Tulane SPHU 2150 FINAL EXAM

Cost Occupational Injury

$53-58 billion/year DIRECT $239-261 billion/year INDIRECT PLUS $40 billion for fatalities

Fluoridation of Water

**NOT A STEP OF WATER TREATMENT** prevents tooth decay (50-70% reduction in dental cavities) initially Colorado had lower cavity prevalence and higher F concentrations

4 major categories of food hazards:

-biological -physical -chemical -nutritional

problems caused by growing volume of waste

-difficulties in disposal -dumpsites being filled -increases in pollution of aquativ environments

How long can a human survive without water?

1 week

4 Stages of Drinking Water Treatment

1) Coagulation (remove suspended material - add Al) 2) Sedimentation (heavy particles settle to bottom) 3) Filtration (remove smaller particles) 4) Disinfection (destroy pathogens)

Sewage Disposal Alternatives

1) Composting Toilets use little water deactivated pathogens aerobic 2) Septic Systems rural anaerobic & aerobic --> collect, grease top, liquid flows 20-30 year operating

Sewage Treatment Steps

1) Remove Solids 2) Deactivate Microbes 3) Produce Wastewater (return to waterways, recycle, reuse) PRELIMINARY: remove large solids grit removal (attenuation) PRIMARY: settle suspended solids SECONDARY: biological treatment (activated sludge, filter beds) TERTIARY: disinfection (UV or reverse osmosis

Hierarchy of Waste Management

1) Source Reduction pay as you throw packaging improvements product design lengthen service lifetime 2) Recycle repurpose --> uses 2/3 less energy to recycle plastic than virgin 3) Disposal

Air Pollution Reduction Measures

1) Technology Controls (scrubber, filter) 2) Kyoto Protocol (1997 GHG goals - 141 countries) 3) Copenhagen Accord (2009 curb GHG below 2C) 4) Paris Agreement (2015 195 nations including US UNTIL TRUMP) ALSO: energy conservation measures -increase efficiency power plants -plant trees -alternative energy sources (wind, solar) -improve fuel efficiency motor vehicles -public transport -use bikes -energy efficient building design

US Occupational Accidents

1) Triangle Shirtwaist Fire March 25, 1911 (NYC) 146 women died in 15 minutes doors locked non-functional fire escapes 2) Gauley Bridge Disaster 1930s diggings Hawks Nest Tunnel 1,500 cases silicosis (1,000 deaths)

US Food Regulation

1) USDA inspection (Hazard Analysis, and Critical Control Point - HACCP compliance: harvest to consumption tracking) production, process, interstate sale MEAT & EGGS live animal inspection 2) FDA production, process, interstate sale everything but m&e food codes Good Agricultural Practices Good Manufacturing Practices 3) CDC local & state assistance investigations FoodNet

What percentage of the world's landmass is covered by glaciers & icecaps?

10% --> glaciers & icecaps make ~70% of the freshwater globally

How much water does the average person use per day?

100 gallons/day (100,000+ gallons/year)

What is the average requirement for human consumption of water per day?

2.5 liters/day

Foodbourne Illness in US

25% US population each year ~9,000 deaths/year $5 billion/year CDC surveillance (FoodNet)

Composting

25% household waste is lawn clippings & food waste (COMPOSTABLE)

Fertility Problems Occupational

4 million chemicals used commercially that have not yet been tested for reproductive effect most of the 1,000 chemicals typical in work environment demonstrate adverse reproductive effects in animals

Danger Zone

40-140 degrees Fahrenheit

Megafill

5,000-10,000 tons trash/day taken in more cost-effective than incinerators

According to the EPA, motor vehicles produce nearly (blank) of 2 major causes of smog: VOC's and nitrogen oxides

50%

Percentage of Americans Living in Cities that don't meet US Air Quality Standards

50% (2016)

What is most of household water used for?

50-70% used for outdoor purposes -watering lawns -washing cars

What % of the human body is water?

