Toxicology Chapter 12 (Sugar Substitutes)

honey compostion

-calories: 64 calories of honey per tablespoon, 40 calories of sugar (sucrose) per tablespoon -sweetness properties: honey is about 2X sweeter than sugar

chemical structure of sugar alcohols

-chemically reduced carbohydrates -similar to glucose (aldehyde group is replaced by an alcohol group)

products using sugar alcohols

-chewing gum -candy -ice cream -frozen desserts -baked goods -chocolate -fruit spreads -toothpaste -mouthwash -breath mints -cough syrup -cough drops

note- intro to sweeteners

Since sugars have been thoroughly discussed in other presentations, this packet will discuss non-sugar sweeteners.

aspartame synthesis

Two commercial process -condensation of aspartic acid and phenylalanine -fermentation process: (produce amino acids from molasses, soy and corn, amino acids combined to form aspartame crystals, crystals purified and converted to finished product)

excessive consumption

effects some individuals -may cause a temporary mild bloating effect -may cause a temporary mild laxative effect -reactions are similar to those from beans or other high-fiber foods

stevia sweeteners (FDA status)

-1991 stevia was banned in U.S. due to early studies that suggested the sweetener may cause cancer -a follow up study refuted the initial study and in 1995, the FDA allowed stevia to be imported and sold as a food supplement, but not as a sweetener -2008 FDA approved purified rebaudioside A approved as a food additive (sweetener)- classified as "generally recognized as safe" (GRAS), FDA authorization 2008 authorization does not extend to leaf and extracts (they do not have GRAS status)

aspartame and health

-FDA testing: (one of the most throughly tested and studied food additive the FDA has ever approved, FDA approval granted in 1981) -Aspartame & Phenylketonuria: (PKU, since aspartame contains phenylalanine- which isn't metabolized, people with PKU should not use aspartame) -Aspartame and cancer: no association found

agave nectar

-a caloric substitute (has calories) -processed juice from agave plant (primary stalk os pressed to release juice, juice is filtered to remove vegetable matter, reduced by cooking to create syrup consistency) -short cooking time= lighter color syrup -long cooking time= darker syrup -agave juice is often fermented to make tequila -agave juice have been used to flavor food and drink for centuries

honey

-a natural caloric sugar substitute -produced by bees -they collect nectar from flower blossom and store it in their "honey" stomach -the nectar is taken back to the hive, other worker bees chew it for about half an hour to gradually turn it into honey -it is stored in wax honeycomb cells -the honey is still a bit wet, so they fan it with their wings to reduce the water concentration -it's then seal in honey comb cells

FDA approved artificial sweeteners

-acesulfame (acesulfame K) -aspartame -saccharin -sucralose -neotame -advantame

agave nectar marketed as

-agave in the raw (organic agave nectar) -madhava agave nectar (organic agave nectar) -madhava organic five blend (agave nectar, stoves leaf extract, monk fruit extract)

saccharin and health (positive health characteristics)

-aids in weight loss -does not contribute to tooth decay -does not affect glucose or triglyceride levels (helpful to people with diabetes)

neotame

-aka E961 (in European Union) -what is neotame? (a high intensity artificial sweetener, 7000-13000 times sweeter than sugar, chemically similar to aspartame- has dimethylbutyl group, more stable) -FDA approved -EU approval November 2011 -not widely used

acesulfame potassium

-aka acesulfame K -what is acesulfame K (non-caloric sweetener, organic salt- carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, potassium, sulfur, derived from acetoacetic acid, about 200x sweeter than sugar) -discovered in 1967 by Karl Clauss- a German chemist -FDA approval 1988

non-nutritive sweeteners

-aka artificial sweeteners or sugar substitutes (provide sweetness or sugary taste, have greater intensity of sweetness than sugar per weight, 100 to 1000 times sweeter than sugar) -have no very low caloric value -sources: derived from plants, herbs, sugar -some are not digested: pass through body unchanged

