TREE PRAXIS 2

Helping beginning readers use context clues to figure out unknown words

- One strategy beginning readers can use is to look for picture clues. -Another strategy is to ask the reader to skip the unknown word and read the rest of the sentence. Context clues found in the rest of the sentence can often help the reader guess the missing word.

Using Instructional Strategies to Build Automatic Recognition of High- Frequency Sight Words

- Readers need several opportunities to see words before they become automatically recognized. Therefore, providing opportunities for repeated exposure to high- frequency site words is an important goal of reading instruction and should be included along with explicit phonics instruction. -Sight words are commonly introduced to students a few at a time. The most frequently used words, such as a, you, and the, are typically introduced first.

Encouraging Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading and Writing Activities

- When reading a loud to students, teachers may pause at new vocabulary words and model how to use context clues, prior knowledge, and picture support to decode and comprehend the new words. Students can be encouraged to use these strategies when reading independently. - Readers need repeated exposure to vocabulary words to develop automatic recognition and comprehension. Teachers may display classroom charts containing vocabulary words and their meanings, possibly using pictures clues for young readers. -Students can also be encouraged to incorporate vocabulary words in their own writing. Word walls, of charts containing the words can assist students with spelling and remembering the words meanings.

Assisting readers with comprehension using graphophonics, syntax, and semantics regarding vocab

-Decoding words using graphophonic clues is one strategy readers use. They consider the letter- sound relationships in the word. -Another strategy is to consider syntax, or how the word sounds in the sentence and fits into the overall senetence structure. -A third strategy is to consider the semantics, or the meaning of the text, to guess the unkmown word.

Progression of fluency development in readers

-Early readers devote most of their mental energy to decoding words. In this stage of reading, the focus is on developing reading accuracy, which is one component of fluency. Early readers practice high-frequency words and learn strategies to decode words with simple spelling patterns. Rate and prosody play lesser roles but are still practiced with scaffolding.

Helping Readers Recognize and Explore the Meanings of Unknown Vocabulary Words

-First it is important for students to identify unknown vocabulary words when reading. Readers who are not monitoring their own comprehension may decode the words and continue reading, even if they do not understand their meanings. Teachers can model how to stop when they reach words they don't understand, even if they can decode them, and encourage students to do the same. -Next, readers need to determine which unknown words are central to the meanings of the text and with exploring further. This is important because there may may be many unknown words, and if readers stop extensively at each one, fluency and comprehension may be interrupted. Therefore, students can be encouraged to consider whether or not they can comprehend the sentences and overall meanings of the texts without devoting more energy to these particular unknown words.

Encouraging Vocabulary Acquisition Through Reading and Writing Activities

-If a new text contains unfamiliar vocabulary words that are central to the meaning and/or may be difficult to decode, a teacher may preview the words with the group. -After introducing the topic of the text, the teacher may flip to the words, show students their spellings, and ask students to share what the words may mean based on prior knowledge and picture clues. **Exposure to these words before reading will build readers confidence and help them recognize and decode the words faster, maintaining fluency. Knowing the meanings in advance will also assist with comprehension.

Strategies to Teach Letter Identification

-Most reading programs introduce letters gradually. Some suggest introducing letters that have high value to learners first, such as the first letters of their names. Others focus on letters that play prominent roles in the books they are reading for the week, whereas others sequence letters by physical characteristics. In general, it is best to avoid teaching commonly confused letter pairs at the same time, such as b and d. -To develop letter recognition, students can be given texts and instructed to circle certain letters. They can play alphabet bingo and cover specific letters when they are called. - Additionally, they can go on letter hunts, where they search the classroom or building to find examples of specific letter in the environmental print. - To practice recognizing capital and lowercase forms of letters, students can play memory and find matches consisting of both letter forms.

Assessing Phonics Knowledge

-Observing how a developing writer spells can be used to assess to phonics knowledge. It can provide information about the writers understanding of when to apply certain spelling patterns. -By observing the writer's work over time, a teacher can determine which phonics strategies the writer has mastered and which are still developing. This information can be used to plan individualized phonics instruction. For example, if a writer frequently spells CVCe words without the e at the end, the teacher may focus on this spelling pattern during guided reading lessons with the student.

Rapid Word Identification and Automaticity

-Rapid word identification and automaticity refer to the quick, effortless, and accurate recognition of individual words when reading. Speed and accuracy are strong predictors of comprehension, so the ability to identify words automatically plays an important role in reading development. - It is also important to rememeber that rapid word indentification and automaticity are necessary for fluency but not sufficent on their own. Fluency also involves reading with appropriate phrasing and intonation.

