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7 obstacles to public participation in tourism planning

1. Public generally has difficulty in comprehending complex and technical planning issues 2. Public is not always aware of or does not understand the decision-making process 3. The difficulty in attaining and maintaining representativeness in the decision-making process 4. The apathy of citizens 5. Increased costs - time, staff, money 6. Prolonging of the decision-making process 7. Adverse effects on the efficiency of decision making

Physical-Spatial Models - Tentative Beach Resort Model

8 Phases: Natural beach → Urban beach 1. Predevelopment 2. Explorative tourism 3. First hotel 4. Strip development pattern 5. Business centre established 6. Hotels away from beach 7. Second road 8. Separation of CBD and RBD Example: Pattaya, Thailand - used to be a fishing village, post Vietnam war, development began.

Stakeholder analysis

A systematic approach, using qualitative data, to determine the interests and influence of different groups. (Important input into project planning, implementation and management. Why ◦ Identifies: those affects, influencers, priorities, information and expertise, risks and conflicts between groups, appropriate forms of participation by different groups, vulnerable groups. 4 Steps: 1. Identification of stakeholders 2. Determining their interests 3. Assessing stakeholder power and influences 4. Stakeholder participation strategy

Resource Consent

Allows you to do something that would otherwise contravene a section of the RMA. Process: ◦ Identify if activity could create adverse environmental effects ◦ Determine the type, scale, and interrelationships of effects ◦ Can effects be avoided or reduced? ◦ Do overall benefits outweigh adverse effects?

Futures workshop

Assessment of all the scenarios and community perceptions to establish a consensus of 'most likely' future (="visioning"). Community perceptions - a survey process to canvas perceptions of the destination.

Coffee tourism

Being related to the consumption of the coffee, history, traditions, products and culture of a destination.

A cycle of key steps for successful social media marketing

1. Attract users 2. Engage users' interest and participation 3. Retain users and build loyalty 4. Learn about user preferences 5. Provide relevant, customised information to users ↪

Four broad traditions in tourism planning

1. Boosterism 2. Economic - industry approach 3. Land-use/physical/spatial 4. Community approach

Types of spending (multiplier)

1. Direct spending (primary) - initial expenditure of the tourist on goods and services they want to consumer 2. Indirect spending - spending by businesses as they buy inputs so that they can meet visitor demand (e.g., wages, grocery store stock) 3. Induced spending - as wages and salaries within an economy rise, consumption also increases → additional economic activity Indirect + induced = secondary

How do DMOs respond to TCC (Tourist Created Content)? - Three Strategies

1. Mimetic strategy - DMO creates own website with similar features to a social network, has full control over content. However, very different logic to a social media site and poor scalability. 2. Advertising strategy - DMO site used as advertising platform. Advertisements and campaigns shared in social network sites, increasing social media presence. However, DMO does not benefit from pool of info provided by TCC. 3. Analytic strategy - two dimensions: prevention and knowledge. Prevention = identifying how a destination is being portrayed through TCC and then taking measures to minimise crisis or negative image. Knowledge (less common) = investment in ICT development to transform massive amount of TCC into usable strategic knowledge. Uses advanced search engines and artificial intelligence.

Actions needed to undertake sustainable tourism

1. Planning - integrated vertically, horizontally and sectorally 2. Indicators - change from benchmarks 3. Monitoring - changes in levels and conditions 4. Controls and/or incentives - to correct problems and achieve goals

Communities

Communities are the destination of most travellers. Therefore it is in communities that tourism happens. Because of this, tourism industry development and management must be brought effectively to bear in communities. "groups of people residing in the same region with common interests and identity". ◦ Different cases of community involvement - becuase of different interpretations of what a community is in each of them ◦ Geographic perspective on "community" - relationship with the physical environment ◦ A bonding of people and place ◦ Share 'sense of place' and heritage There are different aspects to a community ◦ Overt - tangible e.g., clothes, cuisine, lifestyles ◦ Covert - intangible e.g., values, languages, hidden histories

Bottom up approach

Community gets inspired by tourism and they develop the plan themselves, sometimes with expert help/advice).

Handy's Principle (Handy's Sigmoid curves)

Creation of an entirely new product in response to entirely different market.

