Tulane SPHU 2150 FINAL EXAM
Cost Occupational Injury
$53-58 billion/year DIRECT $239-261 billion/year INDIRECT PLUS $40 billion for fatalities
Fluoridation of Water
**NOT A STEP OF WATER TREATMENT** prevents tooth decay (50-70% reduction in dental cavities) initially Colorado had lower cavity prevalence and higher F concentrations
4 major categories of food hazards:
-biological -physical -chemical -nutritional
problems caused by growing volume of waste
-difficulties in disposal -dumpsites being filled -increases in pollution of aquativ environments
How long can a human survive without water?
1 week
4 Stages of Drinking Water Treatment
1) Coagulation (remove suspended material - add Al) 2) Sedimentation (heavy particles settle to bottom) 3) Filtration (remove smaller particles) 4) Disinfection (destroy pathogens)
Sewage Disposal Alternatives
1) Composting Toilets use little water deactivated pathogens aerobic 2) Septic Systems rural anaerobic & aerobic --> collect, grease top, liquid flows 20-30 year operating
Sewage Treatment Steps
1) Remove Solids 2) Deactivate Microbes 3) Produce Wastewater (return to waterways, recycle, reuse) PRELIMINARY: remove large solids grit removal (attenuation) PRIMARY: settle suspended solids SECONDARY: biological treatment (activated sludge, filter beds) TERTIARY: disinfection (UV or reverse osmosis
Hierarchy of Waste Management
1) Source Reduction pay as you throw packaging improvements product design lengthen service lifetime 2) Recycle repurpose --> uses 2/3 less energy to recycle plastic than virgin 3) Disposal
Air Pollution Reduction Measures
1) Technology Controls (scrubber, filter) 2) Kyoto Protocol (1997 GHG goals - 141 countries) 3) Copenhagen Accord (2009 curb GHG below 2C) 4) Paris Agreement (2015 195 nations including US UNTIL TRUMP) ALSO: energy conservation measures -increase efficiency power plants -plant trees -alternative energy sources (wind, solar) -improve fuel efficiency motor vehicles -public transport -use bikes -energy efficient building design
US Occupational Accidents
1) Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911 (NYC) 146 women died in 15 minutes doors locked non-functional fire escapes 2) Gauley Bridge Disaster 1930s diggings Hawks Nest Tunnel 1,500 cases silicosis (1,000 deaths)
US Food Regulation
1) USDA inspection (Hazard Analysis, and Critical Control Point - HACCP compliance: harvest to consumption tracking) production, process, interstate sale MEAT & EGGS live animal inspection 2) FDA production, process, interstate sale everything but m&e food codes Good Agricultural Practices Good Manufacturing Practices 3) CDC local & state assistance investigations FoodNet
What percentage of the world's landmass is covered by glaciers & icecaps?
10% --> glaciers & icecaps make ~70% of the freshwater globally
How much water does the average person use per day?
100 gallons/day (100,000+ gallons/year)
What is the average requirement for human consumption of water per day?
2.5 liters/day
Foodbourne Illness in US
25% US population each year ~9,000 deaths/year $5 billion/year CDC surveillance (FoodNet)
Composting
25% household waste is lawn clippings & food waste (COMPOSTABLE)
Fertility Problems Occupational
4 million chemicals used commercially that have not yet been tested for reproductive effect most of the 1,000 chemicals typical in work environment demonstrate adverse reproductive effects in animals
Danger Zone
40-140 degrees Fahrenheit
Megafill
5,000-10,000 tons trash/day taken in more cost-effective than incinerators
According to the EPA, motor vehicles produce nearly (blank) of 2 major causes of smog: VOC's and nitrogen oxides
50%
Percentage of Americans Living in Cities that don't meet US Air Quality Standards
50% (2016)
What is most of household water used for?
50-70% used for outdoor purposes -watering lawns -washing cars
What % of the human body is water?
