Unit 1 Biology One Exam Palmtag
What are the taxonomic groups we classify all living organisms into? List them from general to most specific.
Domain (bacteria, archaea, Eukarya) Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species
What are the characteristics of living things?
Order Evolutionary Adaption Energy Processing Growth and Development Response to the Environment Reproduction Regulation of body temperature
What is an organic compound?
Organic compounds-compounds containing carbon
Large carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids are chainlike molecules called what?
polymers
science
process of studying and gathering information about different organisms. An approach to understanding the natural world
Draw a phosphate functional group
(OPO3 2-) Think: DNA, Cell membrane and ATP
How many grams of carbon equal one mole of carbon? How many grams of NaCl equal a mole of NaCl?
12 g of carbon equal one mole of carbon (look at substance molar mass) NaCl 58 grams of NaCl = 1 mole
Draw Carbonyl functional group
Ketones (ketoses)- Carbonyl group is within a carbon skeleton Aldehyde (aldehydes)- Carbonyl group at the end of a carbon skeleton
What is natural selection? How does it relate to the theory of evolution?
Natural selection is a process in which individuals that have certain heritable traits survive and reproduce at a higher rate than do other individuals because of those traits -Populations evolve over time NOT individuals -Relates to theory of evolution because it is the process of change over time that resulted in the vast array of organisms found on Earth today.
How do organisms change from one generation to the next?
Over time, natural selection can increase the frequency of adaptions that are favorable in a given environment
Which four elements represent approximately 94% or your mass?
Oxygen Carbon Hydrogen Nitrogen
What are primary producers and how do they make carbon available to consumers?
Primary producers are plants and other photosynthetic organisms that use solar energy to transform atmospheric CO2 into the carbon-based molecules of life via photosynthesis. These molecules are then taken up by consumers which feed on other organisms.
What is artificial selection, what is the significance of the term "artificial"?
Process by which humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that posses desired traits. Artificial- did not happen naturally
Which of the following: carbohydrates, lipids, protein and nucleic acids, always contain N?
Proteins and Nucleic Acids
How are reductionism and systems biology different? Similar?
Reductionism- Zooming in through the levels of the biological hierarchy at a higher resolution. -Reduces complex systems to simpler components that are easier to study. Systems Biology- Exploration of a biological system by analyzing the interactions among its parts. -Examines and models the dynamic behavior of integrated networks of components.
What are the main carbohydrates used to store energy in a plant?
Starch is stored as granules within cellular structures known as plastids. Simplest form of starch is amylose (unbranched). A more complex starch is amylopectin (somewhat branched)
What is starch (amylase and amylopectin)? What monosaccharide do we obtain from hydrolysis of starch?
Starch is stored as granules within cellular structures known as plastids. Simplest form of starch is amylose (unbranched). A more complex starch is amylopectin (somewhat branched) Hydrolysis of glycogen in these cells releases glucose when the demand for sugar increases.
Which of the bonds that we covered in class are considered strong? Weak?
Strong bond examples: ionic bonds and covalent bonds Weak bond examples: hydrogen bonds
What is a compound?
Substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio
What is the name of the bond that is formed between two amino acids by a dehydration reaction?
peptide bond
What do enzymes do?
speed up chemical reactions
Describe the terms: solvent, solute, and solution.
Solution-a liquid that is the same mixture of two or more substances Solute-the substance that is dissolved Solvent - the dissolving agent
What are the components of a chemical reaction?
Starting materials-reactants Resulting materials-products Reactions cannot create or destroy atoms but can rearrange the electrons among them Ex: photosynthesis-taking the reactants such as carbon dioxide and water and using sunlight to change them into glucose and oxygen
What is an atom?
The smallest unit of matter that still retains the properties of an element
What is an element?
A substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by chemical reactions
How many single covalent bonds can a carbon atom form?
It can form four single covalent bonds since it has four valence electrons
Draw a methyl functional group
-CH3 Affects the expression of genes when on DNA or on proteins bound to DNA. Affects the shape and function of male and female sex hormones
What are phospholipids? How are they different from fats? Why are they important to life?
-Consists of a hydrophilic (polar) "head" and hydrophobic "tails" -Contains only 2 fatty acids attached to a glycerol -Self assemble into a bilayer that shields their hydrophobic fatty acid tails from the water. -the existence of cells depends on the properties of phospholipids because they compose cell membranes
What is the general formula of an amino acid? How many different amino acids are commonly present in proteins?
-Its an organic molecule with both an amino group, a carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom and a variable group symbolized by R. -There are 20 amino acids of proteins
Describe how and why polar covalent bonds and hydrogen bonding are emergent properties of water.
