are two possibilities: "I-ain't-asking-no-questions-just-tell-me-what-to-do" kind and the "My-God-Henry-you-must-believe-me" kind. Diverse classes of words are used as attributes: a) adjectives, e.g., the new house, a valuable thing, etc.; b) nouns in the Possessive case, e.g., my brother's book, c) noun-adjunct groups (N+N), e.g., world peace, etc.; d) prepositional noun-groups, e.g., the daughter of my friend, the key to a mystery, etc.; e) pronouns (possessive, demonstrative, indefinite), e.g., my joy, such flowers, every morning, little time, etc.; f) infinitives and infinitival groups, e.g., an example to follow, etc.; g) gerunds and participles, e.g., walking distance, swimming suit, the idea of going to the park, etc.; h) numerals, e.g., two friends, the first task, etc.; i) words of the category of state, e.g. faces alight with happiness, etc.; j) idiomatic phrases, e.g., birds of a feather flock together, etc. The subjective attributes, i.e. possessive pronouns or nouns in the possessive case which denote nouns of verbal nature (e.g.: He arrived-his arrival: John confessed - John's confession) or nouns of adjectival nature C9: Mary is happy - Mary's happiness, his father is ill - his fainer's illnes). The objective attributes, which are mostly prepositional phrases attached to nouns of verbal nature, e.g.: depend on others - dependence on others, remind of the war - reminder of the war.

36.Types of sentences.

Characteristic features Quasi-sentences Vocative: Sentence-pattern: John! Syntactic characteristics: Subject Interjective: Sentence-pattern: Hey! Syntactic characteristics: Interjection Metacommunicative: Sentence-pattern: See you! Syntactic characteristics: Greeting/parting words Type of the sentence: Declarative: Sentence-pattern: John is leaving Syntactic characteristics: Subject+whole predicate Interrogative: Sentence-pattern: Is John leaving? Syntactic characteristics: Part of predicate+subject+rest of predicate Optative: Sentence-pattern: If John only left! Syntactic characteristics: If+Subject+whole predicate Imperative: Sentence-pattern: Leave! Syntactic characteristics: Predicate by itself Structural types: Sentence - Simple (one structure of predication) Composite (more than one structure of predication) - Compound parataxis (constituent clauses equal in rank), complex-hypotaxis (adjunctive relations between clauses), hypersentences-sociotaxis The word, the phrase, the sentence The word: The phrase: The sentence: Function: nominative. Nominative Nominative, predicative Referent: a simple objects a complex object a situation Number of min/max 1. Min2/ max not limited Min1/ max not limited notional words: Sentences - utterances - speech acts The speech act theory is a subfield of pragmatics that studies how words are used not only to present information but also to carry out actions. The speech act theory was introduced by Oxford philosopher J.L. Austin in How to Do Things With Words and further developed by American philosopher J.R. Searle.

11.Five criteria for testing the Noun as a part of speech.

Criteria for testing the word-class: 1. The meaning it expresses; 2. The typical word-forming elements 3. The kinds of modifiers it typically takes; 4. The function it characteristically performs; 5. The ways it gets inflected 1) The lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning of noun is "substance" or "thingness". It follows from this that the noun is the main nominative part of speech, In the concept of "substance" we include not only names of living beings (e.g., boy, girl, bird, etc.) and lifeless things (e.g., table, chair, book, etc.), but also names of abstract notions, i.e. qualities, states, actions (e.g., kindness, strength, sleep, fear, conversation, fight, etc.), abstracted from their bearers. 2) Word-building distinction includes typical suffixes and stembuilding morphemes, as in Marx-ist, work-er, friend-ship, manage-ment, etc. and compound stem models, derivational prefixes: anti-, ex-, co-, and affixes: Productive noun-forming suffixes are: -er, e.g., (reader) -tion, e.g., (revolution) -ment, e.g., (development) -ness, e.g., (carelessness) -ture, e.g., (lecture) -ist, e.g., (communist) -ism, e.g., (socialism) Unproductive noun-forming suffixes are: -hood, -dom, -ship, -ance/-ence, -ess, -ty/-ity The main types of compound nouns are as follows: (a) noun-stem+noun-stem, eg., stonewall, armchair (b) adjective-stem+noun-stem, e.g., blackbird (c) verb-stem+noun-stem, e.g., pickpocket (d) gerund/participle stem+noun-stem, e.g., diningroom, reading-hall 3) Noun phrases have a hierarchical structure, with the noun as the head and modifiers branching from it. The kinds of modifiers the noun typically takes: - left-hand connections: with articles and some pronouns, most adjectives, numerals and other nouns - both left-hand and right-hand : with prepositions 4) Syntactic functions of nouns in the sentence:

3.Definition of grammar. The subject matter.

Grammar is a branching discipline, it is represented by a number of concrete grammatical studies distinguished according to their purpose. Kinds of Grammars ( Gramatical Studies ): -Communicative grammars are based on the relation "sign-user of the sign" -Situational grammars' main concern is the relation "sign concept" -Structural grammars deal primarily with the relation "sign-another sign'' These types of grammars can be grouped into semantic grammars (communicative, referential and cognitive) and formalist grammars. There are two opposite directions in approaching to language: external and internal. These two approaches lay foundations for the Functional and Structural grammars. The domain of The Functional Grammar(external approach) is the regularities in the realization of the main functions of language. Communicative Syntax, Modal Syntax, Functional Sentence Perspective - the aspects which the domain of grammatical theories. Internal approach means that language is the system of grammatical devices used by language for providing the derivation of the elements and their organization in the system of language. Derivational Morphology, Relational Syntax.

21.General characteristics of the Verb as a part of speech.

D.Crystall: verb - a term used in the grammatical classification of words, to refer to a class traditionally defined as 'doing' or 'action' words The verb as a notional part of speech has the following features: 1. they express the meanings of a dynamic process, or process developing in time, including not only actions as such (to work, to build), but also states, forms of existence (to be, to become, to lie), various types of attitude, feelings (to love, to appreciate), etc.; 2. they have the grammatical categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood, order, and posteriority most of which have their own grammatical means; 3. the function of verbs entirely depends on their forms: if they are in finite form they fulfill only one function - predicate. But if they are in the non-finite form then they can fulfill any function in the sentence but predicate; they may be part of the predicate; 4. verbs can combine actually with all the parts of speech, though they do not combine with articles, with some pronouns. It is important to note that the combinability of verbs mostly depends on the syntactical function of verbs in speech; 5. verbs have their own stem-building elements: postfixes: -fy (simplify, magnify, identify...) -ize (realize, fertilize, standardize...) -ate (activate, captivate...) prefixes: re- (rewrite, restart, replant...) mis- (misuse, misunderstand, misstate...) un- (uncover, uncouple, uncrown...) de- (depose, depress, derange...) and so on. There is a peculiar means of rendering the meaning of the process, which occupies an intermediary position between the word and the word-combination: the so-called "phrasal verbs", consisting of a verb and a postpositional element. Some phrasal verbs are closer to the word because their meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of the verb or the

15.Noun: The Category of Gender.