67% (2/3)
Earth's Surface Water Breakdown
70% water (only 3% fresh w/ 70-75% of that frozen) overall 1% comes from surface freshwater
The Global Burden of Foodborne Illness
A major cause of morbidity (and occasionally mortality) in the United States and other countries of the world. Incidence of foodborne illnesses has increased in industrialized nations. --> bc changes in agricultural & food processing methods and globalization of food distribution
Chemicals in Water (adverse health effects)
Aluminum Arsenic Disinfection by-products Fluoride Lead Pesticides Radon CAUSE: cancer, reproductive issues, cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, developmental impairment
Hazardous Waste
Any material that can be harmful to human health or the environment if it is not properly disposed of AT LEAST ONE: ignitability corrosivity reactivity toxicity
Salmonella
BACTERIA 2-4 million cases/yr 500 deaths/yr SOURCES: wild & domestic animals (poultry, swine, cattle, pets) transferred animal feces, poor hygiene of food handlers, contaminated water/soil, surface contact SYMPTOMS: nausea, vomit, ab pain, diarrhea, fever, headaches, arthritic symptoms (3-4 weeks after) ALSO join pain, eye irritation, urine pain (Reiter's Syndrome)
Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy
BSE (mad cow disease) neurological disease, ultimately fatal, transmissible among cattle
Food Hazard Cateogories
Biological (bacteria, virus, fungi, parasite, prion) Physical (glass, stone, metal, bone fragment) Chemical (pesticide, PPCP, packaging, cooking) Nutritional (excess or deficit)
4 Aspects Landfill Design
Bottom liner Leachate Collection System Cover Location (appropriate)
Occupational-Related Diseases
COPD asthma allergies & dermatitis fertility/pregnancy abnormalities infectious diseases NIHL muscoskeletal stress cancer
Environmental Impacts Air Pollution
Causes property damage Reduces visibility in national parks Harms forests Harms lakes and other bodies of water Injures wildlife
Possible Contaminants (water flow across ground)
Chemicals/nutrients (agriculture) Rubber Heavy Metals Sodium By-product Petroleum Home Solvents Paints Motor Oil Pathogens
Hierarchy of Controls (occupational health)
ELIMINATION (physically remove hazard) SUBSTITUTION (replace hazard) ENGINEERING CONTROLS (isolate ppl from hazard) --> quieter machines, better ventilation ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS (change way people work) --> organize work shifts & employee rotation PPE (protect workers) --> last defense
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976
EPA controls hazardous waste "cradle to grave" generation transportation treatment storage disposal
Regulators of Air Quality
EPA: --> Clean Air Act
Regulators of Water Quality
EPA: drinking water --> Safe Drinking Water Act --> Clean Water Act FDA: bottled water
Where are glaciers and icecaps concentrated?
Greenland and Antarctica
Historical Air Pollution Episodes
Meuse Valley, Belgium 1930 Donora, Pennsylvania 1948 London, England 1952 (>3,000 deaths smog) CURRENTLY: Delhi, Beijing, Jakarta, Mexico City
Areas of Sever Water Shortages
Middle East Sub-Saharan Africa North Africa
Freshwater Lakes
Most freshwater lakes at high altitudes 50% of the world's lakes in Canada alone Become salty through evaporation (especially in arid regions) which concentrates the in-flowing salts Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake
NAAQS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards *Under EPA
Composition of Pure Air
Nitrogen (76%) Oxygen (23%) Argon (1%) Carbon dioxide (0.03%) Variety of other gases in lesser amounts Water vapor
PM
PM2.5 is worse than PM10 cause respiratory system irritation, lung damage, bronchitis 60,000 deaths/yr PM2.5
Acid Rain
SOx and NOx interact with water, oxygen, oxidants
Anthropogenic Air Pollution Sources
STATIONARY SOURCES (power plants, manufacture) MOBILE SOURCES (vehicles, lawn mower, saw) --> motor vehicles produce 50% of VOCs and NOx and 75% of CO (50% of toxic air pollutants)
Bacterial Agents of Foodbourne Illness
Salmonella Clostridium botulinum Staphylococcus auerus Clostridium perfringes Unicellular organisms w characteristic shapes
Air Pollution Components
Sulfur oxides PM Oxidants (O3) CO Hydrocarbons Nitrogen Oxides Lead Heavy Metals
CERCLA
Superfund eg. Agricultural Street Landfill Superfund Site --> Gordon Plaza Residents
Foodbourne Illness Pyramid
Surveillance (report to CDC/health department) Laboratory Survey (confirm lab tests) Physician Survey (person seeks care, specimen obtained) Population Survey (person falls ill, gen pop exposure)
Hazardous Waste Sources
TOTAL: 400+ million tons/yr household (pesticides, cleaners, paint, automotive) medical (3.5 million tons/yr in US) industrial radioactive mining
Hazardous Waste Disposal
US (legally): land slurry pond incineration landfill or ocean dumping
