Unit 2 L.O.

Explain the sliding-filament mechanism by which muscle cells generate force and shorten (use Fig. 9.13 and Fig 9.14)

(A+MADPP)(AMADPP)(AM)(A+MATP)

What do CRH and ACTH stand for? What cascade?

Corticotropin releasing hormone, adrenocorticotropin hormone, and stress/cortisol

General dopamine cascade

DA(inhibit)->prolactin->breast development and milk production

List the causes, of hyperthyroidism

Damage to thyroid, lack of I in diet, autoimmune

List the steroid hormones, state what organs/tissues produce them, and name the base molecule all are derived from.

Derived from cholesterol, made in adrenal cortex, gonads and placenta. LIPOPHILLIC! Cortisol, aldosterone, testosterone, estradiol, and progesterone

Symptoms of hyperthyroidism

Heat intolerance, nervousness, weight loss, increased appetite, fight or flight symptoms

Define, compare "isometric," contractions.

Holding against gravity (length unchanging)

List the amine hormones, state what organs/tissues produce them, and name the base molecule all are derived from.

Hormones derived from tyrosine. Thyroid hormones(thyroid gland), epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenal medulla), dopamine (hypothalamus)

List the functions of ATP in skeletal muscle contraction.

Hydrolysis energizes cross bridge, later binds to myosin to cause detachment

Define, compare "eccentric" contractions.

Lengthening of muscle

Where does the anterior pituitary received hormones from?

Portal vessels!

Define exocrine signaling

Secrete product into a duct, which either exits body or goes to another organ

Define, compare, "concentric," contractions.

Shortening of muscle

General thyroid cascade

TRH->TSH->thyroxine and triiodothyronine

Overstimulation of what leads to goiter?

TSH receptors

Describe and differentiate between the protein composition of the thick and thin filament

Thick filament has myosin and actin, thin filament has actin, trope in, and tropomyosin

Define neuroendocrine signaling

Where cells receive messages from nervous system and respond by releasing hormones (more long lasting than nts)

symptoms of hypothyroidism

weigh gain, fatigue, slow heart rate and respiration rate, cold intolerance, decreased alertness

Explain in detail the steps of the cross-bridge cycle involved in muscle contraction, including a description of both the mechanical and chemical events that occur (Fig 9.15).

(A+MADPP)(AMADPP)(AM)(ATPM+A)back to start

List the two general functions of gonads.

1. steroid production 2. gametogenesis

Define "rigor mortis," and explain under what conditions it occurs.

A dot m, Ca has leaked and it accidentally contracts muscles

What is adrenal insufficiency?

ANY situation where cortisol is lower than normal (chronically)

Define the word "contraction" as it relates to muscle physiology.

Activation of cross bridges to exert force

Explain where the protein titin occurs in skeletal muscle cells and describe its function.

Acts like a spring in I band

Hormones increased during stress

Aldosterone (increase Na retention and blood pressure), vasopressin (increase water retention and bp), GH (mobilize glucose), glucagon (opposite of insulin), B endorphin (pain relief)

Hashimotos

Autoimmune cause of hypothyroidism

List the causes, hypothyroidism

Autoimmune stimulation of TSH receptors

Is TSH tropic or trophic?

BOTH

State how botulinum toxin, curare, organophosphate poisons, and succinylcholine disrupt transmission at the neuromuscular junction.

Botulinum blocks Ach exocytosis, curare blocks ach binding, organo poisons block achASE, succinylcholine acts like ach

Differentiate between the rate of growth of the brain, total body height, and the reproductive organs.

Brain grows really fast really quickly, two spurts for height(5, 12), repro happens after twelve

Describe the general structure of protein/peptide hormones, and relate a strategy for knowing which hormones are of this type that does not require memorizing all of them.

Can be as small as 3 amino acids or a large protein, preprohormone->hormone. Memorize amines and steroids, everything else is a prot hormone!!

Predict the impact of perturbations of the axis, such as hypersecreting tumors

Causes hypersecretion of hormones at and below gland, causes reduction of hormones controlled by neg feedback?