Gender: opposite points of view Jacob Grimm (1785 - 1863): The grammatical gender is the natural reflection of reality . Karl Brugmann (1849 - 1919): The grammatical gender is a mechanical process caused by the morpheme the category of gender in English is expressed with the help of the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person. The recognition of gender as a grammatical category is logically independent of any particular semantic association. The category of gender is based on two oppositions: the upper opposition is general, it functions in the whole set of nouns and divides them into person and non- person nouns. The lower opposition is partial. It functions in the subset of person nouns only and divides them into masculine and feminine nouns. As a result of the double oppositional correlation, in Modern English a specific system of three genders arises: the neuter, the masculine, and the feminine genders. Besides, in English there are many person nouns capable of expressing both feminine and masculine genders by way of the pronominal correlation. These nouns comprise a group of the so-called "common gender" nouns. There are several ways of expressing gender distinctions in Modern English. ● The distinction of male, female and neuter may correspond to the lexical meaning of the noun. ● English nouns can show the sex of their referents through suffixal derivation. ● English nouns can show the sex of their referents by means of being combined with certain notional words used as sex indicators. Sex-indicators A) PERSONS girl-friend:: boy-friend; male-servant:: female-servant; woman-novelist:: man- novelist; land-lord:: land-lady B) ANIMALS he-wolf:: she-wolf male-elephant:: female-elephant bull-calf:: cow-calf cock-sparrow:: hen-sparrow Suffixal indicators master :: m

8.Parts of speech. Criteria for the discrimination.

Grammar mostly deals with classes of words, traditionally called parts of speechю The term " part of speech " is conventional: v lexico-grammatical categories (Lev Shcherba, Oleksiy Smirnitskiy) v lexico-grammatical classes of word (Boris Ilyish) The problem of delimiting parts of speech on the basis of some common principles remains controversial. The principles, on which classifications are usually based nowadays, are: meaning - form - function. Because of the inexplicitness with which parts of speech were traditionally defined linguists tend to prefer such terms as word-class or form-class, where the grouping is based on the criteria of a more universally applicable kind A part of speech is a set of words that display the same formal, semantic and functional properties. Modern grammars normally recognize six notional parts of speech: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, pronoun and numeral and six functional: preposition, conjunction, interjection, article, particle, and modal verb making 12 in total

19.Grammatical categories of the Adjective.

Grammatical categories of the Adjective. The grammatical categories of adjectives can be divided into two main groups: 1. 1. Agreement Categories: • Number: Adjectives must agree with the noun or pronoun they modify in number, meaning they must be singular or plural to match. For example, "a small house" and "many small houses." • Gender: In some languages, adjectives also need to agree with the noun or pronoun in gender. This isn't the case in English, but languages like Spanish and French require gender agreement. • Case: In languages with grammatical cases (like Latin), adjectives must also inflect for case according to the noun they modify. 2. Adjective-Specific Categories: • Degree of Comparison: Adjectives can express different degrees of a quality, forming the positive, comparative, and superlative forms. For example, "tall," "taller," and "tallest." • Position: Adjectives can be placed either before or after the noun they modify. In English, the most common position is before the noun, but some adjectives come after the noun (e.g., "the man in black"). • Attributive vs. Predicative Use: Adjectives can be used in two ways: • Attributive: Modifying a noun or pronoun directly, forming a noun phrase (e.g., "the red car"). • Predicative: Coming after a linking verb to describe the subject (e.g., "The car is red"). Additionally: • Definiteness: In some languages, adjectives can function as determiners, marking definiteness or indefiniteness of the noun (e.g., "the" in "the big house"). • Intensity: Some adjectives can be modified by adverbs to further intensify their meaning (e.g., "very cold")

39.The principal parts of the sentence.

In order to state general rules about the construction of sentences it is constantly necessary to refer to smaller units than the sentence itself Traditional distinction between MAIN (PRINCIPAL) and SECONDARY parts of the sentence The principal (main) parts of the sentence are as follows: Subject Predicate Parts connected be means of predicative bond No sentence without them

28.The Verb: the category of mood.

Indicative has all verb grammemes which are found in English (This is the most common mood, used to state facts or ask questions about real-world situations. Example: "The sun is shining.") Subjunctive Lacks two grammemes: person (implicitly in the conditional mood) and number (This mood is used to express hypothetical situations, wishes, or doubts. Example: "If I were you, I would take the bus.") Imperative Has only two grammemes: aspect and voice- This mood is used to ask questions. It's not technically considered a separate mood in some classifications, as it can be expressed through verb conjugation or sentence structure. Example: "Do you like pizza?"

1.Subsystems of language structure and their reference to linguistic disciplines.

Linguistics is the study of the human capacity to communicate and organize thought using different tools (the vocal tract for spoken languages, hands for sign languages) and involving different abstract and tactile components. Linguistics looks at: · The general phenomenon of human language. · Different families of languages (example: Germanic, including English, German, Dutch and Scandinavian, among others). · Specific languages (example: Arabic, Mandarin and French). · Communicative codes or behaviours that are not so well defined (example: the language of recent immigrants, the ways by which bilinguals choose one or another language in certain settings Sub-systems of linguistics Phonetics the study of how speech sounds are made Phonology the study of how sounds are organized Morphology the study of how sounds are organized into units of meaning Lexicology the study of words Pragmatics the study of the relationship between language signs and language users Semantics the study of meanings themselves Syntax the study of how units of meaning come together to create utterances Sociolinguistics the study of interaction of language and people

4.Morphology and syntax as the main subdivisions of grammar.

Morphology studies the structure of words, morphemes are the smallest units, studies how words are formed. Syntax: Syntax studies the structure of sentences, words are the smallest units, studies the word order and agreement. The domain of Morphology is the paradigmatics of the word. Morphology studies the forms of words and their paragigms ( system of words ), their classification and combinability. The domain of syntax is syntagmatics of the word. Syntax studies the combinations of words in word-groups and sentences and the relationships that exist between the words in combinations and sentences. Morphological system of language. Reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words. Faces two segmental units: the morpheme, the word. Branches of morphology: Inflection( External function: paradigmic creativity), Word-formation(external function: paradigmatic creativity). Word-formation: Derivation and compounding

45.The Adverbial Modifier as a secondary part of the sentence.