-We can trace waters unique behavior to the structure and interaction of its molecules. -Studied on its own water molecule is simple. -2H joined to the O by a single covalent bond -Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen so the electrons of the covalent bond spend more time close to oxygen then to hydrogen and these are polar covalent bonds -two molecules are held together by hydrogen bond -Most water molecules are hydrogen bonded to its neighbors -The properties of water emerge from this hydrogen bonding which organizes water molecules into a higher level of structural order
Determine the number of grams in one mol for any given element.
1 gram
What forms of natural evidence led Darwin to the development of his hypotheses? Describe other evidence that emerged after Darwin's life.
1. Individuals in a population vary in their traits (many seem inheritable) 2. A population can produce far more offspring than can survive to produce offspring of their own (competition is inevitable) 3. Species are generally suited to their environment (they adapt to their circumstances) Fossil evidence corroborates anatomical unity supporting Darwins view.
Polymers are disassembled to monomers by
hydrolysis, a reaction that is essentially the reverse of the dehydration reaction
If Cl has 17 electrons, 17 protons, and 18 neutrons, what is its mass number?
35 is the mass number -17 protons and 18 neutrons
How does a buffer regulate pH in a living organism?
A buffer is a substance that minimizes changes in the concentrations of H+ and OH- solution Release H+ to lower the pH or they'll take up H+ to raise the pH. Biological systems utilize buffers to maintain their pH
What is an acquired trait, can it be inherited?
A characteristic that a living thing gets during its lifetime and cannot be inherited or passed down to future generations. Ex: tattoo
What is the difference between a compound and a molecule, can a compound be a molecule, can a molecule be a compound, are there substances that are compounds but not molecules, are there substances that are molecules but not compounds?
A compound is a substance consisting of two or more different elements combined in a fixed ratio Ex: table salt NaCl, water H2O A molecule is two or more Adams held together by a covalent bond and that's the difference, they are sharing electrons. A molecule can be a compound but not all compounds can be a molecule. Ex: hydrogen gas H2 - Covalent bond but no compound
What is a fatty acid? What is the general formula of a fatty acid?
A fatty acid is a lipid. A fatty acid has a long carbon skeleton (usually 16 or 18 Carbon long). The C at one end of the skeleton is part of a carboxyl group which gives these molecules the name, fatty acids.
What is artificial selection? How does it occur and why? Give some examples. Why does it serve as evidence of evolution?
A process by which humans have modified other species over many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that posses desired traits. Ex: Variety of canine species today
What is a protein? What are some of the functions of proteins?
A protein is a biologically functional molecule made up of one or more polypeptides, each folded and coiled into a specific 3-D structure. Some speed up chemical reactions, while others play a role in defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement or structural support.
How do acids and bases affect pH? Why do we say the hydrogen and hydroxide have an inverse relationship?
Acids increase hydrogen ion concentration of a solution (H+) Bases produce the hydroxide ion concentration of a solution (OH-) If you increase H+ then you will decrease OH- making them have a inverse relationship
Draw an amino functional group
Acts as a base (can pick up H+ from the surrounding solution) Think: Amino Acids
Draw a carboxyl functional group
Acts as an acid (can donate H+) because the covalent bond between oxygen and hydrogen is so polar.
What is an adaptation? How are adaptations passed onto subsequent generations?
Adaptions-inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments. -Passed on through reproduction -The new traits in the next generation allow for higher survival and successful reproduction rates
Describe a reversible reaction.
All chemical reactions are theoretically reversible with the products of the forward reaction becoming the reactants for the reverse reaction. Ex: Hydrogen and nitrogen molecules can combine to form ammonia but ammonia can also decompose to regenerate hydrogen and nitrogen
What is the name of the monomer units that compose a protein?
Amino acids
What is a subatomic particle? What are protons, neutrons and electrons? How are they charged? What is their relative mass?
An atoms tiny bits of matter are composed of even smaller parts called subatomic particles Proton - One unit of positive charge Electron-particle with one unit of negative charge Neutron-electrically neutral particle Neutrons and protons mass-1.7×10 to the -24 power Grams or 1 Dalton Electron mass- 1/2000 of neutron/proton, ignore when computing
Describe the chemical properties that explain surface tension in the context of water and describe how some organisms use surface tension for survival.
At the interface between water and air is an ordered arrangement of water molecules hydrogen bonded to one another and to the water below but not to the air above. This asymmetry gives water a high surface tension making it behave as though it were coded with an invisible film. A raft spider will escape a predator by taking advantage of the surface tension of water to walk across a pond without breaking the surface.
What does the atomic number of an element represent? How about the atomic mass?
Atomic number is the number of protons Atomic mass is the total Number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
Identify the different levels of biological organization (small to large), identify and describe an emergent property.