List the causes, and symptoms of primary adrenal insufficiency (Addison's disease), and describe how the levels of cortisol and the HPA hormones are changed.

Causes: destructive tumor, infection, or autoimmune destruction. Symptoms: hypotension, hypoglycemia, and high plasma ACTH.

List the causes and symptoms of secondary adrenal insufficiency, and describe how the levels of cortisol and the HPA hormones are changed.

Causes: pituitary disease (loss of acth). Symptoms: hypotension, hypoglycemia, low acth. There STILL IS aldosterone, which is how you tell the difference between primary and secondary

Define autocrine signaling

Chemical messengers secreted into the ECF and act on the cell that secreted them— NOT OTHERS

Define paracrine signaling

Chemical messengers that affect nearby cells (we don't count nts by convention)

Describe the gross and cellular anatomy of the thyroid gland

Composed of Follicles cells, surrounded by thin layer of cells.

Describe the actions of testosterone on male anatomy/physiology/reproduction.

Differentiate testes, puberty, deepen voice, pubes, growth, libido, T required for spermatogenesis

Define endocrine signaling

Ductless, release hormones into blood

List the causes of dwarfism, gigantism, and acromegaly, and explain the difference in the last two.

Dwarfism (GH/IGF1 deficiency, receptor insensitivity), gigantism (elevated GH before puberty), acromegaly (extra GH after puberty (hands and feet))

Compare and contrast excitatory postsynaptic potentials and end plate potentials.

EPPs are like EPSPs except way bigger. You need a bunch of EPSPs to get something done, but one EPP to accomplish 1 muscle AP

list all of the functional characteristics that correlate with hydrophilic structure

Easily soluble in blood stream, don't need a carrier protein, vesicles storage, fast acting and fast metabolism, need to be injected (ex., INSULIN)

Define, compare, and contrast "isotonic," contractions.

Either lengthening or shortening of the muscle

Explain what roles the endocrine system can play in the context of a generic negative feedback control system model.

Endocrine cells can be receptor, effector, or integrating center

List the catchecolamine hormones and if they're lipo or hydro phillic

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine. Hydrophilic

Contrast the structure/function of a primary ovarian follicle and a mature ovarian follicle.

Estrogen makes granulosa and thefa cells grow, after ovulation the corpus luteal makes progesterone, inhibit, and estrogen

List the four possible fates of a hormone that occur after it is secreted and circulates in blood.

Excretion, binding to tissue, stimulate another hormones release, get turned into another hormone (t4->T3)

Define and differentiate between endocrine glands and exocrine glands.

Exocrine has ducts!

List the hormones involved in the hypothalamus/anterior pituitary signaling system.

FSH, LSH, TSH , ACTH, GH, and prolactin

Growth hormone cascade

GHRH(pos)+SST(inhib )-> GH-> IGF1

List the metabolic effects of growth hormone.

Glucose and fat mobilization , protein synthesis , causes bone cell differentiation

GENERAL Gonad hormone cascade

GnRH->FSH and LH->testosterone and estrogen and progesterone

list all of the functional characteristics that correlate with hydrophilic structure

Hydrophilic (prot): dissolves easily in bloodstream, no carrier proteins, binds to receptors freely, metabolism of them is rapid because not protected by carrier, stored in vesicles, short half-life, destroyed by stomach acid so you have to inject it (INSULIN)

the causes, signs, symptoms, and hormone levels observed in Cushing's syndrome

Hypercortisolism

Cushing's disease.

Hypercortisolism where there's an ACTH secreteing tumor

List the four general categories/types of endocrine disorders.

Hypersecretion (too much), hyposecretion (too little), hyperresponsiveness (increased response), hyporesponsiveness (descreased Response)

Graves

Hyperthyroidism: overstimulation of TSH receptors by antibodies (autoimmune)

detail the anatomy and functional relationship between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and posterior pituitary gland.