Role of RTO continuum

Defining characteristics relating to statutory power and funding. Advisory, non-statutory, voluntary ←----------------→ Decision-making, statutory body, funded, mandate.

Sociological understanding of "destination"

Destinations as limited geographic features do not exist, tourist spaces are produced by the social practice of the tourist.

What is sustainable tourism?

Development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs. Broadly the goal is to achieve tourism that is: ◦ Economically viable ◦ Environmentally sensitive ◦ Culturally appropriate

RTO structures

Different structures occur and have an effect on the way it operates. ◦ Local Authority Department e.g., Tourism Rotorua ◦ Local Authority Business Unit (more adaptability, can generate funds, more decision making autonomy). ◦ Council organisation (e.g., partnership, joint venture). ◦ Company (completely separated from the council, business orientation). ◦ Trust ◦ Independent Organisation (incorporated society e.g., Destination Queenstown).

Top down approach

Does not allow community to run planning process - people in suits.

Stakeholder legitimacy

For a stakeholder to be effectively involved in the planning process they have to have legitimacy (other people think that they should be there).

GIS - Geographic Information Systems

Integrates hardware, software and data for capturing, managing and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information.

Types of multipliers

Main type: 1. Tourism Income Multiplier (TIM) - the ratio of direct, indirect and induced changes in an economy to the direct initial change itself. Other multipliers: 2. Sales or transactions multiplier - the increase in business turnover created by tourist expenditure 3. Output multiplier - differs from sales multiplier in that in addition to sales generation, it also includes changes in the level of inventories 4. Employment multiplier - ratio of direct and secondary employment generated by additional tourism expenditure, to direct employment alone. Can be compared on across a national and regional scale. (National usually higher).

Resource Management Act (RMA) 1991

Managing the use, development and protection of resources in a way, or at a rate, which enables people and communities to provide for their social, economic and cultural well being and for their health and safety while: ◦ Sustaining the potential of natural and physical resources to meet the needs of future generations. ◦ Safeguarding the life-supporting capacity of air, water, soil and ecosystems. ◦ Avoiding, remedying or mitigating any adverse effects of activities on the environment.

TOMM - Tourism Optimisation Management Model

Objectives: ◦ Monitor and quantify the key economic, marketing, environmental, socio-cultural and experiential benefits and impacts of tourism. ◦ Assist in the assessment of emerging issues and alternative future management options for sustainable tourism development. Three parts: 1. Contextual analysis - identification of "strategic imperatives", characteristics, community values, growth patters, market trends. 2. Monitoring programme - identification of indicators, optimum conditions, acceptable ranges, monitoring, reporting. 3. Management response - identifying poor performing indicators, exploration of cause/effect relationships, identification of results requiring a response, development of response options.

Limitations to community participation

Operational level: ◦ Centralisation of public administration of tourism ◦ Lack of co-ordination ◦ Fragmented tourism industry ◦ Lack of info to local people Structural level: ◦ Attitudes of professionals ◦ Lack of expertise ◦ Elite domination ◦ Lack of appropriate legal system ◦ Lack of trained human resources ◦ Relatively high cost of community participation ◦ Lack of financial resources Cultural level: ◦ Limited capacity of poor people ◦ Apathy and low levels of awareness in the local community

Socio-cultural impacts definition

Outcomes of particular kinds of social relationships that occur between tourists and hosts as a result of their coming into contact. ◦ Interconnected with economic and/or environmental impacts.

Resort Development Spectrum

Prideaux, B (2000) - A mew approach to modelling resort development. Existing models fail to examine the impact of tourism on the supply side - the composition of the destination's tourism infrastructure and human resources. E.g. role of transport, changes to accommodation stock, forecast impact of tourism growth on employment, workforce requirements. ◦ Incorporates variables of demand, supply and capacity. ◦ At each phase, the resort reaches a position where its market is well defined and to some degree contained by capacity. ◦ Shape of growth line depends on time taken to expand capacity. Five phases of growth: 1. Local tourism 2. Regional tourism 3. National tourism 4. International tourism 5. Decline/Stagnation/Rejuvenation ◦ Growth occurs as a result of expansion of resort's infrastructure and parallel development of new market sectors.

