Unit 2 - World History Honors

Hagia Sophia

"Holy Wisdom" in Greek. A church of the same name had been destroyed in riots that swept Constantinople in 532. When Justinian rebuilt Hagia Sophia, many visitors hailed it as the most splendid church in the Christian world.

Genghis Khan

"universal ruler" of the Mongol clans. Over the next 21 years, Genghis led the Mongols in conquering much of Asia. His first goal was China. After invading the northern Jin Empire in 1211, however, his attention turned to the Islamic region west of Mongolia. Angered by the murder of Mongol traders and an ambassador at the hands of the Muslims, Genghis launched a campaign of terror across Central Asia. The Mongols destroyed one city after another—Utrar Samarkand, Bukhara and slaughtered many inhabitants. By 1225, Central Asia was under Mongol control.

Ivan the Great

(1462-1505) built framework for absolute rule, Czar -Married Byzantine emperor's niece to emphasize Russia's role as heir

Vladimir I

(980-1015) converted the kingdom of Byzantine to Christianity, he also set pattern for close ties between church and state

Ivan the Terrible

-grandson of Ivan the Great -further centralized

Joan of Arc

A French military leader of the fifteenth century, a national heroine who at the age of seventeen took up arms to establish the rightful king on the French throne. She claimed to have heard God speak to her in voices. Joan of Arc is a saint of the Roman Catholic Church.

Hundred Years War

A war between France and England that lasted from the middle of the fourteenth century to the middle of the fifteenth. The kings of England invaded France, trying to claim the throne.

Treaty of Verdun

A year before Charlemagne died in 814, he crowned his only surviving son, Louis the Pious, as emperor. Louis was a devoutly religious man but an ineffective ruler. He left three sons: Lothair, Charles the Bald and Louis the German. They fought one another for control of the Empire. In 843, the brothers signed the Treaty of Verdun, dividing the empire into three kingdoms. As a result, Carolingian kings lost power and central authority broke down. The lack of strong rulers led to a new system of governing and landholding—feudalism.

Canon Law

All medieval Christians, kings and peasants alike, were subject to canon law, or Church law, in matters such as marriage and religious practices. The Church also established courts to try people accused of violating canon law. Two of the harshest punishments that offenders faced were excommunication and interdict.

Charlemagne

An imposing figure, he stood six feet four inches tall. His admiring secretary, a monk named Einhard, described Charlemagne's achievements: Charlemagne built an empire greater than any known since ancient Rome. Each summer he led his armies against enemies that surrounded his kingdom. He fought Muslims in Spain and tribes from other Germanic kingdoms. He conquered new lands to both the south and the east. Through these conquests, Charlemagne spread Christianity. He reunited western Europe for the first time since the Roman Empire.

Parliament

Another important step toward democratic government came during the rule of the next English king, Edward I. Edward needed to raise taxes for a war against the French, the Welsh, and the Scots. In 1295, Edward summoned two burgesses (citizens of wealth and property) from every borough and two knights from every county to serve as a parliament, or legislative group. In November 1295, knights, burgesses, bishops, and lords met together at Westminster in London. This is now called the Model Parliament because its new makeup (com- moners, or non-nobles, as well as lords) served as a model for later kings. Over the next century, from 1300 to 1400, the king called the knights and burgesses whenever a new tax was needed. In Parliament, these two groups gradually formed an assembly of their own called the House of Commons. Nobles and bishops met separately as the House of Lords. Under Edward I, Parliament was in part a royal tool that weakened the great lords. As time went by, Parliament became strong. Like the Magna Carta, it provided a check on royal power.

Carolingian Dynasty

At his death, Charles Martel passed on his power to his son, Pepin the Short. Pepin wanted to be king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of the Church, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombard's, who had invaded central Italy and threatened Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin "king by the grace of God." Thus began the Carolingian Dynasty, the family that would rule the Franks from 751 to 987.

Anglo-Saxons

By the early 800s, small Anglo-Saxon kingdoms covered the former Roman province of Britain. In Europe, the decline of the Carolingian Empire in the 900s left a patchwork of feudal states controlled by local lords. Gradually, the growth of towns and villages, and the breakup of the feudal system were leading to more centralized government and the development of nations. The earliest nations in Europe to develop a strong unified government were England and France. Both would take similar paths.

Bubonic Plague

During the 1300s an epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Approximately one-third of the population of Europe died of the deadly disease known as the bubonic plague. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it ripped apart the very fabric of society. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described its effect: The plague began in Asia. Traveling trade routes, it infected parts of Asia, the Muslim world, and Europe. In 1347, a fleet of Genoese merchant ships arrived in Sicily carrying bubonic plague, also known as the Black Death. It got the name because of the purplish or blackish spots it produced on the skin. The disease swept through Italy. From there it followed trade routes to Spain, France, Germany, England, and other parts of Europe and North Africa.