Hypothalamus sends hormones to pituitary, anterior pituitary is more forward and requires and exchange of hormones, postpit is just and extension of hypothalamus and needs to receive action potentials

Explain how negative/positive perception of a stressor affects secretion of the different stress hormones.

If you control the situation then you decrease cortisol

Predict the impact of perturbations of the axis, such as destruction of glands.

Increased hormone secretion above destruction, decreased below

Compare/contrast the mechanisms, signs, and symptoms of Graves' disease and iodine deficiency.

Iodine deficiency: stim TRH and TSH but reduce T3and4—hypothyroidism with goiter. Graves' disease: TSH-like antibodies stimulate TSH (GOITER) receptors and cause T3 secretion but decreases TRH and TSH levels—-hyperthyroidism

Define, compare, and contrast "isometric," "isotonic," "concentric," and "eccentric" contractions.

Isometric is a contraction where the distance is not changed, isotonic is where it is changed. Specifically, concentric and eccentric are both isotonic contractions, eccentric is a lengthening and concentric is a shortening

List the physiological functions of basal levels of cortisol in the body.

Keeps immune system under control (anti inflammatory), stimulates glucose release to bloodstream, permissive of adrenergic receptors, develops baby

Describe the location and functions of Sertoli and Leydig cells

Leydig have receptors for LH and secrete T , Sertoli have receptors for FSH and nurture sperm

What normally takes hormones out?

Liver and kidney

Draw a graph showing how plasma testosterone varies with age in males, beginning in utero. Explain the purpose of the different testosterone peaks.

Lots of T in utero, spike after birth, big spike during puberty that keeps it high the rest of their lives (hCG develops testes in utero)

List the two principal hormones of the adrenal gland secreted as part of the stress response, and describe what part of the gland each originates from

Medulla does E and NE, cortex does aldosterone, cortisol and androgens

List and discuss the actions of thyroid hormone.

Metabolic (heat production), permissive of growth, permissive of adrenergic receptor expression, increases sympathetic function

List the physiological processes activated when cortisol levels are elevated during stress.

Mobilize fuels, increase sympathetic response, mobilize Ca release(bone regeneration), suppress growth, and inflammation

Define amplification

Multiple signals can be produced for every one receptor that a chemical message binds to

Relate the time course of the change in cytosolic Ca2+ concentration the contraction and relaxation time of a skeletal muscle fiber twitch.

Muscle fiber is stimulated and after a slight latent period, the calcium concentration in the cytosol raises and lowers. The twitch starts a little bit lat and is .5x longer than change in calcium concentration

Define neurotransmitter signaling

Nt released across synapse, NOT HORMONES

Detail the process of oogenesis from fetal life through ovulation of follicles in mature females, describing the relationship between oogonia, primary oocytes, secondary oocytes, and chromosome number.

Oogonia (46 chrom, 2 chromatids), mitosis before birth -> primary oocyte (46, 2) meiotic arrest until puberty -> secondary oocyte (23,2) second meiosis completed after fertilization(ovum 23, 1)

Hypercortisol symptoms

Osteoporosis, hyperglycemia, high blood pressure, immunosuppressive, obesity in trunk and face but skinny arms and legs

List the relevant structures of the female reproductive system and describe the function of each

Ovary (oogenesis and steroid productions) fallopian tube(duct), uterus, vag cervix

Explain the one cause common to all situations in which a patient has a goiter

Overstimulation of TSH receptors (also happens if I deficiency)

List the two major hormones secreted from the posterior pituitary gland, and explain the general mechanism by which they are released into the blood.

Oxytocin and vasopressin, action potentials cause their exocytosis from the post pit

List the actions of estrogen and progesterone at puberty and in adult females.

Puberty: stops growth spurt, develops generals and tits and pelvic widening, fat distribution. In adults, estrogen helps follicle development and progrsterk e decreAses it

List the physiological effects of the sympathetic nervous system and epinephrine secreted by the adrenal medulla during stress. (See Table 11.4)

Quick source of glucose, increases heart rate, diverts blood to where you need it, increased lung ventilation

List 3 general categories of factors that influence hormone secretion And give examples

Secretion depends on 1 ions and nutrients , 2 neurotransmitters , and 3 hormones

List 4 general influences on the hypothalamus that initiate endocrine signaling by way of the pituitary gland.