Atoms Molecules Organelles Cells Tissues Organs Organisms Populations Communities Ecosystem The Biosphere Emergent Property: New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life. Ex: Water at the atomic level: cohesion, adhesion, surface tension, etc.
What are isotopes? Stable isotopes? Radioactive isotopes? Describe some examples of how scientists can utilize stable and radioactive isotopes as tools.
Atoms of a given element have the same number of protons but some atoms have more neutrons than other atoms of the same element giving it a greater mass. Isotopes-different atomic forms of the same element Stable isotopes-their nuclei do not have a tendency to lose subatomic particles (decay) Ex: 12C and 13C Radioactive isotopes-one in which the nucleus decays spontaneously giving off particles and energy. Ex: 14 C Decays and loses one proton and becomes 14 N Radioactive isotopes are often used as a diagnostic tool in medicine. They are incorporated into biologically active molecules which are then used as trackers to track atoms during metabolism. Ex: kidney disorders are diagnosed by injecting small doses of radioactive labeled substances into the blood and then analyzed for tracer molecules excreted in the urine. Ex 2: PET scanner's monitor growth and metabolism of cancers in the body
What are the three domains of life, give a living example of each?
Bacteria (Bacillus) Archaea (Fumarii) Eukarya (Monkeys)
What is biogeography? How does it aid us in understanding evolution?
Biogeography- Study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Predict where fossils of different groups of organisms might be found. Pangaea. Ex: horses originated in North America because South America and North America were not connected yet.
What affect does the burning of fossil fuels have on the pH of rain and the ocean and how do the changes in pH affect living organisms?
Burning fossil fuels releases high concentrations of CO2 gas that react with water vapors. This produces acidic precipitation which eventually drains into our oceans. Once it reaches the oceans it causes ocean acidification (CO2 + H2O) which compromises the corals ability to calcify. The end of coral reef's means the end of biological diversity in our oceans
In which form are carbohydrates stored in animal cells? In what organ(s) do we store carbohydrates?
Carbohydrates are stored as Glycogen (extensively branched) in animal cells. Vertebrates store glycogen mainly in liver and muscle cells.
What are the four main categories of macromolecules?
Carbohydrates, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic Acids
Determine the number of grams in one mol for any given molecule.
CH4 1 mol C= 12g 1 mol H= 1g(x4) = 4g 12+4=16g/mol for CH4
Draw a sulfhydryl functional group
Can also be written as (HS-) Forms a protein "cross-link" that stabilizes protein structure
What is a carbohydrate? What is the general formula of a carbohydrate? What elements make up carbohydrates? Which functional groups are present in these organic compounds?
Carbohydrate: hydrated carbon (CH2O)2 Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen Carbonyl groups present in carbohydrates (sugars)
Determine the molecular mass for one mol of any given molecule.
Carbon-atomic mass is 12. So carbonate molar mass is 12 g/mol Molar mass= atomic mass Molar mass= grams/moles
Which of the following functional groups: hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, or phosphate, are found in all proteins?
Carboxyl
What is cellulose? Where is it present? What is its function? Why is it so important to us? How is it different from starch?
Cellulose is a major component of the tough walls that enclose plant cells. -Most abundant organic compound on Earth -it imparts strength to parts of the plant -It is the major constituent of paper and the only component of cotton. Enzymes that digest starch by hydrolyzing its "a" linkages are unable to hydrolyze the "B" linkages of cellulose due to the different shapes of these two molecules.
What properties of water do plants take advantage of, to move water against gravity, explain?
Cohesion due to hydrogen Bonding contributes to the transport of water and dissolved nutrients against gravity and plants. Water from the roots reaches the leaves through a network of water conducting cells. As water evaporates from the leaves hydrogen bonds cause water molecules leaving the veins to tug on molecules further down. The upward pull is transmitted through the water conducting cells all the way to the roots. Adhesion also plays a role. Adhesion of water by hydrogen bonds to the molecules of cell walls helps encounter the downward pull of gravity.
Inductive Reasoning
Collecting and analyzing observations leading to important conclusions based on a type of logic. Ex: Sun always rises in the east
Polymers use what type of bond?
Covalent
What is a covalent bond, why do atoms form them? What do they have to do with molecules and compounds?
Covalent bond- The sharing of a pair of valence electrons by two atoms. Atoms want to gain or lose an electron in order to be satisfied. Ex: hydrogen has one valence electron in the first shell but it can actually hold two. So when it comes close to another hydrogen and their first orbital overlaps they will share their electrons -two or more atoms held together by a covalent bond makes a molecule
Why are DNA and RNA acids?