The adverbial modifier serves as a secondary part of the sentence, providing additional information about the action, manner, time, place, or degree. This linguistic element enhances the overall meaning of the sentence by offering context and detail. Function of Adverbial Modifiers: Modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs to convey how, when, where, or to what extent an action occurs. Types of Adverbial Modifiers: Adverbs of manner: She walked gracefully. Adverbs of time: They arrived early. Adverbs of place: The cat sat there. Adverbs of degree: He is extremely talented. Placement in Sentences: Adverbial modifiers can occur at various positions within a sentence, providing flexibility in expressing different nuances. Examples: Manner: She sang beautifully. Time: They will meet tomorrow. Place: He searched everywhere. Degree: The coffee is too hot. Role in Sentence Structure: Enhances the meaning and clarity of the sentence, contributing to the overall flow and coherence of communication. Adverbial modifier - not used in modern grammatical descriptions. 'Adverb' is a word-class (along with noun, adjective, etc.), whereas 'adverbial' is an element of clause structure (along with subject, object, etc.), and the two usages need to be kept clearly distinct. Within adverbials, many syntactic roles have been identified, of which verb modification has traditionally been seen as central.

5.Segmental and supra-segmental units of the language.

Our speech and writing rely on two distinct sets of units: segmental and supra-segmental. Segmental units are the fundamental building blocks of meaning, forming a neat hierarchy. At the base lie phonemes, the tiniest pieces, like single Lego studs. They have no inherent meaning themselves, but their careful arrangement distinguishes words: a tiny shift from "p" to "b" transforms "pat" into "bat". Next come morphemes, the Lego bricks, carrying basic meanings. Prefixes, suffixes, and roots combine to form words, like "un-" + "happy" making "unhappy". Then, we have the Lego minifigures - words, the smallest meaningful units that can stand alone, like "run", "jump", or "sing". These words assemble into Lego sets - phrases, groups with specific grammatical roles within sentences. Phrases like "the quick brown fox" or "with all my heart" add detail and nuance. Finally, Lego castles themselves - sentences, complete units of thought, express full ideas. A single sentence like "The sun shines brightly" conveys a complete picture. But our language doesn't stop there! We can connect Lego castles into sprawling cities - texts, larger units formed by joining sentences. Paragraphs, articles, and novels are all examples of intricate text structures. These diverse units, both segmental and supra-segmental, work in concert to craft the tapestry of human language. With every word, every pause, and every inflection, we build meaning, nuance, and emotion, turning simple Lego bricks into a vibrant world of communication. Examples: Segmental: • Phonemes: /p/, /i/, /t/, /s/ (combine to form "pits") • Morphemes: "un-", "happy", "-ness" (form "unhappiness") • Words: "run", "jump", "sing", "the", "quick", "brown", "fox" • Phrases: "with all my heart", "the quick brown fox", "jumped over the lazy dog" • Sentences: "The sun sh

38.Parts of the sentence: traditional and modern classifications.

Parts of the sentenceIn order to state general rules about the construction of sentences it is constantly necessary to refer to smaller units than the sentence itself Traditional distinction between MAIN (PRINCIPAL) and SECONDARY parts of the sentencePrincipal (main) partsSubjectPredicateParts connected be means of predicative bondNo sentence without themSecondary partsObject,Attribute,Adverbial ModifierMay or may not be thereServe to modify or define either the subject or the predicate or each other subjectA term used in the analysis of grammatical functions to refer to a major constituent of sentence or clause structure, traditionally associated with the 'doer' of an action:The cat bit the dog.Has a close relation to 'what is being discussed', 'the theme' of the sentence with the normal implication that something new (the predicate) is being said about the subject complexity involved in the subjectdistinguishing the grammatical subject from the underlying or logical subject of a sentence:The cat was chased by the dog,where The cat is the grammatical and the dog the logical subject.Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such sentences as◦Dirt attracts flies◦The books sold well. Definite and indefinite subjectsDefinite subjects: denote a thing that can be clearly definedThirty seven is the number of his apartmentIndefinite subjects: denote some indefinite person, a state of things or a certain situationOne cannot be too careful.Anticipatory or introductory subjectsIt is rather cold.There were no jobs at allStructural subjects have no lexical meaning but are correlated with some words in the sentence which are regarded as notional subjects predicateIn functional grammar, the term has a central status:●is the basic element of a predication;● denotes the action or pro

42.The predicate and its types.

Predicate In functional grammar, the term has a central status: ▪is the basic element of a predication; ▪ denotes the action or property of what is expressed by the subject; ▪ is not dependent on any other part of the sentence Predicate has a verb component in it either as a single verb though it can be a more or less complex structure with the verb at its core A predicate can be expressed by 1) A finite verb form: My neighbor arrived yesterday 2)Link-verb + noun She became a good translator 3)Link-verb + adjective The snow was cold 4)Link-verb + infinitive She grew to know him better that anybody else Classification of predicates Structural: Simple and compound Morphological: Verbal and Nominal Examples Simple verbal: Tastes differ Compound verbal: A) Compound verbal modal: He must do his duty B) compound verbal aspect: They kept asking me questions Simple nominal (no link verb): Quite serious all this! Compound nominal: The lecture is over

40.Comment on the correlation of terms: predicate - predication - predicativity.

Predicativity - reference to speech situation which includes the act of speech, the speaker and reality (зелена трава and трава - зелена) Predication - expression of the essential predicative meaning in the sentence through a finite verb Predicate - In functional grammar, the term has a central status: is the basic element of a predication; denotes the action or property of what is expressed by the subject; is not dependent on any other part of the sentence

37.Predicativity and modality as sentence-forming categories.

Predicativity - reference to speech situation which includes the act of speech, the speaker and reality (зелена трава and трава - зелена) Predicativity, i.e. reference to speech situation which includes the act of speech, the speaker and reality, distinguishes the sentence as the basic unitof communication from all other linguistic units.The centre of predication in a sentence of verbal type is a finiteverb which expresses essential predicative meanings by its categorial forms, first of all, the categories of tense and mood. But predication is also effected by all other forms and elements of the sentence, such as intonation, word order, different functional words. The general semantic category of modality also expresses the connection between the named objects and surrounding reality. However, modality is different from predication, it is not specifically confined to the sentence; this is a broader category revealed both in the grammatical elements of language and its lexical, purely nominative elements (modal words, modal verbs, mood). Predication proper expresses only syntactic modality as the fundamental distinguishing feature of the sentence.From what has been said about the category of predication, we see thatthe general semantic content of the sentence is not reduced to predicative meaning only: it is first necessary to name the substance itself. Predicativity: What it is: The core of a sentence, where a verb connects a subject (doer) with an action or state (happening). It makes a complete "thought" and distinguishes sentences from other language units. Think of it as: Building a mini-story with a character and what they do/are. Modality: What it is: The speaker's attitude towards the proposition in the sentence (the "story"). It shows certainty, possibility, obligation, etc. Think of

12.Classification of Nouns.