Role of Phonological Awareness and Phonics Skills in Reading Development for English Language Learners

-Some ELLs may also speak native languages in which there is not a one- to- one correspondence between letters and phonemes. They may also speak languages that use the same alphabet as English but where the letters represent different sounds. It is important for teachers to understand ELLs prior-knowledge and consider this when planning appropriate phonics instruction. -Additionally, some English phonemes may not be used in other languages. Introducing English vocabulary words that contain these phonemes helps give these sounds a meaningful context. Using poems and songs with repetition and rhyme can also be helpful.

Activities Used to Teach Phoneme Blending and Segmentation

-Students can also be given strings of beads and they can move one bead for every sound, or phoneme they hear. They can slide the beads back together as they blend the sounds to form the whole words again. -Rubber bands can be used in a similar manner. Students can say whole words with the rubber bands un-stretched and then slowly stretch the bands as they segment the sounds. They can then push the rubber bands back together again as they blend the sounds to form the whole words.

Strategies to Teach Letter Formation

-To teach letter formation using a multi- sensory approach, students can write letters with shaving cream or fingerpaint. They can also write ltetts in containers filled with salt or sand. Wax craft sticks, modeling dough, and pipe cleaners can be used to construct letter models. Large- sized letters can also be drawn using sidewalk chalk, and students can hop along the letter shapes to trace them. Additonally, students can be given outlines of letters, which they can fill in with buttons, dried beans, or other common objects.

Strategies to Teach Letter Formation

-To teach letter formation, students can be given letter stencils to trace with pencils. They can also be provided cutout letters made from different materials, such as felt and sandpaper, to trace with their fingers. Later they can attempt to writer letters independently on writing paper following the school's selected handwriting program guidelines.

Concepts of Print that collectively form a foundation to early reading instruction

-Understanding concepts of print: includes recognizing the front cover, back cover, and title of a book. It also includes that the print, rather than the pictures, carries the message. -Directionality Concepts of print: such as knowing that you read from left to right and from the top of the page to the bottom, with a return sweep at the end of each line of text. -One- to-one correspondence: between written and spoken words in another concept of print. -Letter concepts: such as knowing that words are made up of individual letters, indentifying letter names, and indentifying both capital and lowercase letters. -Identifying the names and purposes of common punctuation marks used to end sentences is also a key concept of print.

Phonics

-Understanding the predictable relationship between letters and the sounds they make is important for the development of both decoding and encoding skills. -When early readers come across unfamiliar words, they use knowledge of letter- sound relationships to decode the words as one common reading strategy. For early readers, this is especially helpful for unknown words that follow predictable spelling patterns, such as CVC words. -When children are engaging in early writing activities, they use knowledge of letter- sound relationships to write words, which is known as encoding.

Consonant Blends

A consonant blend is a group of two or three consonants that blend together to make a sound, but each individual letter sound is still heard. Examples include bl, fr, and sw. -Blends are typically introduced after readers have learned to decode basic CVC words, and they are introduced in groups according to the second consonant they contain. -When introducing each blend, the teacher shows students how the sounds of each consonant are blended together to form the new sound. -Common words containing the blend can be listed, and students can go on word hunts to find additional examples of words containing the blend. Students can also sort cards containing pictures of objects whose names are spelled with consonant blends.

Consonant Digraphs

A consonant digraph is a group of two consonants that form a new consonant when combined. Examples include th, sh, and ch. Digraphs are also typically introduced a few at a time, with beginning digraphs introduced before ending digraphs. Creating lists of example words, going on word hunts, and completing matching and sorting activities can also be used to teach digraphs.

historical fiction

A type of realistic fiction that takes place in a particular time period in the past. Often the setting is real, but the characters are made up from the author's imagination.

Academic Literacy

Academic literacy helps students flexibly adapt their use of reading strategies according to the types of text used and the purposes for reading. It helps them acquire content- specific vocabulary needed to comprehend academic texts and effectively communicate their learning using a variety of response types. It helps them summarize, evaluate, and make connections among content acquired from multiple sources and across content areas. Academic literacy also helps students effectively communicate and collaborate with others to construct meaning.

Academic Reading

Academic reading refers to thoughtfully reading and analyzing academic texts as part of content area studies. Readers usually have specific purposes in mind before beginning academic reading.