Elements of tourism supply

Primary elements: ◦ Activity places - places where the tourists do touristy stuff ◦ Leisure setting - wider setting in which these activities occur Secondary elements: ◦ Supporting facilities and services e.g., hotels, shopping Additional elements: ◦ Accessibility and parking ◦ Tourist facilities - information offices, guides, maps etc.

Rejuvenating destinations

Re-inventing destinations whose popularity has declines is probably the most difficult task. Their resorts generally have: ◦ Outdated facilities ◦ A dated image ◦ Low investor confidence ◦ Large scale environmental damage The task for developers is to find investors to repair the damage and build new facilities, and to create a new image and attraction for the resort.

Assessment of Effects on the Environment (AEE)

Requirements under Schedule IV of the RMA. What does an AEE contain? ◦ Full description of proposed activity. ◦ Identification and assessment of any actual or potential effects on the environment by proposed activity. ◦ Description of how the identified effects may be avoided, remedied or mitigated. ◦ Any monitoring that may be required. ◦ Any alternative locations or methods for your proposed activity, if the environmental effects are likely to be significant. ◦ Identification of and consultation with those parties who may be affected by your proposed activity.

Promotion channels

Shift has occurred from traditional channels of promotion to those using online communication platforms. ◦ Increased engagement with target audiences ◦ New opportunities for collaborative tourism destination marketing

Carrying capacity

The physical, biological, social and psychological capacity of the environment to support tourist activity without diminishing environmental quality or visitor satisfaction. Two key components: 1. Quality of the environment (biological/biophysical) 2. Quality of the visitor experience (social)

Multiplier

The total effects (direct, indirect and/or induced) divided by the direct effects of tourism. This concept is based on the recirculation of income: recipients use some of their income for consumption spending, which then results in further income and employment. Broadly - how many times money spent by a tourist is circulated in a country's economy.

Mirror effect

The tourist gaze (Urry, 1990) The tourist gaze forces people (host community) into self-reflection. Two possible effects: ◦ Positive - makes people aware of their past, culture, traditions ◦ Negative - reduces real meaning of those traditions and customs

Leakage

The way in which revenue generated by tourism is lost to other countries' economies. The diversion of fund from a destination to another. ◦ Import leakage - when tourists demand standards of equipment, food and other products that the host country cannot supply. (Especially in less-developed countries). ◦ Export leakage - when foreign businesses have tourism investments in destination and take their profits back to country of origin. Multiplier is inversely related to leakage. Varies with: ◦ Size of country ◦ Economy ◦ Import policy ◦ Supply/demand relationships ◦ Stage of development ◦ Visitors ◦ Location Common sources: ◦ Overseas promotion ◦ Import of materials/equipment for construction ◦ Consumables ◦ Repatriation ◦ Foreign loans

Community-based approaches

Tourism planners must design forms of tourism development that are: ◦ Accepted by the host community ◦ Appropriate to the social, economic and physical setting How? ◦ Find common ground between tourism industry and community needs. ◦ Active measures to fully involve the local community in the processes and particularly the decision-making processes of tourism development. (Bottom up approach).

International Marketing Alliance

Two or more RTOs, e.g. Southland Tourism and Tourism Dunedin = Coastal Otago/Southland

General categories of impacts

◦ Demographic (population size, age) ◦ Occupational (dependence on tourism for employment, employment type ) ◦ Economic (pricing changes, consumption patterns) ◦ Cultural ('demonstration effects', changing traditions, religion) ◦ Physical environment (locals displaces, crowding, traffic, shops)

Roles of RTOs

◦ Destination competitiveness (marketing) Many other roles - e.g., planning, management, training, funding, advice. However, in reality... ◦ Mostly marketing and promotion ◦ Some product/business development advice ◦ Some research - mainly marketing related

The use of Tourism as and Economic Tool

◦ Developing nations - FOREX ◦ Developed nations - post industrial employment ◦ Regional economies - economic transition (very good for economies changing from one industry to another). ◦ Urban economies - rejuvenation ◦ Remote communities - economic survival ◦ Rural communities - diversification and reserving population trends

Criticisms of TALC

◦ Difficult to identify stages and turning points ◦ Difficulty in obtaining data ◦ Danger of planners responding to false warning signs ◦ Level of aggregation - region, resort, hotel or market? (not seeing how each individual market is performing - hiding useful patterns). Can use as a forecasting tool if it is possible to isolate and predict the forces driving the TALC.