Proper nouns are individual names given to separate persons or things. As regards their meaning proper nouns may be personal names, (Mary, Peter, Shakespeare), geographical names (Moscow, London, the Caucasus), the names of the months and of the days of the week (February, Monday), names of ships, hotels, clubs etc. A large number of nouns now proper were originally common nouns (Brown, Smith, Mason). Common nouns are names that can be applied to any individual of a class of persons or things (e.g. man, dog, book), collections of similar individuals or things regarded as a single unit (e. g. peasantry, family), materials (e. g. snow, iron, cotton) or abstract notions (e.g. kindness, development). Animate Animate nouns denote living beings (human and non-human) a boy, a dog Inanimate nouns denote things, materials, substance water, a house Human nouns denote human beings Mary, a government Non-human denote living beings but noy human Cattle, a wolf Concrete nouns may be class-nouns, class-nouns indicating things belonging to a class, and names of materials children which do not express separate things but the whole mass of matter Class nouns e.g., a book, a house, children Names of materials e.g. iron, air Abstract nouns are often the names of actions, states or qualities formed from corresponding verbs and adjectives e.g. conversation, love, truth Collective nouns denote a number of things collected together so that they may be regarded as a single object e.g. a family, a crew, a company

41.The subject and means of its expression.

Subject is a grammar term representing a key part of a sentence or clause, usually linked to the 'doer' of an action. In a sentence like "The cat bit the dog," it's closely connected to 'what's being talked about' or 'the main idea,' suggesting that something new (the predicate) is described about the subject. Not all subjects, moreover, can be analyzed as doers of an action, as in such sentences as ◦ Dirt attracts flies ◦ The books sold well. The subject decides the agreement of the verb, choosing its form based on whether the subject is singular or plural and the parts of the verb that allow this distinction. singular The girl is now a student at a large university or plural They make him the chairman every year Subject 1. Noun or noun-headed structure of modification Winter has come The weather has changed 2. Other parts of speech and structures of modification We were given instructions Handsome is as handsome does New is challenging To err is human Working here is pleasant' 3. Prepositional phrase as the subject In Ukraine is where I choose to live 4.Structure of complementation as the subject To elect him was a mistake Solving unpredictable problems is always a part of education 5. Structure of coordination as the subject To be or not to be is Hamlet's question 6. Structure of predication as the subject Whatever happens is right That he did it all has not been proved Definite and indefinite subjects Definite subjects: denote a thing that can be clearly defined Thirty seven is the number of his apartment Indefinite subjects: denote some indefinite person, a state of things or a certain situation One cannot be too careful. Anticipatory or introductory subjects It is rather cold. There were no jobs at all Structural subjects have no lexical meaning but are correlated with some words in the sentence whic

20.Substantivation of Adjectives.

Substantivation of Adjectives. 1. Substantiation of Adjectives: Information Time! 2. The term "substantiation of adjectives" refers to the grammatical process where an adjective takes on the function of a noun. This can happen in several ways, and I'm happy to provide information on different aspects of this phenomenon: 3. 1. Adjectives Used as Nouns: • Direct Substantivation: Some adjectives can directly function as nouns without any modification. Examples include "the poor," "the young," "the brave," "the rich," etc. • Indefinite Pronouns: Certain adjectives combined with determiners (like "the" or "some") act as nouns. For instance, "the beautiful," "some good," "all happy," etc. • Zero Article Constructions: In some cases, adjectives can take no article and still function as nouns. This commonly occurs with abstract concepts like "truth," "justice," "freedom," etc. 2. Grammatical Markers of Substantiation: • Articles: As mentioned, definite and indefinite articles (the, a, some) are often used with substantivated adjectives. • Pluralization: Substantivated adjectives can take plural forms like "the youngs," "the goods," "all sweets," etc. (though some are rare or stylistic choices). • Possessive Case: When used as nouns, adjectives can take the possessive case: "the old man's wisdom," "the children's joy," etc. 3. Functions of Substantivated Adjectives: • Emphasis: Using an adjective as a noun can draw attention to a specific quality or characteristic. For example, saying "The weak won the race" is more impactful than "The weak people won the race." • Generalization: Substantiation can represent a group of people or things based on a shared quality, as in "The hungry need our help." • Abstraction: Adjectives can be used to denote abstract concepts, like "beauty," "truth," or "justice." 4. Addition

33.Types of syntactic relations between the components of a sentence.

Syntactic connections (content) and relations (expression) Syntactic relations - distinguished according to the form of subordinate word, realized through syntactic connections Syntactic relations (level of the phrase): The form is changed: • Agreement (those pens) • Government (tell him) The form is not changed: • Adjoinment (to think carefully) • Enclosure/nesting (Evidently, he is at home) Syntactic relations (level of the sentence): • Independence (parataxis) There was no immediate answer, but presently I heard my name again • Dependence (hypotaxis) He knew that his sketches from life were not all what they should have been • Interdependence (predication) She smiled Syntactic Relations and Syntactic Connections Syntagmatic relations in syntax can be defined as syntactic relations, though the notion of "syntagmatic relations" is wider than "syntactic relations" as the syntagmatic relations are observed at different language levels. The two relational notions should be strictly differentiated: syntactic relation (=content) and syntactic connection (expression). They must be considered in parallel or even in correlation because they represent the two sides of one and the same phenomenon: syntactic connection is the actualization and manifestation of syntactic relations, and syntactic relations are considered to be the matters of content which are formalized by syntactic connections. Syntactic relations exist between the components of a phrase and between the components of a sentence. Types of syntactic relations between the components of a phrase are distinguished according to the form of the subordinate word; the form is changed - agreement (e.g., that pen - those pens, etc.) and government (e.g., tell him, etc.); the form is not changed - adjoinment (e.g., to think carefully to work hard), and e

17.General characteristics of the Adjective as a part of speech.

The Adjective is a term used in the grammatical classification of words to refer to the main set of items which specify the attributes of nouns.It normally indicates quality, size, shape, duration, feelings, contents, and more about a noun (or pronoun). General characteristics: · Adjectives modify nouns by describing the inherent property of the entity or thing identified by the noun: Please hand me that golden bracelet, will you? · Adjectives can occur in a string, usually of no more than three, and in a preferred order: The Samantha's decided to buy a nice, fancy, old house. · A number of adjectives are gradable and have comparative and superlative forms, -er/-est and/or more/most, as well as less/least for negative gradability: Speaking of the two athletes, Atkinson is faster. · Participial adjectives are formed from present (-ing) and past (-ed) verb forms. They have comparative and superlative forms only with more/most and less/least: That movie was amazing. · Adjectives can be modified by adverbs: His performance was extremely lively.