Japanese Federalism

For most of the Heian period, the rich Fujiwara family held the real power in Japan. By about the middle of the 11th century, however, the power of the central government and the Fujiwaras began to slip. Large landowners living away from the capital set up private armies. The countryside became lawless and dangerous. Armed soldiers on horseback preyed on farmers and travelers, and pirates took control of the seas. For safety, farmers and small landowners traded parts of their land to strong warlords in exchange for protection. With more land, the lords gained more power. This marked the beginning of a feudal system of localized rule like that of ancient China and medieval Europe.

Pax Mongolia

From the mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, the Mongols imposed stability and law and order across much of Eurasia. The Mongols guaranteed safe passage for trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from one end of the empire to another. Also known as Mongol Peace

Justinian Code

Having unified the two empires, Justinian set up a panel of legal experts to regulate Byzantium's increasingly complex society. The panel combed through 400 years of Roman law. It found a number of laws that were outdated and contradictory. The panel created a single, uniform code known as this

Charles Montel

He extended the Franks' reign to the north, south, and east. He also defeated Muslim raiders from Spain at the Battle of Tours in 732. This battle was highly significant for Christian Europeans. If the Muslims had won, western Europe might have become part of the Muslim Empire. Charles Martel's victory at Tours made him a Christian hero.

Clovis

He would bring Christianity to the region. According to legend, his wife, Clothilde, had urged him to convert to her faith, Christianity. In 496, Clovis led his warriors against another Germanic army. Fearing defeat, he appealed to the Christian God. "For I have called on my gods," he prayed, "but I find they are far from my aid. . . . Now I call on Thee. I long to believe in Thee. Only, please deliver me from my enemies." The tide of the battle shifted and the Franks won. Afterward, Clovis and 3,000 of his warriors asked a bishop to baptize them.

Magna Carta

Henry was succeeded first by his son Richard the Lion- Hearted, hero of the Third Crusade. When Richard died, his younger brother John took the throne. John ruled from 1199 to 1216. He failed as a military leader, earning the nickname John Softsword. John lost Normandy and all his lands in northern France to the French under Philip Augustus. This loss forced a confrontation with his own nobles. Some of John's problems stemmed from his own personality. He was cruel to his subjects and tried to squeeze money out of them. He alienated the Church and threatened to take away town charters guaranteeing self-government. John raised taxes to an all-time high to finance his wars. His nobles revolted. On June 15, 1215, they forced John to agree to the most celebrated document in English history, the Magna Carta (Great Charter). This document, drawn up by English nobles and reluctantly approved by King John, guaranteed certain basic political rights. The nobles wanted to safeguard their own feudal rights and limit the king's powers. In later years, however, English people of all classes argued that certain clauses in the Magna Carta applied to every citizen. Guaranteed rights included no taxation without representation, a jury trial, and the protection of the law. The Magna Carta guaranteed what are now considered basic legal rights both in England and in the United States.

Capetian Dynasty

Hugh Capet began the Capetian dynasty of French kings that ruled France from 987 to 1328. Hugh Capet, his son, and his grandson all were weak rulers, but time and geography favored the Capetians. Their territory, though small, sat astride important trade routes in northern France. For 300 years, Capetian kings tightened their grip on this strategic area. The power of the king gradually spread outward from Paris. Eventually, the growth of royal power would unite France.

Shogun

In 1192, the emperor gave a Minamoto leader named Yoritomo the title of shogun, or "supreme general of the emperor's army." In effect, the shogun had the powers of a military dictator.

Estates-General

In France, the Church leaders were known as the First Estate, and the great lords as the Second Estate. The commoners, wealthy landholders or mer- chants, that Philip invited to participate in the council became known as the Third Estate. The whole meeting was called the Estates-General. Like the English Parliament in its early years, the Estates-General helped to increase royal power against the nobility. Unlike Parliament, however, the Estates- General never became an independent force that limited the king's power. However, centuries later, the Third Estate would play a key role in overthrowing the French monarchy during the French Revolution.

Noble/Lord

In exchange for military protection and other services, a lord, or landowner, granted land called a fief.

Franks

In the Roman province of Gaul (mainly what is now France and Switzerland), a Germanic people called the Franks held power. Their leader was Clovis .

Yuan Dynasty

It lasted less than a century, until 1368, when it was overthrown. However, the Yuan era was an important period in Chinese history for several reasons. First, Kublai Khan united China for the first time in more than 300 years. For this he is considered one of China's great emperors. Second, the control imposed by the Mongols across all of Asia opened China to greater foreign contacts and trade. Finally, Kublai and his successors tolerated Chinese culture and made few changes to the system of government.