nutritive sweeteners

-aka caloric sweeteners -provide calories and nourishment -sugars are considered nutritive sweeteners -other nutritive sweeteners are sugar alcohols

sorbitol

-aka glucitol -naturally occurring in berries of stone fruit tree (genus: sorbus- origin of name, also occurs in corn syrup, apples, pears, peaches, and prunes) -commercial production (derived from corn syrup-reduction of glucose, change aldehyde group to hydroxyl group) -may be listed under inactive ingredients for some products

sugar alcohols

-aka sugar substitutes or polls -sugar alcohols are carbohydrates with a chemical structure similar to both alcohol and sugar -examples: sorbitol, mannitol, xylitol -about 15 known of polyols (their caloric value and application differ)

aspartame

-an artificial sweetener -a methyl ester (two amino acids- aspartic acid -40%, phenylalanine -50%, methanol -10%) -discovered in 1965 by Jim Schlatter (chemist), G.D. Searle (pharmaceuticals, agriculture, and animal health company)

requirements of an artificial sweetener

-be safe for human consumption -have a sucrose-like taste -be water soluble and fairly stable (stable to fluctuations in heat, light, and pH) -be at least equal to sucrose on a cost per sweetness basis

agave nectar compostion

-blend of natural sugars (fructose- 75%, glucose 25%) -calories (agave nectar 60 per tablespoon, sugar-sucrose 40 per tablespoon) -sweetness properties (1.5 times sweeter than sugar) -agave has more calories than table sugar but because it is sweeter less is used (in theory)

aspartame

-classification: a nutritive sweetener (contains same calories as a gram of sugar- 4 cal/gram) -marketed as: nutrasweet, equal -aspartame & heat: original formula not intended for heat, encapsulation in hydrogenated cotton seed oil creates a time-release effect that makes it suitable for baking

saccharin

-commercially available: sodium saccharin (most common), calcium saccharin (acid saccharin) -marketed as (sweet 'n low, nectar sweet)

xylitol

-commonly used sugar alcohol -similar sweetened profile to sucrose (1.0 relative sweetness) -similar texture to sucrose (granular) -similar appearance to sucrose (white) -slightly more than half the calories by weight (sucrose: 4 cal/gram, xylitol: 2.4 cal/gram)

aspartame and metabolism

-completely broken down to components (aspartic acid, phenylaline, methanol) -components absorbed into blood stream (components metabolized and eliminated, none of components stored in body)

saccharin synthesis

-discovered by Constantine fahlberg, Ira Remsen -saccharin synthesis (remse-Fahlberg process) -1st process used -heating a mixture of: toluene, chlorosulfonic acid, potassium permanganate, ammonia

sugar substitutes

-food additives that duplicate or simulate the effects of sugar in a food's flavor profile -many have fewer calories than sugar (why replace with a substance having more calories) -artificial sweetener (those not found in nature)

common consumer complaints

-headaches -memory loss -decreased motor control -seizures -depression -addiction

FDA status (monk fruit extract)

-in the U.S., monk fruit sweeteners are generally recognized as safe (GRAS) -the FDA has reviewed the published research, listened to expert opinions and, based on the evidence, has no objections to ingredient maker determinations that monk fruit sweeteners are safe for use in foods and beverages -considered safe for: children, diabetics, pregnant and breast-feeding women

adverse health effects linked to refined sugar

-increased risk of dental cavities -increased cholesterol levels -increased risk of heart disease -hypoglycemia -diabetes -obesity -osteoporosis -nutritional deficiencies

methanol

-industrial alcohol used to make resins adhesives, paint, disinfectants (metabolizes to formaldehyde in the body)

aspartic acid

-is a neurotransmitter -known excitotoxin (excitotoxins over stimulate the nervous system)

acesulfame potassium and metabolism

-it is not metabolized (passes through the body unchanged, excreted by the kidneys) -note: has been used by researchers as a marker to estimate to what degree swimmings pools are contaminated by urine