US Contribution Global Warming
US emits 23% world's GHG (only make up 4% of world population) mostly combustion of fossil fuels (especially coal-fired)
Temperature Inversion
WARM COLD warm layer stalls over cool layer (pollutants build up)
Smog
a mixture of pollutants, principally ground-level ozone, produced by chemical reactions in the air involving smog-forming chemicals
ototoxic noise
agents that can produce hearing loss
Landfill Disadvantages
air pollution (VOC, CO2, CH4 groundwater pollution leachate (toxic metals, solvents, organic chem)
Threshold Limit Value (TLV)
airborne concentration of substance believed that nearly all workers may be unaffected by
Surface Water
all water on the surface, distinguished from subsurface water includes lakes, rivers, reservoirs, ponds, oceans
Water Stress
annual supply of renewable freshwater is between 1,000-1,700 m^3/person expect temporary or limited water shortages
Water Scarcity
annual supply of renewable freshwater less than 1,000 m^3/person expect chronic & widespread water shortages
Pesticides
applied to crops (leaves residue on foods) dietary source = persistent exposure low-level, chronic exposure (multiple pesticide exposure from multiple sources not just identified/contaminated source)
Toxic Fumes & Heavy Metals (occupational health)
arsenic lead mercury cadmium chromium nickel processing & milling workers at risk breathing fumes & dust
Reservoir
artificial lake formed when a river is impounded by a physical barrier allow water to pool 4,286 km^3 volume water stored in the world's reservoirs
Clostridium perfringens
bacteria 1,000,000 cases/year (US) soil & sediment naturally occurring (especially areas with feces - human & animal intestines) ab cramps, diarrhea
Listeria monocytogenes
bacteria 1,600 cases/year (US) 260 deaths/year (US) PREGNANT WOMEN BAD FOR (fetal sepsis, meningitis, spontaneous abortion) can grow at refrigerator temperatures smoked fish, soft cheese, sandwiches, leafy greens (DELI MEATS, COLD CUTS, HOT DOGS)
Shigella
bacteria 300,000 people/yr (US) highly infectious salad, raw veggies, dairy, poultry
Campylobacter
bacteria >2 million people/yr (US) unpasteurized dairy, raw chicken, non-chlorinated water
Clostridium botulinum
bacteria BOTULISM (foodbourne intoxication) grows in anaerobic conditions (oxygen-free) neurotoxin (affects nervous system) weakness/vertigo, double vision, ab distention, speaking troubles, difficulty breathing, constipation *heat resistant
Staphylococcus aureus
bacteria humans & animals are reservoirs nose & skin toxin resistant to high temperatures foodbourne intoxication HAM *salt & sugar resistant linked to foods stored & handled unsafely
Escherichia coli
bacteria many strains are harmless 73,000 cases/year (US) 61 deaths/year (US) major outbreaks at restaurant chains hamburgers, leafy vegetables GI tract of cows
Infectious Agents in Biosolids
bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths roundworm & polio are most resistant biosolids = residuals
Taeniasis
beef tapeworm (taenia saginata) pork tapeworm (taenia solium) raw or undercooked infected beef/pork
Health Effects Air Pollution
cancer (skin & lung) tissue & organ damage (nervous system) lung & breathing impairment ACUTE: nose/throat/eye irritation bronchitis pneumonia wheezing coughing nausea headaches CHRONIC: heart disease chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) lung cancer
COPD
chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 3rd leading cause death in US 30% can be linked to occupational exposures
Top Food-Pathogen Pairs
ciguatoxin - fish scomrbiod toxin - fish salmonella - chicken campylobocter - dairy vibrio parahaemolyticus - mollusks
2 employement categories affected greatly by noise
construction industry healthcare industry
DBPs
disinfection by-products by-products of chlorination: chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, ozone (possible adverse reproductive issues) trihalomethanes (THM) (chlorine + organic matter) **Still better to disinfect than the adverse problems of DBP**
Aquifer
earth layer containing freshwater (stored naturally underground, flows through rock, supplies spring)
Love Canal
first superfund site Hooker Chemical 20,000 tons toxic chemicals later used as residential & school site
Renewable Water
freshwater that is continuously replenished by the hydrological cycle for withdrawal within reasonable time limits water in rivers, lakes, or reservoirs that fill from precipitation or from runoff
Mycotoxins
fungal toxins linked to improper storage and handling of grains & cereals major problem in developing world aspergillus flarus (peanuts & grains) fusarium spp (60% mortality rate, baked into bread) deoxynivalenol (votitoxin) claviceps purpurea (ergotisim - burning sensation; rye bread)
Prevent Foodbourne Disease