16.Noun: Article Determination.

The article Is the article a "determiner" of the noun? Is it a determiner of the noun or a separate part of speech? Two views: 1) the article is a WORD and "article + noun" is a phrase 2) the article is a FORM ELEMENT in the system of the noun - a MORPHEME The article is a function word. It means it has no lexical meaning and is devoid of denotative function.The article is a form word that serves as a noun determiner. Since the article is a noun determiner and the noun is the headword in a noun phrase, the syntactical role of the article consists in marking off a noun or a noun phrase as part of the sentence. In the light of the oppositional theory the system of articles in English is described as one consisting of three articles - the definite article, the indefinite article, and the zero article. The indefinite article can be used in three functions. Each of them is realized under specific contextual conditions. In its classifying function the article serves to refer an object to the class or group of objects of the same kind. In its generic function the indefinite article implies that the object denoted by the noun is spoken of as a representative of the class, refers to any object of the same kind.In its numerical function the indefinite article retains its original meaning of the cardinal numeral one. The definite article implies that the speaker or the writer presents a person, a thing or an abstract notion as known to the listener or the reader, either from his general knowledge, or from the situation, or from the context. Hence, the two main functions of the definite article are specifying and generic ( Definite Article:Specifying e.g. Somebody moved in the room above Generic e.g. The lion is the king of the animals. The definite article in its specifying function serves to single out an object or a group of

24.The Verb: the category of person and number.

The categories of person and number are different in principle from the other categories of the finite verb in so far as they do not convey any inherently "verbal" semantics; the nature of both of them is purely "reflective". The category of person expresses the relation between the speaker, the person or persons addressed and other persons and things. The category of person in verbs is represented by 1st ("I"), 2nd ("you") and 3rd persons ("he", "she", "it", "they"). The 1st person, of course, expresses the speaker or a group of which the speaker makes a part; the 2nd person, the person or persons spoken to, and the 3rd, that person or thing (or those persons or things) which are neither the speaker nor the person is spoken to. It will certainly not do to say that the 3rd person represents that which is spoken about. e.g. in the sentence You must come at once, "you" is the person spoken about but it is not the 3rd person. In English the category of person is confined to the singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood (e.g., he reads, etc.) and is very singularly presented in the future tense (e.g., I shall go, she will come, etc.). The category of person is presented in the opposition "stem+s/stem+o", i.e. "3rd person singular/any person of both numbers except 3rd person singular", e.g., lives / live.It is quite clear that the first item of the opposition is marked both in meaning (3rd person singular) and in form ("−s"), whereas the second item is unmarked both in meaning (everything except the 3rd person singular) and in form (zero-inflexion). There is no distinction of persons in the plural number. Thus, the form live may, within the plural number, be connected with a subject of any person (1st, 2nd and 3rd). The "−s" inflection in verbs conveys 4 meanings: 3rd person; singular number;

14.Noun:The Category of Case.

The category of case shows the relations of the substances the nouns name to other substances, actions, states in the world of reality. The category of case is expressed in English by the opposition of the form "s" (the apostrophe "s") usually called the "possessive" case, more traditionally, the "genitive" case, (e.g., the man's duty) to the unmarked form of the usually called the "common" case. The genitive of the plural nouns remains phonetically unexpressed - "the zero form", e.g., the students' books, etc. With regard to the category of case English nouns fall under two lexico-grammatical subclasses: declinable, having case opposites (e.g., John's idea, the swallow's nest, a month's absence, the sun's rays, Canada's population, The Morning Star's famous column, the nation's wealth, etc.), and indeclinable, having no case opposites (e.g., book, news, life, happiness, etc.). The class of declinable nouns is comparatively limited. It includes: -the nouns denoting living beings, persons and animals (e.g., John's idea, the swallow's nest, the mare's back, etc.); -inanimate nouns denoting time and distance such as minute, moment, hour, day, week, month, year, inch, foot, mile and substantivized adverbs such as today, yesterday, tomorrow, etc. (e.g., a moment's delay, a month's absence, an hour's drive, a few minutes silence, a night's rest, yesterday's telephone conversation, etc.); -inanimate nouns denoting names of countries and towns or cities (e.g., Britain's national museums, Canada's population, London's ambulance services, etc.); -inanimate nouns denoting the names of newspapers and nouns denoting different kinds of organizations (eg., The Morning Star's famous column, the Guardian's analysis, the Tribune's role, the company's plans, the firm's endeavours, the Coal Board's Offer, the government's policy, the org

13.Noun: The Category of Number.

The category of number of English nouns is expressed by the binary opposition of the plural form to the singular form of the noun. The singular form has the zero-suffix. The strong member of the binary opposition is the plural form, e.g., a bookta book+s. The productive way of expressing the plural form in English is the suffix "-(e)s" which is pronounced as: -[s]-after voiceless consonants, e.g., caps, hats, etc.; -[z] - after voiced consonants and after vowels, e.g., beds, boys, cows, cities, armies, keys, etc.; -[iz] - after sibilants (-s, -ss, -x, sh, ch, -tch), e.g., bridges, noses, etc. Non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are the following: -vowel interchange (e.g., man men, tooth teeth, goose geese, foot feet, woman women, etc.); -the archaic suffix "-(e)n" as in ox oxen, child children, etc.; -the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in borrowed nouns (e.g., phenomenon phenomena, formula formulae, etc.); the coincidence of singular and plural forms (e.g., sheep, deer, fish, trout, etc.). With regard to the category of number English nouns fall into two subclasses: countable and uncountable. The former have number opposites, the latter have not. Uncountable nouns are again subdivided into those having no plural opposites and those having no singular opposites. The nouns which have only a plural and no singular are usually termed "pluralia tantum" which is the Latin for "plural only" (e.g., clothes, goods, outskirts, etc.). The nouns which have only a singular and no plural are termed "singularia tantum", the Latin for "singular only" (e.g., milk, geometry, butter, etc.). The Subclasses of Nouns Regarding the Category of Number: Singularia tantum usually include nouns of certain lexical meaning: -the names of material substances, eg, milk, butter, water. www feel, etc

25.The Verb: the category of tense.