Problems with carrying capacity

◦ Difficult to operationalise ◦ Described as "holy grail" ◦ Imprecise/frustrating ◦ Measurable? ◦ Or only as a conceptual tool?

The effects of tourist spending

◦ Direct effects - production changes associated with the immediate effects of changes in tourism expenditures. ◦ Indirect effects - production changes resulting from various rounds of re-spending of the tourism industry's receipts in backwards linked industries. ◦ Induced effects - changes in economic activity resulting from household spending of income earned directly or indirectly as a result of tourism spending.

Cohen's Tourist Typology

◦ Drifters ◦ Explorers ◦ Individual mass tourist (small groups, self-created itineraries). ◦ Organised mass tourist (large numbers, package holidays, set itineraries).

Models of destination competitiveness

◦ Dwyer and Kim (2003) - Resources - Destination Management - Demand - Situational conditions - Lead to destination competitiveness, socioeconomic prosperity → Indicators (destination competitiveness, quality of life). ◦ Ritchie and Crouch (2000) (from the bottom up) - Qualifying and amplifying determinants - Destination policy, planning and development - Destination management - Core resources and attractors - Supporting factors and resources - All impacted by micro and macro environments, as well as comparative advantages and competitive advantages. What do the models do? ◦ Illustrate the broad range of factors that impact destination competitiveness ◦ Show how macro and micro scale factors interact at destination level ◦ Illustrates difference between comparative advantage and competitive advantage ◦ Shows what destination managers can do to make their destinations more competitive.

Dimensions of tourism competitiveness

◦ Economic ◦ Social ◦ Cultural ◦ Political ◦ Environmental ◦ Technological

Negative aspects to not having pronounced off seasons

◦ Environmental challenges - limited recovery time ◦ Social and cultural implications - limited break time

Doxey's irridex

◦ Euphoria ◦ Apathy ◦ Irritation ◦ Antagonism As growth of tourist numbers increases.

Economic benefits of tourism

◦ Foreign exchange earnings and the balance of payments ◦ Generation of income ◦ Generation of employment ◦ Improvement of infrastructure ◦ Encouragement of entrepreneurial activity ◦ Stimulation of regional economies and mitigation of regional economic disparities

Land-use/physical/spatial

◦ Geography, urban, regional land use planners, protected area planners ◦ Tourism has an ecological base ◦ Carrying capacity/limits ◦ Environmental thresholds ◦ Environmental impact assessments ◦ Manipulate tourist patterns - concentrate or disperse Quite a logical approach as NZ tourism relies on the land/natural environment

Sustainability planning challenges

◦ Growth management - large issue ◦ Crowding ◦ Infrastructure ◦ Social impacts e.g. freedom camping ◦ Workforce ◦ Regional disparity ◦ Carbon footprint NZ is already experiencing significant challenges.

Economic costs of tourism

◦ Incidental costs (externalities e.g., rubbish, drunk tourists, congestion, pollution) ◦ Opportunity costs (cost of not investing in other activities) ◦ Over-dependence on tourism (unbalanced portfolio) ◦ Inflation and land values ◦ Seasonality - cost involved in having a lot invested in assets, but only being used for part of the year (efficiencies of capital) ◦ Cost of tourism management (development, marketing, operations)

Five innovation typologies

◦ Introduction of a new good or improvement to the quality of an existing good ◦ Introduction of a new method of production - online communication represents this (e.g, DMOs now have to communicate with existing and potential consumers). ◦ Opening of a new market ◦ New source of supply of raw materials or part-made product ◦ Creation of a new type of industrial organisation

5 types of consent

◦ Land Use ◦ Subdivision ◦ Water Permit ◦ Discharge Permit ◦ Coastal Permit

Solutions for managing socio-cultural impacts

◦ Local ownership of tourism - 'outsider' investment and employment minimal. ◦ Community members in managerial positions (not servile). ◦ Community representation on policy making committees - councils, politicians, etc. ◦ Awareness of benefits: - improved facilities, education; employment within local community... Solutions through better tourism planning: ◦ 'Consultative process' ◦ 'Local ownership and participation' ◦ Research - into local values associated with tourism and the consequent changes

Advantages of Resort Development Spectrum

◦ Most models focus on the effects of growth ◦ Identifies types of actions that are required to facilitate the growth of a resort ◦ E.g., if local community desires tourism development - recognise need for change in promotion, early recognition of transport needs (set aside land), multiplier analysis enables estimation of requirements for range of services and infrastructure.