Components of Fluency (Accuracy)

Accuracy is another component of fluency. It refers to decoding words correctly without errors. Fluent readers automatically recognize high- frequency words and use multiple strategies to decode unknown words. Accuracy is important because frequent errors may affect comprehension, especially if errors are made on words central to the text's message.

Homographs

After explaining the meaning of homographs, teachers can assist students with generating lists of homograph pairs. Teachers can provide sentences using homographs, and students can identify their meanings. Students can also look for homographs in texts and play matching games to find cards with two different definitions for the same word.

Interventions to Use Assisting Readers Who Are Struggling with Fluency

Although teachers may monitor students' reading fluency over time, it is also important to create encouraging environments for readers. Continuously timing readers or forcing disfluent readers to read a loud in front of others may have negative effects.

Phonics Strategies/ Instruction

Analogy phonics -Teaching students unfamiliar words by analogy to known words (e.g., recognizing that the rime segment of an unfamiliar word is identical to that of a familiar word, and then blending the known rime with the new word onset, such as reading brick by recognizing that -ick is contained in the known word kick, or reading stump by analogy to jump). Analytic phonics -Teaching students to analyze letter-sound relations in previously learned words to avoid pronouncing sounds in isolation. Embedded phonics -Teaching students phonics skills by embedding phonics instruction in text reading, a more implicit approach that relies to some extent on incidental learning. Phonics through spelling -Teaching students to segment words into phonemes and to select letters for those phonemes (i.e., teaching students to spell words phonemically). Synthetic phonics -Teaching students explicitly to convert letters into sounds (phonemes) and then blend the sounds to form recognizable words.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

Another skill is phoneme identification- which involves identifying the common sound in a list of words that have either the same beginning, middle, or ending sound.

Instructional Strategies Used to Teach Decoding of Common Spelling Patterns

Blending is a common strategy to teach decoding of CVC words. Students say the sound represented by each letter in the word and then state the whole word they made. -To increase fluency, students can be encouraged to increase the speed of blending over time. -Once CVC words have been mastered and students are introduced to consonant blends and digraphs, they use the same blending process with CVCC words. -For CVVC and CVCe words that cannot be decoded using blending, students can be introduced to the sounds made by each spelling pattern, changing the initial sounds to build new, related words. For example, after identifyig the sound that /ake/ makes, students can build rake, cake, lake using letter tiles or magnectic letters.

Progression of fluency development in readers

By the time they reach the fluent stage, readers are able to flexibly adapt their reading rates based upon their purposes for reading. Automatic recognition of most words results in reading accuracy. Fluent readers read with prosody, and they appropriately match their expressions to the texts.

Supporting Vocabulary Acquisition and Use Through Listening and Speaking

Children continue to build vocabulary through listening and speaking activities when they begin school. Teachers can read a loud to students often, varying the genres and purposes for listening. Engaging students in discussions about what was read aloud can give students a purpose for listening and opportunities to use text- related vocabulary in their own oral responses. Teachers can also incorporate key vocabulary words in class discussions.

Activities Used to Teach Phoneme Blending and Segmentation

Children often benefit from a multi sensory approach to phonemic blending and segmentation. Elkonin boxes are one tool that can be used.

Common Syllable Spelling Patterns

Common Syllable Spelling Patterns Include: -closed syllables, which end in a consonant and usually have a short vowel sound (ex: rabbit) -open syllables, which end in a vowel and usually have a long vowel sound (ex: bagel) - r-controlled vowels, a vowel comes before the r (ex: carpet) - vowel digraph pairs, two vowels that together represent one phoneme or sound (ex. detain- ai) -vowel- consonant- silent- e syllables, which usually have a long vowel sound (ex: athlete) -consonant- le words, which are usually found at the end of a word (ex: maple) Readers can also be taught to look for known parts of words, such as known prefixes and suffixes.

Concepts of Print

Concepts of print are the conventions used to convey meaning in printed text. Children begin developing an understanding of these concepts from an early age through shared reading experiences with others and interactions with printed materials.

Decoding

Decoding refers to the process of translating print to speech, which is done by translating graphemes ( letters or groups of letters that represent a single sound) into phonemes (smallest units of sounds in language. Ex: When a reader uses strategies to read the printed word chair, he or she is decoding the word.

Elkonin Sound Boxes

Elkonin boxes consist of a series of connected boxes on paper. Students listen to a word and slide a penny or other token into a box each time they hear a new sound. For example, while listening to the word cat, students would slide three pennies int the boxes.