DNA or RNA are called nucleic acids because of the acidic nature of the phosphate group attached to them. The phosphodiester bond can easily lose the proton in the presence of nucleophile group subsequently masking the basic nature of nitrogenous bases.
What is a Dalton?
Dalton is the same as the atomic mass. It is a unit of measurement
What is the "Origin of Species"?
Darwins book " Origin of Species" of 1844 touched on dissent with modification and understanding its underlying mechanism, natural selection.
Describe descent with modification, why are cells, DNA, mutations, sexual reproduction, and reproductive success important to this concept?
Descent with modification- change in a line of ancestry Cells, DNA, mutations, sexual reproduction, and reproductive success are important to this concept because they all play a role in descent with modification. None of them could produce descent with modification independently.
What is electronegativity? Are the shared electrons distributed evenly between the atoms in a covalent bond? What is a polar versus nonpolar covalent bond? How do the properties of polar and nonpolar molecule differ?
Electro negativity - the attraction of a particular Adam for the electrons of a covalent bond. -The more electronegative the atom is the more strongly it pools shared electrons toward itself -In a covalent bond between two atoms of the same element the electrons are shared equally because the two atoms have the same electronegativity also called a non polar covalent bond. Ex: H2 or O2 When a atom is bonded to a more electronegative atom, the electrons of the bond are not shared equally also known as a polar covalent bond Ex: Bond between oxygen and hydrogen atoms of water
What are Van der Waals forces/bonds, why do we care about them?
Electrons are not always evenly distributed they could accumulate by chance in one part of a molecule or another. The results are ever-changing regions of positive and negative charge that enable all atoms and molecules to stick to one another Those Van der Waals interactions are individually weak and occur only when atoms and molecules are very close together. If those interactions occur at the same time it can be powerful. Ex: gecko lizards walking up a wall or on the ceiling The Van der Waals interactions between foot molecules and the walls surface molecules are so numerous that together they can support the geckos bodyweight
Where are the electrons in the atom?
Electrons form a cloud around the nucleus
What are electron energy levels and electron shells? How many electrons are the first, second, and third energy levels capable of holding? How does the number of electrons on an atoms outer shell affect the behavior of the atom/element?
Electrons of an atom have potential energy due to their distance from the nucleus. -Electrons are attracted to the positive charged nucleus -More distant an electron is from nucleus the greater the potential energy Electron shells-An energy level of electrons at a characteristic average distance from the nucleus of an atom. -first shell is closest to the nucleus and has the lowest potential energy 1 Shell- 2 electrons 2 Shell- 8 electrons 3 Shell- 8 electrons Atoms with the same number of electrons in their outer shell (valence shell) exhibit similar chemical behavior
What types of protein catalyze chemical reactions?
Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions by speeding up chemical reactions, and can either break down their substrate or build larger molecules from their substrate.
How do Eukaryotic cells differ from prokaryotic cells, how are they similar, what type of organisms have prokaryotic cells, which have eukaryotic cells?
Eukaryotic- Contains membranes and has enclosed organelles -All forms of life contain eukaryotic cells. Chloroplast found ONLY in eukaryotic cells to carry out photosynthesis Prokaryotic- Does NOT have a nucleus but has enclosed organelles -Smaller the Eukaryotic cells -Single celled microorganisms: Bacteria and Archaea.
Design an experiment; Describe the significance of each of the following: Independent variable, Dependent variable, Controlled Variables, Treatment group, Control group, and Replication
Experiment: Fish Spawning Numbers Independent Variable: Factor being manipulated by researcher. Ex: Change in water temp in fish tanks. Dependent Variable: Factor being measured that is predicted to be affected by the independent variable. Ex: Number of eggs fish will lay Controlled Variable: Everything must be the same except for the one thing you are testing. (Used as a baseline measure) Ex: same size fish tanks, filters, pH levels, light bulbs, etc. Treatment Group: Experimental manipulation of a variable. Ex: Change of temp in fish tanks Control Group: A group of experimental subjects that are not given the experimental change. Ex: Fish tank that stays at regular/normal known temp. Replication: Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated. If results can be replicated than the experiment is considered falsifiable.
Design an experiment; Describe the significance of each of the following: Independent variable, Dependent variable, Controlled Variables, Treatment group, Control group, and Replication
Experiment: Fish Spawning Numbers Independent Variable: Factor being manipulated by researcher. Ex: Change in water temp in fish tanks. Dependent Variable: Factor being measured that is predicted to be affected by the independent variable. Ex: Number of eggs fish will lay Controlled Variable: Everything must be the same except for the one thing you are testing. Ex: same size fish tanks, filters, pH levels, light bulbs, etc. Treatment Group: Experimental manipulation of a variable. Ex: Change of temp in fish tanks Control Group: A group of experimental subjects that are not given the experimental change (Used as a baseline measure). Ex: Fish tank that stays at regular/normal known temp. Replication: Getting the same result when an experiment is repeated. If results can be replicated than the experiment is considered falsifiable.