Fragmentation of elements may be overcome by...

◦ Networks ◦ Strategic alliances ◦ Integration - vertical and horizontal ◦ Infotech

Problems for DMOs

◦ No control over products they represent ◦ Nor over intermediaries ◦ Satisfy individual tourism business interests (target to THEIR market) ◦ Satisfy intermediaries ◦ Satisfy host community ◦ Heterogenous market ◦ Crowded market place

Authenticity - 3 types (Socio-cultural impacts)

◦ Objective authenticity - measurable ◦ Constructive authenticity - is about the authenticity, and value placed on an object from outside the object itself (constructed by individual) ◦ Staged authenticity - the staging of local culture to create an impression of authenticity for a tourist audience

How do we define a tourist destination region?

◦ Physical/climatic regions. ◦ Functional regions (interconnectedness e.g., transport linkages). ◦ Programming regions (admin/management). ◦ Scale (internal homogeneity vs. external linkages and dependencies).

Use of multipliers

◦ Policy making and planning ◦ Analysing the national or regional effects of public or private sector investment in tourism ◦ Simulating the economic impact, sector by sector of any proposed tourism developments (model value of tourism when doing a new development) ◦ Examining the relative magnitudes of the impacts made by different types of tourism ◦ Comparing tourism with other sectors

Difficulties in involving community in tourism development

◦ Political nature of the planning process ◦ Public participation implies that local community will have a degree of control over the planning and decision-making process ◦ Potential conflict between communities and relevant government bodies ◦ Community involvement - a token gesture? ◦ Decisions prescribed by government ◦ Power

What determines destination competitiveness

◦ Price factors - price differentials - exchange rates - productivity levels ◦ Non-price factors - Attractiveness of destination - Friendly people

Types of tourism resources

◦ Principle resources - key motivating factor in tourist's travel decision process. ◦ Supporting resources - supplement principal resources, don't represent a prime motive for travel.

Community approach

◦ Recognises that tourism has some social impacts ◦ Need for community involvement ◦ Local control ◦ Satisfy locals → satisfy tourists "win-win" ◦ Tourism based on goals and priorities of residents ◦ "Bottom up" c.f. "top down" - community getting together and generating ideas around how they want tourism to grow ◦ Most vulnerable groups according to WTO ◦ Catlins - community driven, based on sustainability principles

Traditional approaches to visitor impact management

◦ Reducing or limiting tourist numbers (difficult - loss of $ and jobs) ◦ Changing the tourist type ◦ Changing the resource for resilience

Boosterism

◦ Simplistic attitude "tourism is good, more the better" ◦ Dominant tradition since mass tourism ◦ Non-planning ◦ No host-community involvement ◦ Two groups benefit - politicians, those financially benefitted. ◦ Small size of industry

Economic - industry approach

◦ Tourism as an industry - tool for economic goals ◦ Employment ◦ Restructuring economy ◦ Regional development ◦ Foreign exchange ◦ Balance of payments ◦ Focus on marketing, segmentation for $ ◦ Little focus on ecological/social concerns ◦ "Yield"

RMA's importance to tourism

◦ Tourism industry depends on maintenance of environmental quality ◦ Development of resources ◦ Use of resources ◦ Protection of resources

Destination audit

◦ Undertaken by destination, not organisation. ◦ Key principles - regularly undertaken, carefully structure, diagnostic and prognostic, attention to problems and opportunities, many varied stakeholders. ◦ Process - desk research and field research.

Factors influencing the scale of socio-cultural impacts

◦ Volume of tourism arrivals ◦ Type of tourism activity ◦ Type of tourist (package vs. independent) ◦ The difference in socio-cultural characteristics between tourists and locals ◦ The structure of the host economy (planned for tourism or imposed?)