Encoding

Encoding refers to the process of translating sounds to print using knowledge of letter- sound relationships. This is done by translating phonemes to graphemes. Ex: When a writer uses knowledge of the sounds letters make to write the word hop, he or she is encoding the word.

Explicit Instruction

Explicit instruction means that phonics lessons are purposely planned to address specific specific skills rather than waiting until problems arise with decoding words while reading. For example, a teacher may plan to focus on a set of consonant blends during one week of reading instruction. Explicit phonics instruction is only one component of a balanced literacy program, and time should be allocated to focus on other components as well.

Fluency

Fluency is defined as reading accurately, with the appropriate speed and intonation. Beginning readers typically have to stop and decode unknown words frequently, which affects both speed and intonation. Over time, as readers develop rapid word recognition, their reading speed increases. Appropriate intonation is also developed through frequent shared and guided reading experiences.

Teaching Word-Analysis Skills and Vocabulary to English Language Learners

Focusing on cognates is one way to help build word analysis and vocabulary for English Language Learners. Cognates are words in different lanaguages that share the same roots. For example, direction for english and direcciones for spanish and both are cognates. Ells can be encouraged to look for known parts of unfamiliar words. They can then use knowledge about the meanigns in their native languages to determine the meanings of the English words. This strategy builds upon Ell's prior knowledge. Explicitly teaching common roots and affixes can help Ell's quickly increase their vocabularies as well.

Role of Phonological Awareness and Phonics Skills in Reading Development for English Language Learners

For English Language Learners (ELLs), research has shown that phonological awareness in a reader's first language is a strong predictor of his or her ability to learn to read in a second language. This is especially true when the native language is closely related to English. Whereas phonological awareness in the native language can be beneficial when learning English, it may lead to overgeneralization of rules of the native language. Continued language experiences in the native language along with language scaffolding can be beneficial to Ells as they learn English.

Homographs

Homographs are words that are spelled the same but may be pronounced differently and have different meanings. Ex: Baseball bat and bat the animal

Helping Readers Recognize and Explore the Meanings of Unknown Vocabulary Words

If readers determine that the unknown words are central to the meaning of the text, they can be encouraged to use strategies such as using context clues, looking for known roots or affixes, or consulting dictionaries. Overall, readers should be encouraged to self- monitor their own reading and comprehension and determine when to apply known strategies.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

In bleeding, a more complex skill, students are given the phoneme that make up a word in isolation. They must then identify the whole word formed by putting the phonemes together.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

In phoneme characterization, students are either given a set of words in which all but one have the same, beginning, middle, and ending phoneme, and they must identify the word that doesn't belong.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

In segmentation, students are given a whole word, and they must identify the individual phonemes that make up the word.

Strategies to teach letter- sound relationships

In some reading programs, each letter has a song, poem, or chant that incorporates repetition of the letter name and sound. In others, a letter character or visual is produced, which includes a hint about the sound it makes. The visual often includes a picture of a common object that starts with the letter. Students can also be encouraged to find objects beginning with the letter sound they are learning. Tactile activities, such as building letters out of wax craft sticks or writing them in shaving cream while repeating the names and sounds, are also commonly used. Bingo and other similar games that require matching letters to their sounds can also be used.

Relationship between Phonological Awareness and Phonemic Awareness

In summary, phonemic awareness is one specific component of phonological awareness.

Progression of fluency development in readers

In the transitional reading stage, readers automatically recognize many high- frequency words and more efficiently use strategies to decode unknown words. There is still a focus on accuracy as readers encounter more complex vocabulary and spelling patterns. However, transitional readers also increase their reading rates and begin to read independently with prosody. As readers gain confidence with familiar texts, their fluency increases.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

Isolation- which is the ability to indentify specific phonemes in spoken words. This includes indentifying beginning (inital), middle (medial, and ending (final) sounds.

Phonemic Awareness

It focuses on the ability to identify and manipulate sounds at the phoneme level only. Phonemes are the smallest units of speech, and phonemic awareness is therefore the most advanced component of phonological awareness. It usually develops after other phonological awareness skills.