sucralose advantages

-made for sugar -very stable (wide range of pH, wide range of temperatures, wide range of processing techniques, water and ethanol soluble, heat stable- for baking and cooking) -no health warnings

saccharin in the food industry

-manufacturers use saccharine in many low calorie food -chewing gum (provide sweetness w/o sugar- protect teeth from acid produced by mouth bacteria) -canned fruit (enhance/control sweetness) -baked goods (saccharin is not affected by baking temperatures) -soft drinks (reduce caloric intake) -medicines and vitamins

neotame

-marketed as sweetos -neotame is rapidly metabolized (completely eliminated- does not accumulate in the body, metabolic pathway- hydrolysis of the methyl ester, little phenylalanine produced)

sweet n' low

-most common saccharin product -200 to 700 times as sweet as sugar (1 pack= 2 table spoons of sugar "sweetness") -can have a bitter aftertaste (often mixed with sugar or other sweeteners- reduce calories, minimize bitterness) -4 calories per packet (FDA requires calories to be listed at 5 or more per serving, 1 packet is a serving, so the manufacture list 0 calories)

sources of xylitol

-naturally occurring in trees, fruits, vegetables, and mushrooms -can be extracted from berries, oats, corn husks, and other sources -commercial production (birch and other hardwood trees, name derived from greek words) -xyl[on] = wood + itol (used to denote sugar alcohols) -xylitol

marketing of honey

-nectar-origin specific honey: sold as a variety based on nectar source: clover honey, sunflower honey, apple blossom honey -pure honey: no nectar source specified, generally harvested from hives that do not have a specific nectar source

acesulfame potassium advantages

-no bitter aftertaste -may be used alone or with other sweeteners -heat stable -no health warnings

sucralose

-non-caloric sweetener (only made from sugar) -derivative of sucrose (three selected hydroxyl groups are replaced with atoms of chlorine, 400 to 800x sweeter than sugar) -discovered in 1976 (tate & lyle) -FDA approval 1998 -maltodextrin

varieties of honey

-over 300 varieties (based on predominant flowering plant at hive location) -characteristics differences in varieties: (honey flavor takes on characteristics of the nectar source, such as: flavor, aroma, color, sweetness)

sources of sugar alcohols

-plants: sorbitol from corn syrup, mannitol from seaweed, xylitol naturally occurs in deciduous trees, fruits, vegetables, and mushrooms -majority derived from: sugars, starches

do polyols cause tooth decay

-polyols are not readily converted to acid by mouth bacteria, therefore they don't contribute to tooth decay (bacteria can convert sugar to acid) -FDA has approved following statement regarding polyols -do not promote tooth decay -american dental association has issued a statement supporting this claim

blood sugar

-polyols do not cause sudden increases in blood glucose levels (generally, they are very low in blood glucose effect) -polyols have a low glycemic index number (GI number indicates the foods effect on a person's blood sugar level, typical range is between 50 and 100; 100 represents the standard pure glucose) -sucrose GI= 60 -xylitol GI= 13 -sorbitol GI= 9 -mannitol GI=0

metabolism of sugar alcohols

-polyols have a low rate of digestion and absorption (results in smaller increases in blood sugar and insulin levels than sugar) -only partially absorbed by body (absorbed portion: metabolized insulin dependent mechanism, excreted via urinary tract) -unabsorbed portion: partially fermented in the colon and excreted

phenylalanine

-precursor to tyrosine (tyrosine used to make excitatory neurotransmitters)

introduction to sweeteners

-provide "sweetness" to food and drink -nutritive (provide some level of caloric value) -non-nutritive (provide no caloric value) -origen: may be derived from carbohydrates or other organic materials, may be the product of chemical reactions

modern approach

-react -phthalic anhydride -nitrous acid -sulfur dioxide -ammonia -chloride

saccharin and health (health alerts)

-saccharin is a sulfonamide (may cause allergic reactions in some individuals)

saccharin

-sodium saccharin (benzoic sulfimide) -one of the first created and commercially available artificial sweeteners -originally marketed as "saccharine" (name derived from latin saccharin, meaning sugar) -created at Johns Hopkins university 1897 -became popular during World War I & II (times of sugar shortages)