Implications of the use of social media by DMOs

◦ When user generated content is different to what DMOs want consumers to see - lack of control over product, hard to manage this conflict ◦ Consumers are no longer just an audience ◦ Tourists do not incorporate the formal elements of the brands int heir story-telling and experience sharing of destinations ◦ Taglines, slogans or logos are virtually nonexistent as part of TCC. (However, tourists very active in destination image formation) ◦ Mobile and audiovisual technology, combined with web 2.0 turns TCC into a new type of global late-modern risk.

Tourism policy and governance: policy areas

◦ Workforce - tourism and hospitality workforce strategy ◦ Access - air access, border control, visas ◦ Environment - ministry for the environment, DOC, Kyoto

Mega-trend analysis

A review of the published trend analysis at local, international and international level

Sustainability indicators

A set of useable and meaningful measures that correspond to managers' information needs. The measures must relate to the ecological, social, economic and planning conditions.

What is destination competitiveness?

Broadly, "the ability of a destination to maintain its market position and share and/or to improve upon them through time." A general concept that encompasses price differentials couples with exchange rate movements, productivity levels of various components of the tourist industry and QUALITATIVE factors (human factors, intangible component) affecting the attractiveness or otherwise of a destination. Measured through: ◦ Visitor numbers ◦ Market share ◦ Tourist expenditure ◦ Value added

Carrying capacity as a function

CC = f(Q, T, N , U, DM, AB) ◦ Q = quality of resources available ◦ T = tolerance of these resources (resilience) ◦ N = number of visitors at the site/setting ◦ U = type of use or visitor activity undertaken ◦ DM = the design and management of visitor facilities in the setting ◦ AB = attitude and behaviour of visitors on the site, and similarly, of the site managers.

Arnsteins' Ladder of Citizen Participation

Citizen power: 8. Citizen control 7. Delegated power 6. Partnership Tokenism: 5. Placation 4. Consultation 3. Informing Nonparticipation: 2. Therapy 1. Manipulation There are different levels of how we can involve the community (bottom = bad, top = good)

Activity characteristics classification wheel (Richie and Crouch, 2005)

Enables a destination to analyse their attractions by classifying them and identify absent areas as opportunities, increasing diversification. (Having a product mix is more sustainable for a destination).

Governance

Good governance refers to "the establishment of appropriate institutional arrangements (i.e., structures and processes) to manage tourism and its positive and negative aspects. ◦ Broader than government - includes non-state actors (business, community and voluntary sectors). Public and private sector relationships. ◦ Governance is about new processes of governing or new methods by which society is governed (Rhodes, 2000). ◦ Governance is a concept that refers to the 'action, manner or system of governing in which the boundary between organizations and public and private sectors has become permeable' (Stoker's 1998, p 38).

Issue with the RMA

Lack of integration of tourism planning with resource management planning. (Weak link). ◦ Tourism planning is non-statutory. ◦ RMA related planning is statutory.

Macro and micro competitiveness perspectives

Macro: ◦ Competitiveness is a national concern ◦ Broad construct ◦ Comprises social, cultural, economic variables affecting performance of a nation Micro: ◦ Firm level ◦ "Core competencies" - access to markets, customer benefits, inimitable (others cannot copy) When talking about tourist destinations - combination of macro and micro characteristics.

Indicators of DMO effectiveness

Market performance indicators: ◦ Visitor statistics ◦ Quantitative marcom evaluations ◦ Consumer-based brand equity (subjective measures, destination awareness/attitude, ToMA - top of mind awareness).

Destination Management Organisation (DMO) A.K.A RTO, LTO, DMO (marketing)

NZ - 26 RTOs Maori RTOs - NZ Maori Tourism Council, Maori Regional Tourism Organisations

RMA - Hierarchy of plans

National Policy Statements Regional Policy Statements Regional Plans District Plans

Tourism fragmentation

Range of separate industry suppliers - SMEs. All offer different components to make up the final tourism product. Partial industrialisation - businesses have different level of involvement in tourism, causing experience consistency issues. Required intermediaries to co-ordinate and combine elements.