Typical progression of phonological awareness skills (Second)

Later, children develop awareness of syllables. This involves both the ability to blend syllables to form whole words and the ability to break whole words into syllables. The ability to blend and segment onsets and rimes is also developed. - Onsets are composed of the initial consonants or consonant blends in syllables, whereas rimes consist of the vowels and remaining consonants that follow. For example, in the word star, /st/ is the onset, and /ar/ is the rime. -Phonemic Awareness is the most advanced phonological awarness skill, and it is usually developed after the others.

Maintaining Fluency in On-Level Readers

Like struggling readers, on level readers can benefit from frequent teacher modeling of fluent reading, choral reading, and opportunities to reread familiar texts. Additionally, they can benefit from partner reading. Partner reading allows students to hear fluent reading modeled by classmates and reread texts repeatedly while receiving feedback. Students should first be taught procedures for how to listen attentively to their partners reading and provide effective and encouraging feedback. Teachers should always be mindful of individual needs when pairing students.

Role of Literacy in the Development and Application of Different Types of Knowledge

Literacy plays a large role in the development and application of different types of knowledge in the classroom. Social Knowledge is passed down through oral language and written texts. Students learn about social norms through the actions of characters in stories and through discussing texts with others. For example, children learn about solving conflict with friends by reading about characters who work through conflict. They also learn how to listen attentively and take turns through participation in literature circles.

Characteristics of Literacy- Rich, Content- Area Classrooms

Literary- rich, content area classrooms include frequent teacher modeling of academic behaviors. This includes teacher modeling of thinking aloud, use of reading and writing strategies, and incorporation of academic vocabulary into regular activities.

Letter-Sound Relationships

Once students understand that letters are combined to form words that convey meaning in print, they begin learning that each letter make a predictable sound. This is known as the alphabetic principle.

Typical progression of phonological awareness skills (First)

One of the earliest phonological awareness skills children develop is the ability to recognize rhyming words. After recognizing rhyming words heard in stories, songs, and poems, children begin to produce their own sets of rhyming words. Alliteration, or identifying and producing words with the same initial sounds is another early phonological awareness skill.

Instructional Strategies Used to Teach Decoding of Multisyllabic Words

One strategy is to teach students to identify the different syllables present in a word. This can be done by clapping each syllable or saying the word while looking in a mirror and observing how many times the mouth opens. Students can then be taught to recognize common syllable spelling patterns and the sounds that they make.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

Phoneme deletion involves removing one phoneme from a word and identifying what new word was formed.

Phonemic Awareness Skills

Phoneme substitution involves changing one phoneme in a spoken word and identifying what new word was formed.

Phonemic Awareness Vs. Phonics

Phonemic awareness and phonics are commonly confused terms, but they are not the same. - Phonemic awareness refers to identifying and manipulating phonemes in a spoken language. - Phonics refers to the relationship between letters and the sounds they make. ->A key question to ask when deciding if an activity is related to phonemic awareness or phonics is whether or not any letters are involved. If letters and their sounds are involved, the activity is related to phonics rather than phonemic awareness. For example, asking students what sounds they hear in the word cat is a phonemic awareness because they are identifying sounds in a spoken word. However, asking students to decode the word cat when it is written in text is a phonics activity becasue students must use their understanding of letter- sound relationships to successfully decode the word. Students are also using phonics skills if they write the word cat by indentifying the sounds that they hear and writing the letters that make those sounds.

Phonics

Phonics refers to the relationship between letters and the sounds they make. After children learn to identify letter names they learn that each letter makes a predictable sound. They later learn that groups of letters, such as consonants blends and digraphs, make predictable sounds as well. This understanding of letter- sound relationships is known as phonics.

Role of Phonological Awareness and Phonics Skills in Reading Development for Struggling and Proficient Students

Phonological awareness and phonics assessments are important for proficent readers as well. Some proficient readers have developed strong rapid word indentification skills without mastering the underlying phonlogical awarness and phonics skills. When they get into older grade levels and more frequently encounter unfamiliar vocabularly, they have difficulty decoding the text. Assessment data can be used to indentify specific skills to practice in small- group instruction with these proficent readers.

Components of Fluency (Prosody)

Prosody is another component of fluency. It refers to reading expression, including phrasing and intonation. Prosody affects the ways text are understood. For example, readers should pause appropriately at commas to emphasize certain phrases. Using the correct intonation associated with each punctuation mark also affects the tone of the texts.

R- controlled Vowels

R- controlled vowels are vowels that appear before the letter r in a word. Words containing this spelling pattern are sometimes referred to as bossy- r words, because the letter r changes the sound of the vowel. The r- controlled vowel pairs are ar, er, ir, or, and er.