Natural selection describes how the living and nonliving components of the natural environment influence the success (or lack thereof) of a population of organisms. Describe how an environment can dictate the success of a population of organisms and describe the random changes the organisms can undergo to improve their ability to survive and reproduce. Do living things will themselves or initiate adaptations to an environment?
Finches on the Galapagos island. -Beaks adapted over time to consume different food sources of their new environment No, living things do NOT will themselves or initiate adaptations to an environment. Rather its a result of mutations that were beneficial to the species in its environment. Its new successful adaption will lead to reproductive success. New offspring will carry genes on unless another mutation takes place.
How are descent with modification and natural selection related?
First, descent with modification takes place. An organism will inherit a gene/mutation that allows them to be more successful in their environment. They will then reproduce and their offspring will carry that gene to allow it to be more successful in the environment too.
What does it mean to be endemic?
Found nowhere else in the world
What is glucose? How many carbon atoms are there in a molecule of glucose? What is glucose used for in the cell?
Glucose (C6 H12 O6) is the most common monosaccharide. It is a sugar. Major nutrients for cells. In cellular respiration, cells extract energy from glucose molecules by breaking them down in a series of reactions.
What is glycerol? Draw a molecule of glycerol. You should recognize this molecule.
Glycerol is an alcohol; each of its three carbons bears a hydroxyl group.
What is heat of vaporization an evaporative cooling, what affect does it have on living organisms? Does water have a high heat of vaporization, explain.
Heat of vaperization is the quantity of heat and liquid must absorb for 1 g of it to be converted from the liquid to the gaseous state Evaporative cooling-as a liquid evaporates the surface of the liquid that remains behind cools down. -contributes to the stability of temperatures in lakes and ponds and provide a mechanism that prevents terrestrials organisms from overheating To evaporate 1 g of water at 25°C about 580 cal of heat is needed -nearly double the amount needed to vaporize a gram of alcohol or ammonia. -hydrogen bonds must be broken before the molecules can exit from the liquid in the form of water vapor. This helps moderate earths climate and accounts for the severity of steam burns
What is a pure hydrocarbon?
Hydrocarbons-organic molecules composed solely of C and H
What is a hydrocarbon, are they polar or nonpolar, how does this property impact biology?
Hydrocarbons-organic molecules consisting of only carbon and hydrogen -Nonpolar bonds -Hydrocarbon tails of fats act as a stored fuel for plant embryos (seeds) and animals
From the atomic number or the position of an element in the periodic table you should be able to determine its number of valence electrons. For example, how many valence electrons does hydrogen have? Oxygen?
Hydrogen - 1 Oxygen - 6
What is a hydrogen bond? Is a hydrogen bond weaker or stronger than a covalent bond? Is it weaker or stronger than an ionic bond?
Hydrogen bond-when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an electronegative Adam, the hydrogen atom has a partial positive charge That allows it to be attracted to a different electronegative atom nearby ...... signifies a hydrogen bond Hydrogen bond is weaker than an ionic and a covalent bond. Ionic anions and cations get stuck to the surface so there is no overlapping between the atoms so the bond length is longer than covalent bonds
What are the emergent properties of water in the solid phase and how do they support life?
Ice floats on liquid water Water expands when it solidifies do you to hydrogen bonding As water begins to freeze it's molecules will move too slow to break hydrogen bonds. At 0°C the molecules become locked into a crystalline lattice, each water molecule hydrogen bonds to four partners Those hydrogen bonds keep the molecules at "arms length" making ice about 10% less dense than liquid water if ice sank then all ponds, lakes and oceans would freeze solid, making life as we know it impossible Ice acts as an insulator while floating shielding the aquatic marine life below
What kinds of bonds do ions of opposite charge form?
Ionic bonds-bond form between two oppositely charged ions -forms between cations and anions
What is an ion? How do ions come about? What do you call an ion with a positive charge? What do you call an ion with a negative charge? What is an ionic compound, what is a salt?
Ions-two atoms are unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that the atom that is more electronegative strips an electron away from its partner. The two oppositely charged atoms are called ions Cation-positively charged ion Anion-negatively charged ion Ionic bond-cation and anion attracted to each other due to their opposite charges Ionic compound-compounds formed by ionic bonds (NaCl) Salt-an ionic compound resulting from the formation of ionic bond (NaCl) -often found in nature as crystals of various sizes and shapes -aggregate of cations and anions bonded by their electrical attraction -arranged in a three dimensional lattice The formula for an ionic compound (NaCl) indicates the ratio of elements in a crystal of the salt NaCl by it's self is not a molecule
What are the different types of isomers and how are they different?