Tourist Area Life Cycle (TALC)

R.W. Butler, 1980. Illustrates visitor numbers over time within a destination. 1. Exploration - small visitor numbers, destination unchanged, personal contact with locals. 2. Involvement - local initiatives, advertising, increased regular flow, tourist season, infrastructure pressure. 3. Development - large number of visitors, local control → institutionalism (outsiders), regional tourism planning needed (critical stage), quality may decline. 4. Consolidation - slowing down, rate of increase declines, visitors exceeds permanent residents. 5. Stagnation - peak volumes reached, destination unfashionable, major promotion and development required, competition from mature resorts. 6. Stagnation OR Rejuvenation (new markets, develop products) OR Decline (visitors lost to newer destinations, stage not inevitable). Shape of TALC varies depending on factors: ◦ Rate of development ◦ Investment ◦ Access ◦ Capacity constraints ◦ Government policy ◦ Market trends ◦ Competing destination ◦ Tourist impacts ◦ Planning responses

Three stages of technology adoption and use by tourism organisations

Stage 1 - low use of IT and knowledge management Stage 2 - moderate use of IT and knowledge management Stage 3 - high use of IT and knowledge management (functions are highly interactive rather than just fulfil operational management needs)

Kearsley's Typology of Resort Development in the southern South Island

Stage: 1. Summer resort, cribs, retirement - Naseby Outpost - Milford Sound 2. Staging post and stopover - Te Anau, Omarama, Tekapo 3. All season destination - Wanaka 4. International destination resort - Queenstown

Cultural appraisals

Visitors have to consider a destination to be attractive and worth the investment of money and time. E.g. Paris sewers as a destination

Smith (1989) - Socioeconomic Impacts

[Types of tourist] - [Number of tourists] - [Adaptation to local norms] ◦ Explorer - very limited - accepts fully ◦ Elite - rarely seen - adapts fully ◦ Off-beat - uncommon but seen - adapts well ◦ Unusual - occasional - adapts somewhat ◦ Incipient mass - steady flow - seeks Western amenities ◦ Mass - continuous flow - expects Western amenities ◦ Charter - massive arrivals - demands Western amenities (Demanding from home culture - seek familiarity rather than difference).

Components of governance

◦ Accountability ◦ Transparency ◦ Participation ◦ Relationship management ◦ Efficiency ◦ Equity

Tourist images - tourist ways of seeing (Wang, 2000)

◦ Apolisticised ◦ Decontextualised ◦ Simplified ◦ Ahistoricised ◦ Romanticided

Components of a tourism product

◦ Attractions (natural, constructed) ◦ Amenities (support tourism activities) ◦ Accessibility (to the destination- physical, within the destination - physical, market access - psychological).

Kaplan and Haenlein's five key actions to abide by when managing a social media presence

◦ Be active ◦ Be interesting ◦ Be humble ◦ Be informal ◦ Be honest

Rationale for using social media

◦ Budgetary pressures ◦ Internet is a flexible tool to promote tourism destinations worldwide. ◦ Can be integrated with destination databases to enhance distribution channels ◦ Can influence collective opinions about destinations and encourage engagement through user-generated content. ◦ Humanising a brand BUT - DMOs tend to fear negative comments from users and the influence that such comments may have on destination's image and reputation.

Current structure of tourism governance in NZ

◦ Central Level - MBIE, Tourism NZ ◦ Regional Level - RTOs, Marketing alliances ◦ Local Level - Local promotions groups, tourism operators

Tourism growth drivers in New Zealand

◦ Chinese middle class growth ◦ More disposable income ◦ Easier to enter into countries - visas ◦ Cheaper cost to travel ◦ Lord of the Rings effect ◦ 100% PURE NZ (Marketing)

For carrying capacity to be useful, you need...

◦ Consensus - on desired social and resource conditions, monitor using indicators ◦ Agreement - on desired levels for these conditions and standards for each indicator ◦ Known relationship - between use levels and impacts for each indicator ◦ Capability to limit access to area - by management agency (have political, legal, financial and human resources) These requirements are rarely met - prompting a shift in focus from, "how many is too many?" to "what are the desired conditions?". (Alternative management frameworks e.g. TOMM)