Normans

Normandy is a region in the north of France that had been conquered by the Vikings. Its name comes from the French term for the Vikings—North men, or Norman. The Normans were descended from the Vikings, but they were French in language and in culture. As King Edward's cousin, William claimed the English crown and invaded England with a Norman army.

Phillip II

One of the most powerful Capetians was Philip II, called Philip Augustus, who ruled from 1180 to 1223. As a child, Philip had watched his father lose land to King Henry II of England. When Philip became king at the age of 15, he set out to weaken the power of the English kings in France. Philip was crafty, unprincipled, and willing to do whatever was necessary to achieve his goals. Philip had little success against Henry II or Henry's son, Richard the Lion Hearted. However, when King John, Richard's brother, gained the English throne, it was another matter. Philip earned the name Augustus (from the Latin word meaning "majestic"), probably because he greatly increased the territory of France. He seized Normandy from King John in 1204 and within two years had gained other territory. By the end of Philip's reign, he had tripled the lands under his direct control. For the first time, a French king had become more powerful than any of his vassals. Philip II not only wanted more land, he also wanted a stronger central government. He established royal officials called bailiffs. They were sent from Paris to every district in the kingdom to preside over the king's courts and to collect the king's taxes.

Common Law

Over the centuries, case by case, the rulings of England's royal judges formed a unified body of law that became known as common law. Today the principles of English common law are the basis for law in many English-speaking countries, including the United States.

Pepin the Short

Pepin wanted to be king. He shrewdly cooperated with the pope. On behalf of the Church, Pepin agreed to fight the Lombards, who had invaded central Italy and threatened Rome. In exchange, the pope anointed Pepin "king by the grace of God."

Pope Urban II

Pope Urban II also read that letter. Shortly after this appeal, he issued a call for what he termed a "holy war," a Crusade, to gain control of the Holy Land. Over the next 300 years, a number of such Crusades were launched.

Sacraments

Priests and other clergy administered the sacraments, or important religious ceremonies. These rites paved the way for achieving salvation. For example, through the sacrament of baptism, people became part of the Christian community.

Bushido

Samurai lived according to a demanding code of behavior called Bushido, or "the way of the warrior." A samurai was expected to show reckless courage, reverence for the gods, fairness, and generosity toward those weaker than himself. Dying an honorable death was judged more important than living a long life.

Serf

Serfs were people who could not lawfully leave the place where they were born. Though bound to the land, serfs were not slaves. Their lords could not sell or buy them. But what their labor produced belonged to the lord.

Samurai

Since wars between rival lords were commonplace, each lord surrounded himself with a bodyguard of loyal warriors called samurai (Samurai means "one who serves.").

Lay Investiture

The Church was not happy that kings, such as Otto, had control over clergy and their offices. It especially resented the practice of lay investiture, a ceremony in which kings and nobles appointed church officials. Whoever controlled lay investiture held the real power in naming bishops, who were very influential clergy that kings sought to control. Church reformers felt that kings should not have that power. In 1075, Pope Gregory VII banned lay investiture.

The Mongols

The Mongols of the Asian steppe lived their lives on the move. They prided themselves on their skill on horseback, their discipline, their ruthlessness, and their courage in battle. They also wanted the wealth and glory that came with conquering mighty empires. This desire soon exploded into violent conflict that transformed Asia and Europe forever

Middle Ages

The gradual decline of the Roman Empire ushered in an era of European history called the Middle Ages, or the medieval period. It spanned the years from about 500 to 1500. During these centuries, a new society slowly emerged. It had roots in: (1) the classical heritage of Rome, (2) the beliefs of the Roman Catholic Church, and (3) the customs of various Germanic tribes.

Hugh Capet

The kings of France, like those of England, looked for ways to increase their power. After the breakup of Charlemagne's empire, French counts and dukes ruled their lands independently under the feudal system. By the year 1000, France was divided into about 47 feudal territories. In 987, the last member of the Carolingian family Louis the Sluggard died. Hugh Capet, an undistinguished duke from the middle of France, succeeded him. The Capet family ruled only a small territory, but at its heart stood Paris.

Manor

The manor was the lord's estate. During the Middle Ages, the manor system was the basic economic arrangement. The manor system rested on a set of rights and obligations between a lord and his serfs. The lord provided the serfs with housing, farmland, and protection from bandits. In return, serfs tended the lord's lands, cared for his animals, and performed other tasks to maintain the estate. Peasant women shared in the farm work with their husbands. All peasants, whether free or serf, owed the lord certain duties. These included at least a few days of labor each week and a certain portion of their grain.