The category of tense may be defined as a verbal category which reflects the objective category of time and expresses on this background the relations between the time of the action and the time of the utterance. When speaking of the expression of time by the verb, it is necessary to strictly distinguish between: - the general notion of time; - the lexical denotation of time; - the grammatical time proper, or grammatical temporality. 1. The dialectical-materialist notion of time exposes it as the universal form of the continual consecutive change of phenomena. Time as well as space is the basic form of the existence of matter, both time and space are absolutely independent of human perception. 2. Time as the universal form of consecutive change of things should be appraised by the individual in reference to the moment of his immediate perception of the outward reality. This moment of immediate perception, or "present moment" serves as the demarcation line between the past and the future. All the lexical expressions of time are divided into "present- oriented", or "absolutive" expressions of time, and "non-present-oriented", or "non-absolutive" expressions of time. The absolutive time denotation distributes the perception of time among three spheres: the sphere of the present, past and future. Absolutive expressions give a temporal characteristics to an event from the point of view of its orientation in reference to the present moment. The non-absolutive time denotation does not characterize an event in terms of orientation towards the present. This kind of denotation may be either "relative" or "factual". The relative expression of time correlates two or more events showing some of them either as preceding the others, or following the others, or happening at one and the same time with them. The factual expression of ti

27.The Verb: the category of voice.

The category of voice in verbs deals with how the verb presents the relationship between the subject, the action, and the object in a sentence. It indicates who or what plays the central role in the described action. Active voice: The subject is acting (The chef cooked a delicious meal. (The chef did the action of cooking.) Passive voice: The subject is being acted upon, receiving the action (A delicious meal was cooked by the chef. (The action of cooking happened to the meal, not the chef.) The only grammeme which does not reflect any phenomenon in the objective reality Binomic opposition: Active: non-active Active is non-marked and passive is marked formally and functionally Opposition can get neutralized Only when the idea communicated does not change: I was beaten by Jack - I beat Jack Croissants sell quickly in the morning - croissants are being sold quickly in the morning Types of passive constructionsThe subject of passive constructions corresponds to all possible forms of object in active constructions: direct (accusative) O- The object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice. EX. The book was read by the student. indirect (dative)- The indirect object of the active voice becomes the subject of the passive voice. EX. The child was given a gift by her grandma prepositionals- This construction uses a prepositional phrase to introduce the agent, emphasizing the action itself. The preposition "by" is most common, but others like "with" or "through" can be used. two-member passive- This construction omits the agent entirely, leaving the focus solely on the action and object. It's often used in headlines, news reports, or situations where the agent is unknown or unimportant. EX. The building was destroyed three-member passive- This less common construction retains both the subject and obj

23.Lexico-grammatical classifications of the Verb as a part of speech.

The class of verbs falls into a number of subclasses distinguished by different semantic and lexico-grammatical features. On the upper level of division two unequal sets are identified: the set of verbs of full nominative value (notional verbs) and the set of verbs of partial nominative value (semi-notional or functional verbs). Notional verbs, which make the majority of English verbs, possess full lexical meaning; connected with it is their isolatability, i.e. the ability to make a sentence alone, e.g., Come! Listen! Their combinability is variable. Semi-notional (functional) verbs have very general, "faded" lexical meanings, as in be, have, seem, become, etc., where the meaning of action is almost obliterated. Semi-notional verbs are hardly isolatable. Their combinability is usually bilateral as they serve to connect words in speech. They are comparatively few in number but of very frequent occurrence. Semi-notional verbs serve as markers of predication in the proper sense. These "predicators" include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs, and link verbs. Auxiliary verbs constitute grammatical elements of the categorial forms of the verb, such as be, have, do, shall, will, should, would, etc., e.g.: He promised that he would not desert me. Modal verbs are used with the infinitive as predicative markers expressing ability, obligation, permission, advisability, etc. to perform an action denoted by the infinitive. The modal verbs can, may, must, shall, will, should, would, ought to, need, dare are defective in forms and are supplemented by stative groups: "to be able (to)", "to be allowed (to) "to be (to)", "to have (to)". They have peculiar combinability: it is bilateral like that of link-verbs, but modal verbs can be followed only by the infinitives, e.g., He couldn't come yesterday. Link-verbs introduce the nominal part of th

48.The complex sentence. Subject and predicate clauses.

The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination. It consists of one or more principal clauses and one or more subordinate clauses. The clauses in complex sentences are not on an equal footing as a compound sentences. The subordinate clause may either follow or precede the principal clause. Subject and Predicate Clauses There are two types of sub-clauses that function as one of the essential elements of a two-member sentence: subject clauses and predicate clauses. They are interchangeable with one another. E.g.: What you saw at the exhibition is just what I want to know. (= What I want to know is just what you saw at the exhibition). A subject clause may contain either a statement (it is preceded by that) or a question (it is introduced by the interrogative word). E.g.: (a) That he will help us leaves no doubt. That he had not received your letter was true. (b) What you say is true. Whether he will stay here is another question. The peculiarity of the subject clause is its inalienability from the principal clause. In the sentence What you mean is clear, if the subject is cut off from the rest of the sentence, what remains (is clear) cannot be treated as a clause either in meaning or in structure. Subordinate subject clauses have the function of the subject to the predicate of the principal (main) clause. They are introduced by: · conjunctions, e.g., if, whether, that, etc.; · conjunctive pronouns, eg., who, which, what, whose, whichever, whoever, whatever, etc.; · conjunctive adverbs (pro-adverbs), e.g., how, when, where, why, etc. Eg: Why she left is a mystery. That he will come is certain. Who broke the glass remained unknown. A predicate (predicative) clause functions as the nominal predicate of a composite sentence (predicative). The link-verb is in the principal

47.The compound sentence. Structural and semantic types.

The compound sentence - The sentence which consists of two or more independent sentences connected by way of coordination (can be expressed either syndetically or asyndetically) Compound sentence has at least 2 independent clauses. I went there but I couldn't find him. I like hot chocolate; it sends me to sleep. The clauses of compound sentence are of equal rank but usually the clause preceding the conjunction is regarded as the initial clause to which the other clause is related. We went to the mall; however, we only went window-shopping. They tried very hard but they couldn't win the match. The compound sentence is derived from two or more base sentences which are connected on the principle of coordination either syndetically or asyndetically. The base sentences joined into one compound sentence lose their independent status and become coordinate clauses - parts of a composite unity. The first clause is "leading", the successive clauses are "sequential". This division is essential not only from the point of view of outer structure (clause-order), but also in the light of semantico- syntactic content: it is the sequential clause that includes the connector in its composition, thus being turned into some kind of dependent clause, although the type of its dependence is not subordinate. There is a substantial semantico-syntactic difference between the compound sentence and the corresponding sequence of independent sentences. By means of difference in syntactic distributions of predicative units, different distribution of the expressed ideas is achieved: by means of combining or non-combining predicative units into a coordinative polypredicative unit the corresponding closeness or looseness of connections between the reflected events is shown, which is another aspect of coordinative syntactic functions. It is due to t

7.Morphological categories.