Isomers-compounds that have the same number of atoms of the same element but different structures and different properties -Three different types: structural, cis - trans, enantiomers Structural-differ in the covalent arrangements of their Adams Cis-trans carbons have covalent bonds to the same Adams but these Adams differ in their special arrangements due to the inflexibility of double bonds (=). Double bonds do not permit rotation. Cis- The two X's are on the same side Trans- The two X's are on opposite sides Enantiomer-isomers that are mirror images of each other and that differ in shape due to the presence of an asymmetrical carbon, one that is attached to four different atoms or groups of atoms Enantiomer are like mirror images, think of your left and right hand. They cannot be super imposed on each other
What does it mean for a hypothesis to be "falsifiable"
It can be proven wrong
What are purines?
It is a nitrogenous base. - larger than pyrimidines -has a six membered ring fused to a five member ring. -Members of purines are adenine (A) and guanine (G).
What are pyrimidines?
It is a nitrogenous base. -has one six-membered ring of carbon and nitrogen atoms. -The members of the pyrimidine family are cytosine (C), thymine (T), and uracil (U).
What kind of lipid is cholesterol? What other important compounds have a similar structure?
It is a type of steroid. human sex hormones such as estradiol and testosterone
What is matter, what is not?
Matter-anything that takes up space and has a mass Matter Ex: rocks, metals, oils, gases, living organisms Not Matter Ex: light, energy
What is molarity, what does it measure, why is it important?
Molarity-the number of moles of solute per liter of solution -Used for aqueous solutions -Unity of concentration
What is a mol, why is it used?
Mole (mol) represents an exact number of objects: 6.023 x 10 to the 23rd power It is used because we can't wait out small numbers of molecules so scientist will measure substances in this unit of moles
What is a mole? What does a mole have to do with a Dalton?
Mole- Represents an exact number of objects. 6.023×10 to the 23rd power -There are 6.023×10 to the 23rd power Dalton's in 1 gram -A mole of one substance has exactly the same number of molecules as a mole of any other substance
What are the smaller molecules that act as building blocks for polymers?
Monomers
What is a monosaccharide and a disaccharide?
Monosaccharides are simple sugars - generally have molecular formulas that are some multiple of the unit CH2O. -Glucose (C6 H12 O6) is the most common monosaccharide -Most sugars end in -ose Disaccharide consists of two monosaccharides joined by a glycosidic linkage (a covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides by a dehydration reaction) -Most prevalent disaccharide is sucrose (Glucose + Fructose= Sucrose)
What role do mutations and sexual reproduction play in evolution?
Mutations through sexual reproduction allow for new species to be born as time progresses over long periods. This proves evolution is real.
If you came across the following notation in a text book or scientific journal, what information could you determine from it? 23 Na 11
Na means sodium. 23 is the atomic mass (11 protons and 12 neutrons). 11 is the atomic number (the number of protons)
Are fatty acids soluble in water? Why?
No, the relatively non polar C-H bods in the hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids make the fats hydrophobic. Fats separate from water because the water molecules hydrogen bond to one another and exclude the fats.
What is a nucleic acid? What is RNA? What is DNA? How are RNA and DNA different?
Nucleic Acid- polymers made of monomers called nucleotides RNA-A type of nucleic acid consisting of polynucleotide made up of nucleotide monomers with a ribose sugar and the nitrogenous bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), and uracil (U) -usually single stranded; functions in protein synthesis, in gene regulation, and as the genome of some viruses. DNA- is the genetic material that oraganisms inherit from their parents. -provides directions for its own replication. -also directs RNA synthesis and through RNA controls protein synthesis through a process called gene expression. RNA contains ribose sugar, whereas DNA contains deoxyribose sugar. In addition, RNA contains uracil and not thymine. DNA contains thymine but not uracil.
What is a nucleotide? What are the three general components?
Nucleotide- monomers that make up polynucleotides Composed of three general parts: A five-carbon sugar (a pentose), a nitrogen-containing (nitrogenous) base, and one to three phosphate groups
Draw a hydroxyl functional group
Polar Forns Hydrogen bonds with water, helps dissolve sugars
What are the differences between a polar and non polar molecule, what are the differences between a hydrophilic and hydrophobic substance?