Maintaining Fluency in On-Level Readers

READER'S THEATRE is another strategy to assist on- level readers with fluency. In readers theatre...... -Students read scripts from appropriately leveled texts to perform for classmates. -Through rehearsing and performing students have multiple opportunities to reread the scripts. -They must also practice reading with appropriate expression for their characters and reading with appropriate speeds so they can be understood by their audiences. -Additionally, reader's theatre allows students in the audience to hear models of fluent reading. ***In reader's theatre, the focus is on the reading, and few or no props are used.**

Components of Fluency (Rate)

Rate is one component of fluency. Rate refers to reading speed. Rate is important for comprehension. - Proficient readers adjust their reading speed flexibly depending on their purpose for reading. For example, they may read scientific textbooks containing technical vocabulary more slowly than graphic novels they are reading for entertainment. -If readers read too slowly, they may forget what they have already read and lose the overall meanings of the texts. -If readers read too quickly, important points may be overlooked.

Interventions to Use Assisting Readers Who Are Struggling with Fluency

Readers who are struggling with fluency can benefit from frequent modeling of fluent reading. As teachers reread familiar texts, students can join in and read chorally, matching their phrasing, speed, and expression to the teacher's reading. Students can also listen to audio recordings of texts.

Interventions to Use Assisting Readers Who Are Struggling with Fluency

Readers who struggle with fluency can also benefit from repeated readings of texts. After initial readings, teachers can give feedback to students and help them set goals for rereading. For example, the teacher may encourage the student to pause at the periods between sentences. Reading texts far below their instructional levels will not challenge the readers. Reading texts that are too difficult will result in the readers stopping frequently to decode unfamiliar words, interrupting fluency, and causing frustration. Encouraging repeated readings of texts with rhyming and repetition, including poetry, can also assist readers who are struggling with fluency,

Reading for Entertainment

Reading for entertainment refers to reading for fun. A student may select a fictional book from a favorite series to read on a rainy day.

Role of Literacy in the Development and Application of Different Types of Knowledge

Reading texts containing academic language helps students develop and apply physical, domain, and empirical knowledge. Developing their academic vocabularies can assist students with expressing their observations and conclusions using academic knowledge.

Academic Literacy

Refers to the knowledge and skills necessary to communicate effectively in academic situations. It includes content- specific knowledge and vocabulary, such as math terms. It also includes general knowledge and vocubliarly used across all content areas, such as the terms synthesize, summarize., and evaluate. Additionally, it refers to the ability to communicate effectively in academic situations through reading, writing, listening, and speaking.

Benefits of explicit and systematic phonics instruction

Research has shown that early readers benefit from an explicit and systematic approach to phonics instruction. Developing readers who receive explicit and systematic phonics instruction at an early age often show increased ability to decode and spell, along with increased reading comprehension skills when older.

Role of Phonological Awareness and Phonics Skills in Reading Development for Struggling and Proficient Students

Research has shown that phonological awareness and phonics skills are important predictors of reading success. For struggling readers, daily phonological awareness and phonics practice are important. Explicit and systematic instruction should be tailored to the individual needs of each student and based upon observation and assessment data. Once a teacher has determined which skills the student needs to improve, instruction should be included regularly to target these skills until mastered. Ongoing reading assessments and flexible groupings can help assure that struggling readers' individual needs are consistently met.

Relationship Between Fluency and Comprehension

Research has shown that reading fluency is one major predictor of reading comprehension. Non-fluent readers burden their working memories with decoding. Sentences are read in a fragmented way, making it difficult for the brain to organize and make sense of what was read. After expanding the energy to decode difficult words, they may forget what they have previously read. Fluent readers are free to use working memory for comprehending the text. They reading using smooth, continuous phrasing, making it easier for the brain to make sense of what have been read.

Teaching Word-Analysis Skills and Vocabulary to English Language Learners

Scaffolding should also be provided when introducing ELL's to new words. This can be done using visuals that help demonstrate the meanings of words. Real objects, pictures, and gestures can all be used. Graphic organizers can also be used to show how new words are related and how they connect to specific topics.

Strategies to Teach Print Awareness

Starting at an early age, caregivers and teachers can begin introducing children to concepts of print. While reading storybooks and big books aloud, they can model how to hold the books, where the front and back covers and titles are located, and where to begin writing. They can also model directionality by following the text with their fingers as they read, showing the left- to- right movement and return sweep. They can point out different text features, such as capital letters and punctuation marks, and discuss their purposes.