The grammemes (an organized set of grammatical forms) make up a morphological category - a system of expressing a generalised grammatical meaning using paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called "grammatical oppositions", e.g., the binary oppositions between the Singular and the Plural in nouns, or between Active and Passive in verbs.

32.The system of syntactic units.

The hierarchy of syntactic units begins with the elementary syntactic unit which is a kind of "brick" in the basement of the syntactic units proper. There are a number of terms used in grammar for the designation of this unit: word, word-form, word-form-position, tagmeme. By common tradition word-groups and sentences are said to be built of words. But this thesis seems to be faulty, because the word is not only a lexical unit but a grammatical one as well. In fact, it is not the word itself as the denotative unit that serves as constructive material for the formation of syntactic units. It is the word with its grammatical properties because the word is turned to grammar by its grammatical aspect. The distinguishing feature of the grammatical aspect of the word is the grammatical nature of its content and expression. It is the "grammatical word-form" that represents the upper stage of the morphological level and is transposed into syntax acquiring the status of the elementary syntactic unit. Thus, the term "word-form" suits better than the term "word". The term "word-form" denotes the word with its grammatical properties, i.e. not only a lexical unit but a grammatical one as well. The position of a word-form is of great relevance for the realain of its s plasmatic potential. When occurring in different positions, the word-form may render different meanings. Thus, in English with its formless nouns the position of the word-form must be regarded as the elementary syntactically relevant unit, e.g, his broad back, the bad of a leaf, lo go back, to back a car, a back entrance, a back district, to talk back, to back a plan, to back the wall, to hurry back, etc. The word-form (position) is not a syntactic unit proper. It is identifies as such only due to its integrative property of building into the word-group. Thus, the word-

6.Morphological system of the language. Types of morphemes.

The morphological system of a language deals with the smallest meaningful units of words, called morphemes. These building blocks combine to create words and express grammatical roles and other information. Understanding morphemes and their interactions is crucial for comprehending the intricate workings of language. • Reveals its properties through the morphemic structure of words • Faces two segmental units: • the morpheme • the word According to David Crystal, morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct. It is generally divided into two fields: the study of inflections (inflectional morphology), and the study of word formation (lexical or derivational morphology). When emphasis is on the technique of analyzing words into morphemes the term morphemics is used. Morphemic analysis in this sense is part of a synchronic linguistic study. Morphological analysis is the more general term, being applied to historical studies as well. Types of morphemes(positional) • Roots: The core meaning of a word, often carrying a lexical concept (e.g., run, write, happy). • Affixes: Attached to roots or other morphemes to modify their meaning or grammatical function: • Prefixes: Attached before the root (e.g., un-, pre-, re-). • Suffixes: Attached after the root (e.g., -ed, -able, -s). • Infixes: Attached within the root (rare in English, common in languages like Arabic). Types of morphemes(semantic) The semantic types of morphemes delve deeper into the specific ways these building blocks of words contribute to meaning. It goes beyond the basic categories like root, prefix, or suffix and examines the precise semantic nuances they carry. Here's a breakdown of different morpheme-semantic types: • Lexical Morphemes: • Carry the core meaning o

10.General characteristics of the Noun as a part of Speech.

The noun as a part of speech is characterized by the following features 1. The lexico-grammatical (categorial) meaning of noun is "substance" or "thingness".It follows from this that the noun is the main nominative part of speech. In the concept of "substance" we include not only names of living beings (e.g., boy) and lifeless things (e.g., table) but also names of abstract notions, i.e. qualities, states, actions (e.g.. kindness, strength, sleep, fear, conversation, fight, etc.). abstracted from their bearers.2. Word-building distinction includes typical suffixes and stem-building morphemes, as in work-er. friend-ship and compound stem models.Productive noun-forming suffixes are: -er, e.g., reader, leacher, worker, writer, speaker, etc.; -tion, e.g., revolution, demonstration, classification, etc.; -ment, e.g.. developmert, management, assignment, fragment, etc.; -ness, e.g., carelessness, madness, blackness, happiness, etc.; -ture, e.g., lecture, structure, picture, etc.; -ist, e.g., communist, telegraphist, dramatist, pianist, etc.; -ism, e.g., socialism, nationalism, imperialism, criticism, etc. Unproductive noun-forming suffixes are: -hood, e.g., childhood, manhood, brotherhood, etc.: -dom, e.g.. freedom, kingdom, officialdom, etc.; -ship, e.g., friendship, relationship, citizenship, etc.; -ance/-ence, c.g, importance, performance, resonance, dependence. existence, difference, correspondence, etc.; -ess, e.g., heiress, hostess, actress, ligress, elfi -ty/-ity, e.g., cruelty: penalty, generosity: curiosity etc. The main types of compound nouns are as follows:(a) noun-stem+noun-stem, e.g, stonewall, armchair, appletree, schoolboy, snowball, timetable, etc.. (b) adjective-stem+noun-stem, eg, blackbird, bluebell, blacksmith, etc.;(c)verb-stem+noun-stem,c.g.pickpocket, etc.;(d) gerund/participle stem+noun-stem, eg, din

35.The sentence. Approaches to the definition.

The problem of definition - more than 300 Approaches to the definition: external: The relation of the unit to extra lingual phenomena internal: Structural and semantic properties The definition should include the points of both approaches a) The sentence is identified as a syntactic unit in the hierarchy of syntactic units b) The sentence is a predicative unit c) The sentence is a complex language sigh d) The sentence is a complex linguistic entity with semantic and formal characteristics e) The sentence is the minimal communicative unit Traditional definition: A group of words expressing a complete thought. And what about one word? Suggested definition: A communicative unit made up of words (or one word) in conformity with their semantic and grammatical combinability and structurally united by predicativity The sentence is an immediate integral init used in speech communication, built up of words according to a definite syncretic pattern and characterized by predication. Sentences: Sentences-proper: declarative, optative, interrogative, imperative Quasi-sentences: vocative, interjective, metacommunicative

9.Criteria for determining the part of speech.