Marco Polo

The most famous European to visit China in these years He traveled by caravan on the Silk Roads with his father and uncle, arriving at Kublai Khan's court around 1275. Polo had learned several Asian languages in his travels,and Kublai Khan sent him to various Chinese cities on government missions. Polo served the Great Khan well for 17 years. In 1292, the Polo's left China and made the long journey back to Venice. Later, during a war against Venice's rival city,Genoa, Marco Polo was captured and imprisoned.In prison he had time to tell the full story of his travels and adventures. To his awed listeners, he spoke of China's fabulous cities, its fantastic wealth, and the strange things he had seen there. He mentioned the burning of "black stones" (coal) in Chinese homes. (Coal as a fuel was little known in Europe.) He also recorded the practical workings of Kublai's government and aspects of Chinese life.

Knights/Vassals

The person receiving a fief was called a vassal in exchange for protecting the land. Knights were mounted horsemen who pledged to defend their lords' lands in exchange for fiefs.

Monastery

To adapt to rural conditions, the Church built religious communities called monasteries. There, Christian men called monks gave up their private possessions and devoted their lives to serving God. Women who followed this way of life were called nuns and lived in convents.

Spanish Inquisition

To unify their country under Christianity and to increase their power, Isabella and Ferdinand made use of the Inquisition. This was a court held by the Church to suppress heresy. Heretics were people whose religious beliefs differed from the teachings of the Church. Many Jews and Muslims in Spain converted to Christianity during the late 1400s. Even so, the inquisitors suspected these Jewish and Muslim converts of heresy. A person suspected of heresy might be questioned for weeks and even tortured. Once suspects confessed, they were often burned at the stake. In 1492, the monarchs expelled all practicing Jews and Muslims from Spain.

Henry II

William the Conqueror's descendants owned land both in Normandy and in England. The English king Henry II added to these holdings by marrying Eleanor of Aquitaine from France. The marriage brought Henry a large territory in France called Aquitaine. He added Aquitaine to the lands in Normandy he had already inherited from William the Conqueror. Because Henry held lands in France, he was a vassal to the French king. But he was also a king in his own right. Henry ruled England from 1154 to 1189. He strengthened the royal courts of justice by sending royal judges to every part of England at least once a year. They collected taxes, settled lawsuits, and punished crimes. Henry also introduced the use of the jury in English courts. A jury in medieval England was a group of loyal people—usually 12 neighbors of the accused—who answered a royal judge's questions about the facts of a case. Jury trials became a popular means of settling disputes. Only the king's courts were allowed to conduct them.

William the Conquer

William's rival was Harold Godwinson, the Anglo-Saxon who claimed the throne. Harold was equally ambitious. On October 14, 1066, Normans and Anglo-Saxons fought the battle that changed the course of English history—the Battle of Hastings. After Harold was killed by an arrow that pierced his eye, the Normans won a decisive victory. After his victory, William declared all England his personal property. William kept about one-fifth of England for himself. The English lords who supported Harold lost their lands. William then granted their lands to about 200 Norman lords who swore oaths of loyalty to him personally. By doing this, William unified control of the lands and laid the foundation for centralized government in England.

King

a male sovereign or monarch; a man who holds by life tenure, and usually by hereditary right, the chief authority over a country and people.

Crusades

a medieval military expedition, one of a series made by Europeans to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims in the 11th, 12th, and 13th centuries.

Slavs

a member of a group of peoples in central and eastern Europe speaking Slavic languages

Czar

a person appointed by government to advise on and coordinate policy in a particular area

Ronin

a wandering samurai who had no lord or master.

Artisans

a worker in a skilled trade, especially one that involves making things by hand.

Fief

an estate of land, especially one held on condition of feudal service.

Emperor Justinian

became emperor in 527 CE and ruled until 565 CE, controlled the military, made laws, was a supreme judge order was not question. His wife Theodora helped him rule the empire and convinced him to give women more rights

Pastoralists

herded domesticated animals

Daimyo

one of the great lords who were vassals of the shogun.

Clergy

the body of all people ordained for religious duties, especially in the Christian Church.

Great Schism

the division or conflict in the Roman Catholic Church from 1378 to 1417, when there were rival popes at Avignon and Rome. also called Schism of the West. the separation of the Eastern Church from the Western Church, traditionally dated 1054.

Byzantine Empire

the empire in southeastern Europe and Asia Minor formed from the eastern part of the Roman Empire. It ended with the loss of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.

Kublai Klan

the grandson of Genghis Khan, assumed the title Great Khan in 1260. In theory, the Great Khan ruled the entire Mongol Empire. In reality, the empire had split into four khanates. Other descendants of Genghis ruled Central Asia, Persia, and Russia as semi-independent states. So, Kublai focused instead on extending the power and range of his own khanate, which already included Mongolia, Korea, Tibet, and northern China. To begin, however, he had to fulfill the goal of his grandfather to conquer all of China.

Chivalry

the medieval knightly system with its religious, moral, and social code.

Secular

worldly, power involved in politics.