Sensory receptors (pain, temp), emotions, special senses (light v dark), blood conditions (glucose conc)

Describe the basic anatomy of long bones, and explain how growth in girth and linear dimensions occurs.

Shaft and epiphyseal plates.elongation occurs at ephiphysis.

Detail the changes in the uterine lining that occur during a 28-day menstrual cycle, correlating them to follicular events and hormone levels. (Fig 17.23)

Slowly ramps up in follicular phase because of rising estrogen, and it's really living its best life during the luteal phase because of all then progesterone and estrogen

Describe the development of sperm from the spermatogonia to mature sperm

Spermatogonia (46 chrome, 2 chromatids) do mitosis -> primary spermatocytes (46, 2) do meiosis-> secondary (23,2) do meiosis -> spermatids (23, 1) -> sperm (23,1)

Explain the fate of the granulosa and theca cells of the dominant follicle following ovulation.

Stay in ovary while 2o oocyte is sucked into tubes

List the effects of IGF-1 on target tissues like bone, and on secretion from the hypothalamus/pituitary.

Stimulates bone differentiation, does negative feedback on the Ant pit and hypothalamus hormones

List in detail the steps involved in thyroid hormone synthesis and release that are stimulated by TSH binding to follicle cells. (See Fig 11.21)

TSH binds to thyroid to stimulate this. I is transported from ISF to cell with Na, diffuses to lumen of follicle, gets attached to tyrosine to make either DIT or MIT, another DIT or MIT is added, thyroglobulin containing T3 or 4 is excocytosed and released into the outer part of the follicle, from which it is secreted to the body

List the relevant structures of the male reproductive system and describe the function of each.

Testes (sperm prod, gametes), epidydimus (sperm storage), vans defense and penis(ducts), seminal vesicles (prostaglandins), prostate (clotting factors)

Describe the gross anatomical and cellular location where spermatogenesis occurs, and explain the significance of temperature for this process.

Testes, lower temp better for Sperm, final maturation happens in female tract

What determines regulation of receptors?

The concentration of hormone in the blood. High concentration means down regulation.

Define Sensitivity

The ease with which a chemical activates or binds to a receptor (more receptors makes binding easier)

Explain how thyroid hormone, insulin, sex steroids, and cortisol affect growth.

Thyroid helps synth GH and does bone growth, insulin transports food, sex steroids do GH and IGF1 production but prolonged exposure fuses plates, cortisol decalcifies bones, inhibits IGF1

Categorize the protein, amine, and steroid hormones in terms of whether their chemical nature is mainly hydrophilic or hydrophobic

Thyroids and steroids are LIPOPHILLIC, catecholamines and prot hormones are hydrophilic

Explain the location of the blood-testes barrier, and state why it is important for male reproductive physiology.

Tight junctions in Sertoli cells make sure immune system doesn't go after it

List some of the factors defined physiologically as "stress."

Trauma, exercise, heat/cold, starvation, sleep deprivation, strong emotions, infection, low O supply

Differentiate between the structure of thyroxine and triiodothyronine, and explain the difference in their secretion rate and potency

Triiodothyronine is T3, composed of a DIT and a MIT, it's the most active form. Thyroxine is T4, composed of two DITs, is the greater amount in circulation, and gets converted to T3 in target tissues

Define the terms "tropic" and "trophic" as they describe hormonal effects

Tropic is a hormone that stimulates the release of another hormone, TroPHic is a hormone that affects growth of glands or tissues

Define upregulation and downregulation

Up regulation is the increase of hormone receptors in a cell, down regulation istheopposite

Describe and explain the following important characteristics of hormone receptors: permissiveness

hormone regulates another hormones receptors(ex thyroid and epinephrine together release fatty acids but not alone)