The traditional grammatical classes of words are called "parts of speech". In modern linguistics they are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: semantic, formal, functional - meaning, form, function.The semantic criterion presupposes the categorial meaning of the part of speech, i.e. the meaning common to all the words of the given class. For example, the meaning of the noun is "thingness", the meaning of the verb is "process" or "state".The formal criterion provides the exposition of the specific derivational (word-building) features; for example, the noun is characterized by the category of number (singular and plural); the verb - by tense, mood, etc.; prepositions, conjunctions are characterized by invariability.The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. Here we distinguish: A) the method of combining with other words (V+N, V+D, A+N), B) its function in the sentence (a verb in the sentence is a predicate). According to the three criteria the parts of speech are divided into notional and functional: The Notional and Functional Parts of Speech PART OF SPEECH BASIC FUNCTION EXAMPLES Noun Names a person, a place, or a thing Pirate, Caribbean, ship Pronoun Takes the place of an adverb I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, what, that, these Verb Identifies an action or a state of being Sing, dance, believe, be Adjective Modifies a noun Hot, lazy, funny Adverb Modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb Softly, lazily, often Numeral Identifies an exact number of things One, first, thousand Preposition Shows a relationship between a noun (or a pronoun) and other words in a sentence Up, over, against, by, for Conjunction Joins words, phrases, and clauses And, but, or, yet Interjection Expresses emotions (pain, surprise, anger, pleasure)

2.The etymology of the word "grammar"

The word grammar comes from the Greek grammatikē technē, which means 'art of letters'. The word came from Greek via Latin and French in the fourteenth century. The Old English stæfcræft, meaning 'the art of grammar', 'grammar', 'skill in letters', or 'learning' was supplanted by the French. Indeed, most words we use today involving grammar seem to come from the Classics: verb comes from Latin verbum, meaning word, noun from Latin nōmen, which means name; adverb comes from adverbium, which ultimately comes from Greek

31.Main syntactic theories.

There are such syntactic theories as: - Categorial Syntax studies ways of parts of speech combinain. - Structural Syntax studies the structure of syntactic units. - Transformational-Generative Syntax (Generative Syntax) reveals mechanism of sentence generation. - Functional Syntax (Actual Syntax, Functional Sentence Perspective) deals with functional sentence perspective, or actual division of the utterance (theme / "topic"- theme / "comment"). - Communicative Syntax is concerned with the analysis of utterances from the point of their communicative value and informative structure. - Pragmatic Syntax studies the relations between the language signs and their users.

29.Non-finite forms of the English verbs.

They function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs, blending verb-like action with another grammatical role. The three kinds of non-finite verbs: 1. Infinitives: Introduced by "to" (bare infinitive) or not (full infinitive), infinitives act as nouns (e.g., "To err is human"), adjectives (e.g., "A book to read"), or adverbs (e.g., "He ran as fast as he could"). 2. Gerunds: Ending in "-ing," gerunds act as nouns, often taking objects and modifiers (e.g., "Playing the piano is relaxing"). 3. Participles: These "-ing" and "-ed" forms function as adjectives (e.g., "The singing bird", "The broken vase") or adverbs (e.g., "Smiling, she waved", "Having finished dinner, they left"). Finite vs non-finite. -The finite forms always have and agree with a subject The verbals have no ----Mood distinctions The verbals cannot express prediction by themselves The ---verbals can be only parts of the predicate. Common features -The verbals have voice and tense distinctions -Verbals can express relative time and indicate whether the action expressed by the verbal coincides with the action of the finite form: He comes to help. He came to help or is prior to the action of the finite form: They were glad of our having done the work -Aspect is one of the verb characteristics of the infinitive: to work - to be working, to have worked - to have been working Mixed features Peculiar morphemes 1. "ing" - gerund, participle I 2. "ed", "en" - participle II 3. "to" - infinitive 4. Differ from grammatical morphemes that form grammatical opposemes: ask - asked "ing" - serves to oppose gerunds from non-gerunds Their syntactic functions are quite different from those of the finite verb: while the finite forms perform in the sentence only one syntactic function, namely, that of the finite predicate, the non-finite forms serve

30.Syntax as a subdivision of grammar. The basic notions of syntax.

What is syntax: Syntax refers to the ways in which we order words to create logical, meaningful sentences. While the word classes are all the different types of words that we can use, syntax is the set of rules, patterns, or processes by which we can put them together. The basic notions of Syntax are: Syntactic units, • syntax • Phrase sub-level • Word-form • Word-group (phrase) • Sentence sub-level • clause • Simple sentence • Composite sentence Syntactic meaning, • The structure of the unit • The relations of the constituents • The classes of words which realize syntactic and lexical valency Syntactic form, Patterns Schemes Distributional formulas Syntactic function is the function of a syntactic unit (a word-form, a phrase, a sentence), within a larger syntactic unit, for example, the syntactic function of an attributive in cold weather or the syntactic function of the subject in The weather is fine. Syntactic position, the position of a syntactic unit within a larger syntactic unit; the order of syntactic units is of principal importance in analytical languages. For example my book, we book the tickets. Syntactic relations, The level of phrase • The form is changed • Agreement (those pens) • Government • (tell him) • The form is not changed • Adjoinment • (to think carefully) • Enclosure/nesting (Evidently, he is at home) Level of the sentence • (parataxis) • There was no immediate answer, but presently I heard my name again • Dependence (hypotaxis) • He knew that his sketches from life were not all what they should have been • Interdependence (predication) • She smiled Syntactic connections Coordination - linearly ordered units is the relaction of independence. This thought broke her down, and she wandered away. Subordination - realization of syntactic relati

34.Syntactic structures.

Презентація: Syntactic structures include: 1. Predication 2. Complementation 3. Modification 4. Coordination Predication: Subject — Predicate, e.g. Money talks Complementation Verbal element — Complementation, e.g. Be careful Coordination A =(function word)=B, e.g. Pins and needles Modification Modifier → Head, e.g. Hungry → people Інтернет The structure of predication A structure of predication consists of two main components: a subject (S) and a predicate (P). The subject may be a word or a group of words that tell who and what about the subject whereas the predicate is a verb or a verb with its modifier, direct object, indirect object or complement. The predicate usually follows the subject: Example: - That beautiful lady is neither my sister nor my niece. Structures of predication is: SUBJECT That beautiful lady PREDICATE is neither my sister nor my niece. The structure of complementation A structure of complementation consists of two immediate constituents: a verbal element (VB) and a complement (C). The verbal element can be s simple verb or a syntactic structure in which the verb must be the core. Therefore, a verbal element may be an infinitive, a verb or a verb phrase, or a structure of coordination. The complements which appear in structures of complementation may be divided into four types: • Subjective Complement • Direct Object • Indirect Object • Objective Complement Example: - That beautiful lady is neither my sister nor my niece. Structures of complementation is: That beautiful lady is (VERBAL ELEMENT) neither my sister nor my niece(COMPLEMENT ). The structure of modification A structure of modification consists of a head (H) and a modifier (M). The head, the word which is modified, can be any of part of speech. (n./v./adj./adv.) It may be a single word

49.The complex sentence. Types of attributive clauses.

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