67% (2/3)

Earth's Surface Water Breakdown

70% water (only 3% fresh w/ 70-75% of that frozen) overall 1% comes from surface freshwater

The Global Burden of Foodborne Illness

A major cause of morbidity (and occasionally mortality) in the United States and other countries of the world. Incidence of foodborne illnesses has increased in industrialized nations. --> bc changes in agricultural & food processing methods and globalization of food distribution

Chemicals in Water (adverse health effects)

Aluminum Arsenic Disinfection by-products Fluoride Lead Pesticides Radon CAUSE: cancer, reproductive issues, cardiovascular disease, neurological disease, developmental impairment

Hazardous Waste

Any material that can be harmful to human health or the environment if it is not properly disposed of AT LEAST ONE: ignitability corrosivity reactivity toxicity

Salmonella

BACTERIA 2-4 million cases/yr 500 deaths/yr SOURCES: wild & domestic animals (poultry, swine, cattle, pets) transferred animal feces, poor hygiene of food handlers, contaminated water/soil, surface contact SYMPTOMS: nausea, vomit, ab pain, diarrhea, fever, headaches, arthritic symptoms (3-4 weeks after) ALSO join pain, eye irritation, urine pain (Reiter's Syndrome)

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy

BSE (mad cow disease) neurological disease, ultimately fatal, transmissible among cattle

Food Hazard Cateogories

Biological (bacteria, virus, fungi, parasite, prion) Physical (glass, stone, metal, bone fragment) Chemical (pesticide, PPCP, packaging, cooking) Nutritional (excess or deficit)

4 Aspects Landfill Design

Bottom liner Leachate Collection System Cover Location (appropriate)

Occupational-Related Diseases

COPD asthma allergies & dermatitis fertility/pregnancy abnormalities infectious diseases NIHL muscoskeletal stress cancer

Environmental Impacts Air Pollution

Causes property damage Reduces visibility in national parks Harms forests Harms lakes and other bodies of water Injures wildlife

Possible Contaminants (water flow across ground)

Chemicals/nutrients (agriculture) Rubber Heavy Metals Sodium By-product Petroleum Home Solvents Paints Motor Oil Pathogens

Hierarchy of Controls (occupational health)

ELIMINATION (physically remove hazard) SUBSTITUTION (replace hazard) ENGINEERING CONTROLS (isolate ppl from hazard) --> quieter machines, better ventilation ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROLS (change way people work) --> organize work shifts & employee rotation PPE (protect workers) --> last defense

Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976

EPA controls hazardous waste "cradle to grave" generation transportation treatment storage disposal

Regulators of Air Quality

EPA: --> Clean Air Act

Regulators of Water Quality

EPA: drinking water --> Safe Drinking Water Act --> Clean Water Act FDA: bottled water

Where are glaciers and icecaps concentrated?

Greenland and Antarctica

Historical Air Pollution Episodes

Meuse Valley, Belgium 1930 Donora, Pennsylvania 1948 London, England 1952 (>3,000 deaths smog) CURRENTLY: Delhi, Beijing, Jakarta, Mexico City

Areas of Sever Water Shortages

Middle East Sub-Saharan Africa North Africa

Freshwater Lakes

Most freshwater lakes at high altitudes 50% of the world's lakes in Canada alone Become salty through evaporation (especially in arid regions) which concentrates the in-flowing salts Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, and Great Salt Lake

NAAQS

National Ambient Air Quality Standards *Under EPA

Composition of Pure Air

Nitrogen (76%) Oxygen (23%) Argon (1%) Carbon dioxide (0.03%) Variety of other gases in lesser amounts Water vapor

PM

PM2.5 is worse than PM10 cause respiratory system irritation, lung damage, bronchitis 60,000 deaths/yr PM2.5

Acid Rain

SOx and NOx interact with water, oxygen, oxidants

Anthropogenic Air Pollution Sources

STATIONARY SOURCES (power plants, manufacture) MOBILE SOURCES (vehicles, lawn mower, saw) --> motor vehicles produce 50% of VOCs and NOx and 75% of CO (50% of toxic air pollutants)

Bacterial Agents of Foodbourne Illness

Salmonella Clostridium botulinum Staphylococcus auerus Clostridium perfringes Unicellular organisms w characteristic shapes

Air Pollution Components

Sulfur oxides PM Oxidants (O3) CO Hydrocarbons Nitrogen Oxides Lead Heavy Metals

CERCLA

Superfund eg. Agricultural Street Landfill Superfund Site --> Gordon Plaza Residents

Foodbourne Illness Pyramid

Surveillance (report to CDC/health department) Laboratory Survey (confirm lab tests) Physician Survey (person seeks care, specimen obtained) Population Survey (person falls ill, gen pop exposure)

Hazardous Waste Sources

TOTAL: 400+ million tons/yr household (pesticides, cleaners, paint, automotive) medical (3.5 million tons/yr in US) industrial radioactive mining

Hazardous Waste Disposal

US (legally): land slurry pond incineration landfill or ocean dumping

US Contribution Global Warming

US emits 23% world's GHG (only make up 4% of world population) mostly combustion of fossil fuels (especially coal-fired)