Polar molecules do not have an equal share of electrons Non-polar molecules share electrons equally Hydrophilic-any substance that has an affinity for water -Can be dissolved in water but not always Ex: Cotton contains giant molecules of cellulose (has many regions of S- and S+ that can form hydrogen bonds) which water adheres to (like a towel for drying off) Cellulose is also present in the walls of water-conducting cells in a plant. -water adheres to hydrophilic walls to help move up the plant against gravity Hydrophobic-substances that cannot form hydrogen bonds. They are non-ionic and non-polar. They repel water. Ex: vegetable oil Hydrophobic molecules make up cells membrane's. If a cells membrane were able to be dissolved in water, life would not exist
What is a polysaccharide? What type of chemical reactions produce polysaccharides? What is the name of the covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides?
Polysaccharides are a polymer of many monosaccharides, formed by dehydration reactions (glycosidic linkages-covalent bond formed between two monosaccharides). -Some serve as storage material, hydrolyzed as needed to provide sugar for cells. - Some serve as building material for structures that protect the cell or the whole organism.
What are vestigial structures? How do they come about?
Remnants of features that once served a function in the organisms ancestors. ⁃They come about simply because a common ancestor had them. ⁃Change in environment needs to organs that are still present but not necessary for an organisms survival
What is ribose? Deoxyribose?
Ribose is the sugar in RNA. Deoxyribose is the sugar found in DNA. Deoxyribose lacks an oxygen atom on the second carbon in the ring.
What type of energy does temperature measure, what temperature scale do scientists use, and how does the movement of molecules correlate with fluctuations in temperature?
Temperature measures the average Connecticut energy of the molecules in a body of matter regardless of volume. One convenient unit of heat is the calorie. -A calorie is the amount of heat it takes to raise the temperature of 1 g of water by 1°C -molecules move faster and farther apart when temperature increases
Are phospholipids soluble in water? Why?
The Lipid Bilayer which is largely made of phospholipid; a glycerol molecule is joined to two fatty acid chains and the third site on the glycerol is linked to a hydrophilic phosphate group. Phospholipids are therefore amphipathic lipids, meaning they are partly water soluble and partly insoluble.
What is the difference between different amino acids?
The R group, also called the side chain, differs with each amino acid.
Describe why a low pH corresponds with a high hydrogen ion concentration.
The lower the pH the more acidic a solution is. The more acidic a solution is the higher the H+ concentration will be
Explain what the phrase "unity and diversity of life" refers to in the context of chapter 22. How could this phrase be applied to organisms that are distantly related? Closely related?
The many shared characteristics of life. -Unity of life to the descent of all organisms from an ancestor that lived in the remote past. -As the descendants of that ancestral organism lived in various habitats, they gradually accumulate diverse modifications (adaptions) that fit them to specific ways of life. -Over a long period of time, descent with modification will lead to rich diversity of life.
What kind of organic compound is ATP? Why is this compound so important?
The nucleotide adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is composed of a ribose sugar, an adenine base, and three phosphate groups. ATP is classified as a high energy compound because the two covalent bonds linking its three phosphates store a significant amount of potential energy. In the body, the energy released from these high energy bonds helps fuel the body's activities, from muscle contraction to the transport of substances in and out of cells to anabolic chemical reactions.
What types of chemical bonds are responsible for the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins?
The primary structure of a protein consists of amino acids chained to each other. Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. A peptide bond is a type of covalent bond between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another amino acid. The secondary structure describes the three-dimensional folding or coiling of a chain of amino acids (e.g., beta-pleated sheet, alpha helix). This three-dimensional shape is held in place by hydrogen bonds. The tertiary structure is the overall shape of a polypeptide resulting from interactions between the side chains (R groups) of the various amino acids. -A hydrophobic interaction contributes to its structure. As a polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic (non polar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein, out of contact with water. -Once non polar amino acid chains are close together, Van der Waals interactions help hold them together. -Meanwhile, hydrogen bonds between polar side chains and ionic bonds between positively and negatively charged side chains also help stabilize tertiary structures. -Covalent bonds called disulfide bridges will further reinforce the shape of the protein. One sulfhydryl group will bond to another one close by causing a disulfide bridge to form making the protein rivet together. The quaternary structure is the overall protein structure that results form the aggregation of these polypeptide subunits.
Are proteins soluble in water? If a protein is heated, how could that change its solubility? Why?
The solubility of a protein in water depends on the 3D shape of it. Usually globular proteins are soluble, while fibrous ones are not. Denaturation can result from excessive heat, which agitates the polypeptide chain enough to overpower the weak interactions that stabilize the structure.
What is the specific heat of water, how is it measured, how does waters specific heat compare to other solvents specific heat, what properties of water allow it to have a high specific heat, and what affect does it have on the bioshpere's climate?