Sucralose and metabolism

-sucralose contributes zero calories to the diet (it is not metabolized by the body- passes through unchanged) -splenda calories (16 calories per teaspoon, maltodextrin and dextrose are metabolized- Splenda 95% maltodextrin and dextrose)

sugar alcohols and food labeling

-sugar free foods -may have 1 or more polls, non-nutritive sweeteners or a combination -polyols may be listed (by name, by sugar alcohol if more than one is used, total carbohydrates) -sugar-free does not mean calorie free, carbohydrate free

why use sugar alcohols

-sugar replacers for both (sweetened, bulk used in same volume as sugar) -enhance flavors of sugar-free foods -mild sweet taste (many non-nutritive sweeteners have an overpowering sweetness) -similar flavor profile as sugar but fewer calories (many non-nutiritve sweeteners have an unpleasant "after" taste)

acesulfame potassium (marketed as:)

-sunette -sweet one -swiss sweet -nutra taste

saccharin

-sweet 'n low is one of the most popular saccharin products -the packet only contains 3.6% soluble saccharin (36 mg of the 1 gram package)

stevia sweeteners (stevia marketed as):

-sweetleaf stevia sweetener (stevia leaf extract) -truvia (stevia leaf extract, erythritol- sugar alcohol, other natural flavors) -pyure (stevia leaf extract, erythritol)

monk fruit extract continued

-sweetness properties: the fruit extract/juice is around 150-200 times sweeter than sugar, contains zero calories per serving -sweetness chemical (mogrosides- non-nutritive constituents of the fruit primarily responsible for the characteristic sweetness, mogrosides content determine sweetness)

aspartame (food industry)

-used in more than 6000 low calorie products world wide -diet soft drinks being some of the highest users (soft drinks may contain up to 190 mg of aspartame per 8.3 fluid ounce serving)

monk fruit extract

-what is monk fruit: (aka siraitia grosvenorii, swingle fruit, Lo Han Guo, a small round fruit grown in Southeast Asia) -uses: eastern medicine as a cold and digestive aid, non-caloric sweetener

stevia sweetener

-what is stevia? (aka stevia rebaudiana, a plant native to parts of South America, leaves of leaf extract used as a sweetener) -uses: long history of usage in South America -sweetness properties: (200 to 400x sweeter than table sugar, 0 calories, non-nutritive) -sweetness chemical: (sterol glycosides- rebaudioside A, known as Reb A, stevioside, rebaudioside D)

notes

As discussed previously, saccharin was surrounded with health controversy early in its history of use. Consumer advocacy groups continue to discuss the health hazards associated with saccharin use based on old studies.

note

Aspartame is considered a "low-calorie" sweetener. It has the same calories as sugar but is about 180 - 200x sweeter, so the amount used to achieve the same sweetness is much lower, therefore it is not considered a significant source of calories or carbohydrates.

saccharin and tooth decay

Bacteria of the mouth do not convert saccharin to acid (as with sugar), therefore, saccharin does not contribute to tooth decay

saccharin and health

Is saccharin a carcinogen? -Research shows hat saccharin has not demonstrated any carcinogenicity applicable to humans -the use of saccharin is acceptable to: American medical association, American cancer society, American dietetic association

monk fruit extract

Manufacturing process: -seeds and skink removed from fruit -fruit is crushed and strained -extract is sold as a liquid or purified further and sold as granular product Marketed as: -nectresse -purefruit -fruit-sweetness -monk fruit in the raw

sucralose extra

Marketed as splenda -Splenda is a blend: (sucralose, maltodextrin and dextrose) -maltodextrin/dextrose is added to Sucralose to give bulk (about 400 to 800x sweeter than Sucralose, dilutes sweetness) -Splenda measures the same as sugar (cup of Splenda has equal sweetness to a cup of sugar)