Temperature Inversion

WARM COLD warm layer stalls over cool layer (pollutants build up)

Smog

a mixture of pollutants, principally ground-level ozone, produced by chemical reactions in the air involving smog-forming chemicals

ototoxic noise

agents that can produce hearing loss

Landfill Disadvantages

air pollution (VOC, CO2, CH4 groundwater pollution leachate (toxic metals, solvents, organic chem)

Threshold Limit Value (TLV)

airborne concentration of substance believed that nearly all workers may be unaffected by

Surface Water

all water on the surface, distinguished from subsurface water includes lakes, rivers, reservoirs, ponds, oceans

Water Stress

annual supply of renewable freshwater is between 1,000-1,700 m^3/person expect temporary or limited water shortages

Water Scarcity

annual supply of renewable freshwater less than 1,000 m^3/person expect chronic & widespread water shortages

Pesticides

applied to crops (leaves residue on foods) dietary source = persistent exposure low-level, chronic exposure (multiple pesticide exposure from multiple sources not just identified/contaminated source)

Toxic Fumes & Heavy Metals (occupational health)

arsenic lead mercury cadmium chromium nickel processing & milling workers at risk breathing fumes & dust

Reservoir

artificial lake formed when a river is impounded by a physical barrier allow water to pool 4,286 km^3 volume water stored in the world's reservoirs

Clostridium perfringens

bacteria 1,000,000 cases/year (US) soil & sediment naturally occurring (especially areas with feces - human & animal intestines) ab cramps, diarrhea

Listeria monocytogenes

bacteria 1,600 cases/year (US) 260 deaths/year (US) PREGNANT WOMEN BAD FOR (fetal sepsis, meningitis, spontaneous abortion) can grow at refrigerator temperatures smoked fish, soft cheese, sandwiches, leafy greens (DELI MEATS, COLD CUTS, HOT DOGS)

Shigella

bacteria 300,000 people/yr (US) highly infectious salad, raw veggies, dairy, poultry

Campylobacter

bacteria >2 million people/yr (US) unpasteurized dairy, raw chicken, non-chlorinated water

Clostridium botulinum

bacteria BOTULISM (foodbourne intoxication) grows in anaerobic conditions (oxygen-free) neurotoxin (affects nervous system) weakness/vertigo, double vision, ab distention, speaking troubles, difficulty breathing, constipation *heat resistant

Staphylococcus aureus

bacteria humans & animals are reservoirs nose & skin toxin resistant to high temperatures foodbourne intoxication HAM *salt & sugar resistant linked to foods stored & handled unsafely

Escherichia coli

bacteria many strains are harmless 73,000 cases/year (US) 61 deaths/year (US) major outbreaks at restaurant chains hamburgers, leafy vegetables GI tract of cows

Infectious Agents in Biosolids

bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths roundworm & polio are most resistant biosolids = residuals

Taeniasis

beef tapeworm (taenia saginata) pork tapeworm (taenia solium) raw or undercooked infected beef/pork

Health Effects Air Pollution

cancer (skin & lung) tissue & organ damage (nervous system) lung & breathing impairment ACUTE: nose/throat/eye irritation bronchitis pneumonia wheezing coughing nausea headaches CHRONIC: heart disease chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) lung cancer

COPD

chronic obstructive pulmonary disease 3rd leading cause death in US 30% can be linked to occupational exposures

Top Food-Pathogen Pairs

ciguatoxin - fish scomrbiod toxin - fish salmonella - chicken campylobocter - dairy vibrio parahaemolyticus - mollusks

2 employement categories affected greatly by noise

construction industry healthcare industry

DBPs

disinfection by-products by-products of chlorination: chlorine, chloramine, chlorine dioxide, ozone (possible adverse reproductive issues) trihalomethanes (THM) (chlorine + organic matter) **Still better to disinfect than the adverse problems of DBP**

Aquifer

earth layer containing freshwater (stored naturally underground, flows through rock, supplies spring)

Love Canal

first superfund site Hooker Chemical 20,000 tons toxic chemicals later used as residential & school site

Renewable Water

freshwater that is continuously replenished by the hydrological cycle for withdrawal within reasonable time limits water in rivers, lakes, or reservoirs that fill from precipitation or from runoff

Mycotoxins

fungal toxins linked to improper storage and handling of grains & cereals major problem in developing world aspergillus flarus (peanuts & grains) fusarium spp (60% mortality rate, baked into bread) deoxynivalenol (votitoxin) claviceps purpurea (ergotisim - burning sensation; rye bread)

Prevent Foodbourne Disease

hand washing prevent cross-contamination cook at sufficiently hot temperatures store at proper cold temperatures