hand washing prevent cross-contamination cook at sufficiently hot temperatures store at proper cold temperatures
Disadvantages of Incineration
hazardous emissions toxic materials (air pollution, land deposited) mitigate by using scrubbers, filters, high temperatures to neutralize chemicals and pathogens
Infectious Disease Workforce Risk
healthcare public utility agriculture social service corrections personnel clinical lab specialist mortuary adult film industry
Global Warming
increase in the average global temperature of Earth CAUSES: GHG (CO2, CH4, CFCs) IMPACTS: loss species/biodiversity increase vector-borne diseases increase HAB worsen air quality extreme climate conditions SLR food supply disruptions
Food Additives
intentional/direct --> preservatives (nitrates) incidental/indirect malicious
Irridation (of food)
ionizing radiation to destroy bacteria & pathogens does NOT cause food to be radioactive cold pasteurization - heat NOT generated not good for leafy greens or highfat meats
Waste
materials perceived to be of negative value
Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)
maximum amount/concentration of a chemical that a worker may be exposed to
Metal Poisoning
metals leach into foods from containers and cooking vessels (and candy wrappers in Mexico) As in chicken (approved food supplement) RICE (As) fish (mercury)
Toxins
naturally occur (mushrooms & seafood)
Agents Occupational Injury
noise dust toxic fumes CO work stress accidents repetitive motion chemicals ionizing radiation microbes heavy metals lifting
NIHL
noise-induced hearing loss 2nd most common self-reported occupational injury 22 million/year 10 million exposed to ototoxic solvents
Foodbourne Outbreak
occurrence of similar illness among 2+ people linked to consumption of a common meal or food item (except for botulism, where only 1 case counts)
6 Criteria Air Pollutants
ozone nitrogen oxides carbon monoxide sulfur dioxide particulate matter lead
Indoor Air Quality Pollution
people spend 90% time indoors development & exacerbation of asthma & bronchitis Legionnairs Disease Sick Building Syndrome Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Multiple chemical sensitivity SOURCES: mold CO chemicals tobacco gases (radon)
PPCPs
pharmaceuticals and personal care products birth control, cholesterol-lowering medications
Indoor Cooking Stoves
problem in developing world use biomass fuels often NOT ventilated impact women, kids, elderly
4 Methods MSW Disposal
recycling landfilling composting combustion --> Landfill & incineration are sources of ENERGY
Municipal Solid Waste
solid waste 2/3 of landfill & incineration 1,700 lbs/person/year (4.5/person/day) 35% gets recovered
dBA
speech frequencies are given more weight than low frequencies
Main Occupational Injuries
strains & sprains soreness & pain cuts, lacerations, punctures bruises, contusions fractures
High Stress Jobs
technical, sales, administrative support managers, specialty professions service operators, fabricators, laborers craft repair, precision production farming, forestry, fishing (negligible)
Finished Water
the water delivered to the distribution system after treatment
Waterborne Diseases
transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water water acts as the passive carrier of the infectious agent Protozan: Cryptosporidiosis and Gioardiasis Bacteria: Cholera Viruses
True or False: incidence of foodborne illnesses has increased in industrialized nations
true
True or False: methane gas can be used for energy production
true
Source Water
untreated (raw) water used to produce drinking water
Antimicrobials
used in meat similar or identical to ones used in humans reduction in of effective therapeutic interventions
Incineration
used to generate energy while reducing the volume and weight of waste
Norovirus
virus calcivirus (stomach bug/flu) food handlers spread contaminated surfaces nursing homes, day cares, schools, hospitals, cruise ships SPREAD QUICKLY no vaccine or treatment vomit, dehydration, diarrhea, ab cramps
Hepatitis A
virus inflammation of liver 23,000 cases/year (US) fecal-oral transmission (transmits due to poor hygiene and seafood exposed to sewage) fruits, cold cuts, shellfish, veggies, dairy
VOC
volatile organic compounds
Sewage
waste & wastewater produced by residential & commercial sources & discharged into sewers
Groundwater
water contained in interconnected pores in an aquifer -some is under direct influence of surface water -microorganisms, algae, pathogens, rapid shifts in water characteristics (temperature, turbidity, pH, etc.)
Non-renewable Water
water in aquifers that is NOT recharged by hydrologic cycle recharged so slowly that human withdrawal can cause depletion fossil aquifers
Natural Air Pollution Sources
wind storms salt evaporation biological origin (pollen, OM, mold) wildfire volcano eruption
Trichinosis
worm/helminths eat meat containing nematodes (roundworm)