note

Most dieticians and nutritionist argue the white (refined) sugar has no legitimate place in a healthy diet because it provides no nutrition. It's important to remember the dose-response curve. Sugar-related adverse health effects are associated with dose; the higher the sugar content is in an individual's diet, the greater the risk of having sugar-related adverse health effects

note

Nectar-origin specific honey: Generally, bee colonies are maintained in close proximity to orchards to ensure thorough and complete pollination of the plants. So, an apple orchard will have bee hives to ensure the apple flowers are properly pollinated, the honey harvested from these hives could be sold as "apple blossom" honey. Wildflower honey is harvested from hives where the bees have access to many different types of wild flowers, a common location would be in a country meadow area

note

Phenylketonuria (fen-ul-ke-toe-NU-re-uh), also called PKU, is a rare inherited disorder that causes an amino acid called phenylalanine to build up in your body. PKU is caused by a defect in the gene that helps create the enzyme needed to break down phenylalanine. Without the enzyme necessary to process phenylalanine, a dangerous buildup can develop when a person with PKU eats foods that are high in protein. This can eventually lead to serious health problems. For the rest of their lives, people with PKU — babies, children and adults — need to follow a diet that limits phenylalanine, which is found mostly in foods that contain protein. Babies in the United States and many other countries are screened for PKU soon after birth. Recognizing PKU right away can help prevent major health problems. (Mayo Clinic) Since aspartame contains phenylalanine it is a problem for people having PKU and they should not consume the product

note

Polyols are not carbohydrate-free or calorie-free!

note

Remember the dose-response curve! The adverse health effects associated with the components of aspartame look bad but what dose is required for these to happen and what dose the consumer receive. Over-indulgence in many food product can result in adverse health effects

saccharin and allergies

Saccharin is a sulfonamide, some people may have an allergic reaction when ingesting sulfonamides. These reactions may include: headaches, breathing difficulties, diarrhea, and skin reactions. Due to potential allergic reactions, some health advocacy groups recommend limiting saccharin for infants, children, and pregnant women

saccharin and blood glucose & triglyceride levels

Saccharin is not digested, it passes through the body unchanged, therefore, it does not contribute to blood glucose or triglyceride levels. It should be noted that the sweet taste of saccharin can trigger the body to release insulin

note

Saccharine has a long history of controversies and claims of adverse health effects, some of which continue today it was first created in 1879 but was used minimally in its early days. In 1907 the FDA began investigating saccharin under the Pure Food and Drug Act.; it was viewed as an illegal substitution of a valuable ingredient (sugar) by a less valuable ingredient. Then, in 1911 the FDA (Food Inspection Decision 135) stated that foods containing saccharin were adulterated - in 1912, Food Inspection Decision 142 stated that saccharin was not harmful. Saccharin became a very popular diet aid (sugar replacement) during the 1960's and 1970's and use increased tremendously. Additional research in the 1970's indicated that saccharine caused cancer in laboratory studies with rats, which resulted in the FDA attempting to ban the substance completely in 1977. The ban failed due to public opposition encouraged by industry advertisements. The FDA then mandated the following warning label for all products that contain saccharine: "Use of this product may be hazardous to your health. This product contains saccharin which has been determined to cause cancer in laboratory animals". However, additional research concluded humans reacted differently than rats to the compound and were not at risk of cancer at typical intake 37 levels. Therefore, in 2000 the warning label requirement was rescinded.

note

The "K" in Acesulfame K stands for potassium.

note

The original popularity of saccharin was to replace sweetness in food during a time when sugar was rationed/not readily available, its popularity as a weight loss aid did not come along until later.

saccharin and weight loss

The use of saccharin does equal weight loss. However, using saccharin to reduce sugar use while maintaining sweetness in some food can reduce total caloric intake and help as part of a weight loss program

note

a bee's honey is different from its food stomach

note

aspartame sold in packets for table use is not suitable for baking

why use sugar substitutes

replace sugar in diet for many potential reasons

note

sugar alcohols are not sugars added to alcohols