Disadvantages of Incineration

hazardous emissions toxic materials (air pollution, land deposited) mitigate by using scrubbers, filters, high temperatures to neutralize chemicals and pathogens

Infectious Disease Workforce Risk

healthcare public utility agriculture social service corrections personnel clinical lab specialist mortuary adult film industry

Global Warming

increase in the average global temperature of Earth CAUSES: GHG (CO2, CH4, CFCs) IMPACTS: loss species/biodiversity increase vector-borne diseases increase HAB worsen air quality extreme climate conditions SLR food supply disruptions

Food Additives

intentional/direct --> preservatives (nitrates) incidental/indirect malicious

Irridation (of food)

ionizing radiation to destroy bacteria & pathogens does NOT cause food to be radioactive cold pasteurization - heat NOT generated not good for leafy greens or highfat meats

Waste

materials perceived to be of negative value

Permissible Exposure Limit (PEL)

maximum amount/concentration of a chemical that a worker may be exposed to

Metal Poisoning

metals leach into foods from containers and cooking vessels (and candy wrappers in Mexico) As in chicken (approved food supplement) RICE (As) fish (mercury)

Toxins

naturally occur (mushrooms & seafood)

Agents Occupational Injury

noise dust toxic fumes CO work stress accidents repetitive motion chemicals ionizing radiation microbes heavy metals lifting

NIHL

noise-induced hearing loss 2nd most common self-reported occupational injury 22 million/year 10 million exposed to ototoxic solvents

Foodbourne Outbreak

occurrence of similar illness among 2+ people linked to consumption of a common meal or food item (except for botulism, where only 1 case counts)

6 Criteria Air Pollutants

ozone nitrogen oxides carbon monoxide sulfur dioxide particulate matter lead

Indoor Air Quality Pollution

people spend 90% time indoors development & exacerbation of asthma & bronchitis Legionnairs Disease Sick Building Syndrome Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Multiple chemical sensitivity SOURCES: mold CO chemicals tobacco gases (radon)

PPCPs

pharmaceuticals and personal care products birth control, cholesterol-lowering medications

Indoor Cooking Stoves

problem in developing world use biomass fuels often NOT ventilated impact women, kids, elderly

4 Methods MSW Disposal

recycling landfilling composting combustion --> Landfill & incineration are sources of ENERGY

Municipal Solid Waste

solid waste 2/3 of landfill & incineration 1,700 lbs/person/year (4.5/person/day) 35% gets recovered

dBA

speech frequencies are given more weight than low frequencies

Main Occupational Injuries

strains & sprains soreness & pain cuts, lacerations, punctures bruises, contusions fractures

High Stress Jobs

technical, sales, administrative support managers, specialty professions service operators, fabricators, laborers craft repair, precision production farming, forestry, fishing (negligible)

Finished Water

the water delivered to the distribution system after treatment

Waterborne Diseases

transmitted through the ingestion of contaminated water water acts as the passive carrier of the infectious agent Protozan: Cryptosporidiosis and Gioardiasis Bacteria: Cholera Viruses

True or False: incidence of foodborne illnesses has increased in industrialized nations

true

True or False: methane gas can be used for energy production

true

Source Water

untreated (raw) water used to produce drinking water

Antimicrobials

used in meat similar or identical to ones used in humans reduction in of effective therapeutic interventions

Incineration

used to generate energy while reducing the volume and weight of waste

Norovirus

virus calcivirus (stomach bug/flu) food handlers spread contaminated surfaces nursing homes, day cares, schools, hospitals, cruise ships SPREAD QUICKLY no vaccine or treatment vomit, dehydration, diarrhea, ab cramps

Hepatitis A

virus inflammation of liver 23,000 cases/year (US) fecal-oral transmission (transmits due to poor hygiene and seafood exposed to sewage) fruits, cold cuts, shellfish, veggies, dairy

VOC

volatile organic compounds

Sewage

waste & wastewater produced by residential & commercial sources & discharged into sewers

Groundwater

water contained in interconnected pores in an aquifer -some is under direct influence of surface water -microorganisms, algae, pathogens, rapid shifts in water characteristics (temperature, turbidity, pH, etc.)

Non-renewable Water

water in aquifers that is NOT recharged by hydrologic cycle recharged so slowly that human withdrawal can cause depletion fossil aquifers

Natural Air Pollution Sources

wind storms salt evaporation biological origin (pollen, OM, mold) wildfire volcano eruption

Trichinosis

worm/helminths eat meat containing nematodes (roundworm)