The specific heat of water is 1 cal per gram and per Celsius Ex: 1 cal /(g* °C) -The amount of heat that must be absorbed or lost for 1 g of that substance to change his temp by 1°C Water has a high specific heat Ex: Ethyl alcohol has a specific heat of 0.6 cal per gram * °C Water will change its temperature less than other liquids when it absorbs or loses a given amount of heat Specific heat of water relates to the hydrogen bonds. He must be absorbed in order to break hydrogen bonds. Much of the heat is used to break those hydrogen bonds before the molecules can start moving faster. A large body of water can absorb and store a huge amount of heat from the sun in the daytime and during summer while warming up only a few degrees. At night and during the winter time he gradually cooling water can warm the air. This capability of water service to moderate air temperatures in coastal areas. It also stabilizes ocean temperatures allowing the marine life below to survive.
How many levels of structure are present in a protein? Describe each level in detail.
There are 4 levels of structures present in a protein. Primary- Unique sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide Secondary- Folding or coiling of the polypeptide into a repeating pattern -Includes the α helix and the β pleated sheet -Maintained by Hydrogen bonding Tertiary- Three-dimensional shape of a polypeptide Results from interactions between amino, carboxylic, and R groups -Hydrophobic interactions -Van der Waals -Disulfide bridge -Ionic bonding Quaternary- Is the overall protein structure that results from the aggregation of two or more polypeptide subunits.
How many polypeptide chains are there in a protein?
There is typically only one polypeptide chain in a protein however there are circumstances in which some proteins are made up of multiple polypeptide chains, also known as subunits. When these subunits come together, they give the protein its quaternary structure.
What is a fat (mono-, di-, and triglyceride)? Draw them.
They are large molecules assembled from smaller molecules by dehydration reactions. A fat is constructed from glycerol and fatty acids.
What is the difference between macronutrients and trace elemements?
Trace element-required by an organism in only minute quantities Macronutrient-an essential element that And organism must obtain in relatively large amounts
What is a molecule?
Two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
What is the difference between an unsaturated fatty acid and a saturated fatty acid?
Unsaturated Fatty Acid- Have one or more double bonds, "kinked" shape -Most vegetable and fish fats -Liquid at room temperature Saturated Fatty Acid- Contain the maximum number of H atoms possible -Have no double bonds -Most animal fats, solid at room temperature
What are valence electrons? Why do we care about an atoms/elements valence?
Valence electrons-electrons in the outer most shell. Atoms with the same number of electrons in their valence shell exhibit similar chemical behavior. An atom with a completed valance shell is unreactive. It will not interact readily with other atoms
What is an anatomical homology? Why does an anatomical homology serve as evidence of decent with modification and natural selection?
When closely related species share similar features of the body. Ex: humans, cats, whales and bats have the same basic skeletal elements. These anatomical resemblances would not happen if these structures had arisen anew in each species.
Describe the disassociation of water. What are the molar concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxide ions in one liter of pure water?
When water disassociate, one of the hydrogen leaves it's electron behind with the oxygen atom to become a hydrogen ion while the oxygen and the other hydrogen atom becomes a hydroxide ion. Since the hydrogen ion has no electrons, it has a full unit of a positive charge (H+). The hydroxide keeps the electrons giving it a full unit of a negative charge (OH-) The hydrogen ion will then attach to another oxygen atom of an un-ionized water molecule to form a hydronium ion (H3O)
What is a 1 molar (1M) solution? How many moles of NH3 do you have in 1000 ml of a 1 M solution? How many molecules of NH3 do you have in 1000 ml of a 1 M solution?
When you take one mole of a substance such as sucrose which is equivalent to 342 g, and you place it in a beaker, then gradually add water while stirring the solution until it is completely dissolved. Add enough water to bring the total volume of the solution up to 1 L. At that point you will have a one molar solution of sucrose. Moles of NH3 = 17grams + 1000mL N= 14 H= 1 x 3 = 3 Molecule - two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds
What is a hydrolisis reaction?
a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the gaining of a water molecule
What is dehydration reaction?
a reaction in which two molecules are covalently bonded to each other with the loss of a water molecule
Depending on the location of the carbonyl group, a sugar can either be ____ or ____.
an aldose or a ketose
hypothesis-based science
an explanation based on observations and assumptions that lead to a testable prediction
What are lipids?
fats, phospholipids, steroids, waxes
What is pH, why do we care about pH?
pH is a scale biologists used to describe how acidic or basic a solution is. It can drastically affect as cells proteins and other complex molecules pH-defined as the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration The lower the pH the more acidic pH represents a 10 fold difference in H+ and OH- concentrations pH 3 to pH 6 (10x10x10) = 1000 times more acidic Deviations from normal H ion concentrations in living systems are deadly
What is the function of nucleic acids?
store and transmit genetic information (DNA and RNA)