Teaching Word-Analysis Skills to Struggling Readers

Struggling readers require consistent and explicit instruction, which often includes a combination of both and whole- class instruction and targeted individual or small group instruction daily. They also need frequent opportunities to manipulate words. Both building and breaking apart and chunking related words using letter tiles can help struggling readers develop understandings of patterns in the ways words are made.

Characteristics of Literacy- Rich, Content- Area Classrooms

Students in literacy- rich classrooms are also encouraged to make connections between different sources and content areas. For example, readers may make connections between a historical fiction text about the Dust Bowl and what they have learned in science about weather patterns. Additionally, teachers in literacy- rich classrooms encourage the respectful sharing of information and ideas among classmates.

Supporting Vocabulary Acquisition and Use Through Listening and Speaking

Students should also have frequent opportunities to speak in the classroom. In addition to informal class discussions, students can present projects to classmates and explain their thinking during problem-solving. They can be encouraged to use content- specific vocabulary when appropriate.

Systematic Instruction

Systematic instruction means that the lessons follow a carefully planned scope and sequence, with phonics lessons progressing from basic to advanced. Early phonics lessons for kindergarteners may focus on letter- sound relationships, whereas first grade students may focus on decoding different spelling patterns.

Developing Fluency in Early Readers

Teachers should also frequently model fluent reading. This includes reading with appropriate speed, phrasing, and intonation. Teachers can also model disfluent reading, such as reading texts without expression, and ask students to explain the effects it has on comprehension. Choral reading of shared texts can also assist students with developing fluency.

Phonological Awareness

The ability to reflect on and manipulate the sound structure of spoken language. This can refer to identifying and manipulating sounds at the word, syllable, or phoneme level. Example activities include rhyming, alliteration, breaking, words into syllables, dividing syllables into onsets and rimes, and blending and segmenting phonemes.

Types of knowledge commonly used in education

There are many types of knowledge commonly used in education: Social Knowledge- is knowledge about social conventions passed down within members of a community. It includes conventions related to expected greetings, manners, and consersational behavior. Procedural Knowledge- It refers to the knowledge applied to carry out procedural tasks. An example is solving a complex math problem using a mutlistep algorithm. Physcical Knowledge- refers to the knowledge learned by observing the features of something. When students discuss the physcial environment properties of rock samples, they are using physcial knowledge. Domain Knowledge- refers to the knowledge and skills used by experts in a particular field. For example, a student explaining how she completed a divison problem using the terms dividend, divisor, and quotient. Empirical Knowledge- refers to the knowledge obtained from scientific experimentation and data collection. Determing the boling points of different liquids as part of a science experiment is an example of empirical knowledge.

Using Instructional Strategies to Build Automatic Recognition of High- Frequency Sight Words

There are several types of activities that can be done to build sight word recognition. Going on word hunts to locate and circle sight words in texts is one activity. -> Sight words can be built using magnetic letters or spelled in the air with fingers or wands. -> Activities that require students to read, build, and write each word are also commonly used. -> Additionally, flash card drills can be incorporated into the school day.

Characteristics of Literacy- Rich, Content- Area Classrooms

These classrooms also include daily reading, writing, listening, and speaking activities. Students are engaged in reading, writing, and discussing a range of different texts and media in both print in digital form. Depending on the content area, this may include lab reports, journal articles, maps, historical fiction, diaries, graphic organizers, narratives, and more.

Teaching Word-Analysis Skills to Highly Proficient Readers

They can benefit from developing the same word analysis skills as other readers, such as looking for known parts in unfamiliar vocabulary words, breaking words into components, and finding relationships between the meanings and spellings of different words. These strategies should be presented using materials and interactions that are both engaging and appropriately challenging for proficient readers.

Echo Reading

This is a strategy in which a lead reader reads aloud a section of a text and a second reader's voice follows right after (or echoes) that which was first read

Developing Fluency in Early Readers

To assist early readers with developing speed and prosody, teachers can encourage repeated readings of favorite texts. As readers develop more confidence with the texts through these repeated readings, their reading rates will increase. Because readers already know how to decode the words in familiar texts, they also have more energy available to focus on expression.

Using Syntactic Cues to Figure out Unknown Words and Making Meaning from Texts

To encourage readers to use syntactic cues, teachers can model types of complex sentences. -> Sentences from familiar stories can be deconstructed, and students can be asked to put them back together again. -> Teachers can also provide sample sentences that each have one word covered and ask students to guess the missing words. Teachers can then ask students to explain how they figured out the missing words. -> Readers should also be encouraged to ask themselves if what they have read sounds right to encourage miscue recognition and self- correction.

Using Semantic Cues to Figure out Unknown Words and Making Meaning from Texts

To encourage the use of semantic cues, students should be exposed to a wide range of texts and experiences to build prior knowledge and vocabulary. -> Teachers can conduct picture walks before students read new texts to activate prior knowledge and provide hints about the meaning. -> Students can be encouraged to make predictions before and during reading based on prior knowledge and text clues. -> Know, what, and learn (KWL) charts can be completed to help readers activate prior knowledge, and graphic organizers can be used to highlight text connections. -> Readers should also be encouraged to ask themselves if what they have read makes sense to encourage miscue recognition and self- correction.

R- controlled Vowels

To teach decoding of words containing r- controlled vowels, teachers can model blending of simple words containing these spelling patterns, sliding their fingers along the words as they blend them. For each word, they can point out that the vowel and r together make one sound, and they can generate a list of other words containing the same letter pair and sound. -Students can also be given word or picture cards to sort according to which r- controlled vowel sound they contain. -Another strategy is to provide a picture of an object that contains an r- controlled vowel in its name. The word can be written below the picture, with the r- controlled omitted. Students can be asked to provide the missing letters to complete the word.

Compound Words

To teach students to identify compound words, they can practice breaking them into parts. Compound words can be provided using letter tiles. magnetic letters, or in writing, and students can be asked to split them into the two smaller word parts. Puzzle cards can be created with which two smaller words join together to create a compound word. Readers can also be asked to find and mark compound words in texts. When readers struggle to decode compound words while reading independently, teachers can ask what smaller, known words they see in the unknown words.

compound word

Two or more words combined to create a new or more specific word. Examples include houseboat, moonlight, and basketball. -Identifying compound words rapidly can assist readers with decoding multisyllabic words. Identifying the smaller, known words contained in the compound words will help students decode the words quickly and maintain fluency.

Academic Reading vs. Reading for Entertainment

When completing academic reading, readers often pay special attention to text structures and features to efficiently locate needed information. They may skim or skip around in the texts. They may stop to look up the meanings of unfamiliar vocabulary words. They may also read more slowly, or re- read passages multiple times to make sense of unfamiliar content.

Using Semantic Cues to Figure out Unknown Words and Making Meaning from Texts

When readers use semantic cues, they use prior knowledge from personal experiences along with meaning contained in the text and pictures to make sense of what they are reading. When they are stuck on unknown words, they consider what they already know about the topic or look to context clues or pictures for hints.

Using Syntactic Cues to Figure out Unknown Words and Making Meaning from Texts

When readers use syntactic cues, they use knowledge about correct oral language structures and the ways sentences are put together to decode and make meaning (has to do with grammar structure as well). For example, readers may use knowledge about subject- verb agreement and word order to decode new words and make meaning from sentences.

Academic Reading vs. Reading for Entertainment

When reading for entertainment, proficient readers will self- monitor their comprehension, but they have more freedom about which text elements they wish to respond to and analyze. They may also read at a quicker pace and choose to re-read favorite parts for fun.

Strategies to Teach Print Awareness

When students are interacting with texts independently, teachers can ask them questions regarding concepts of print. For example, they can instruct students to follow the text with their fingers and pause after encountering punctuation marks at the ends of sentences. Teachers can also point out text features in environmental print, such as hallway signs.

Role of Literacy in the Development and Application of Different Types of Knowledge

When students read nonfiction procedural texts, they develop procedural knowledge that can be used to accomplish tasks. Procedural texts also provide models of text structures students can use when explaining procedures to others.

Developing Fluency in Early Readers

When teaching early readers, the main focus is on developing accuracy. This is done through activities to develop automatic recognition of high- frequency sight words and explicit phonics instruction that teaches strategies to decode words with common spelling patterns.

Supporting Vocabulary Acquisition and Use Through Listening and Speaking

Young children begin their vocabulary development through listening well before they begin to read and write. Through listening to family members, caregivers, and others, children develop their meaning (oral) vocabularies. These are words that children understand when heard and eventually use in their own speech. These vocabularies can be developed by talking to children frequently for a variety of purposes, reading to them, exposing them to songs, rhymes, and poems, and many other language activities.