UNIT 3
What is a reliquary, and why was it important to the Church of Sainte-Foy?
A reliquary is a container, often ornate and made with costly materials, that holds the relics of a saint. In this reliquary, for Sainte Foy (Faith), the reliquary at Conques held the remains of Saint Foy. She was a 12 year old Christian convert living in Roman-occupied France during the second century who was condemned to die for her refusal to sacrifice to pagan gods. Her remains were some of the most revered in France, so many pilgrims on their way to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain would stop here, since it was on their way and was an important pilgrimage church in its own right.
Who was Albrecht Durer?
Albrecht Durer, of Nuremberg in what is now Germany, was the leading artist in the Holy Roman Empire during the 16th century. He also wrote extensively on a variety of subjects related to art, traveling widely, including to Italy. He was the first artist outside Italy to become "famous," and his prolific production of art and high energy enabled him to leave a deep mark on the history of European art.
What theological perspective does the print, Allegory of Law and Grace show?
Allegory of Law and Grace visually depicts Luther's theology. One of the most basic and critical points was the concept of salvation through faith and God's grace. Luther's theology rejected the premise that "good works," could play any role in attaining salvation. In Allegory of Law and Grace a tree divides the picture plane into regions, the left "law" side and the right "grace/Gospel" side, which contrast the roles each play and the defines their relationships.
Who commissioned Brunelleschi to design this Pazzi chapel, and what other architects were involved in its design? How was this chapel used?
Andrea de' Pazzi in 1429 commissioned Brunelleschi to build the chapel, but the construction continued after Brunelleschi's death in 1446. Another architect likely designed and built the atrium/narthex, which is supported by six Corinthian columns placed next to the central arch. The chapel was used as the chapter house by Santa Croce friars.
Who was the viceroy who commissioned the Codex Mendoza, and who were the artists commissioned?
Around 1541, Antonio de Mendoza, who was the first viceroy of New Spain, commissioned a codex from indigenous artists—coming from a long Nahuatl literate tradition.
What significance does the Delphic Sybil have in its larger physical context?
Around the edges of the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel, interspersed between the webs and pendentives are twelve prophetic figures all representing the coming of Christ. Seven of these are Old Testament Prophets, and the remaining five are the female Sibyls of the Classical World. The alternating male and female figures are seated on thrones and are portrayed with books or scrolls. It is interesting to note that the Classical Sibyls were included to symbolize that the Messiah was to come for all the people of the world and not just the Jews
How is the number eight used both structurally and symbolically in San Vitale?
As seen here, the church is formed by two concentric octagons, the center one rising an additional level to form a clerestory and an octagonal roof. Eight was an important number in early Christian symbolism, representing the number of days from the Triumphal Entry, the beginning of the Passion Week, to Easter Sunday, when Jesus rose from the dead, which can by extension be interpreted as the number symbolizing hope and the strength of God's covenant with us.
How were light and color originally used in the interior of the Hagia Sophia?
Because of the use of pendentives, the dome is lifted from the base, allowing windows to be installed and light to flood inside, called "a golden chain from heaven," by Procopius. It originally was filled with multicolored mosaics, paintings, and stone facing.
How is the west façade of Chartres Cathedral important?
Chartres' extensive cycle of portal sculpture remains fully intact, and the west façade has been known as the Royal Portal. It is the oldest of the three portals at Chartres. It was carved by 1150, and one of the portals at the cathedral at St. Denis was the model for these sculptures and reliefs. The central portal depicts the Last Judgment, with Christ in the center of the tympanum and surrounded by the symbols of the Four Evangelists. But this portrayal of Christ is unique in cathedral sculpture, because it seems to express both His divinity and humanity.
How was this sculpture revolutionary and pivotal in the development of Renaissance style?
Donatello sculpted the first freestanding nude since ancient times. He reinvented the Classical nude by infusing a Biblical figure with Classical overtones. He uses the contrapposto posture that gives the figure a relaxed, natural stance, and he infuses the ideal proportions of Classical Greek sculpture. He had made an earlier sculpture of David as well, as a symbol of Florentine strength against invaders. This symbol of Florence as David, the young hero of the Biblical narrative of the fight between the giant, Goliath, and the youth, David, was a popular way for Florentines to identify themselves. The Medici also commissioned another sculpture of David from Verrocchio at a later date, to further strengthen this symbolism.
What does this miniature painting of St. Luke from the Lindisfarne Gospels depict, what stylistic influences are present, and who was the artist?
Eadfrith's portraits of the Evangelists comes first in the sequence of decorated pages introducing each Evangelist's Gospel, and this example is of St. Luke. He is shown writing on a scroll (as opposed to St. Matthew, who is writing in a codex), with Luke's symbol, the ox, hovering above him with a green book, indicating the Divine inspiration for St. Luke's Gospel. He is bearded and wrapped in a Roman style garment, showing influence of both the Classical styles as well as the more linear and abstract Hiberno-Saxon style. Eadfrith is a sophisticated artist of both representational works as well as the highly abstracted cross-carpet pages and text illuminations.
What is the media of encaustic, and what does the process and history of encaustic work entail?
Encaustic is pigment that has been mixed into melted wax (generally beeswax), which is painted by heating the wax until it is liquid. It is a very sturdy medium, allowing the works to survive longer than many other media. It was a continuation of the Egyptian encaustic painting method (such as the Faiyum funerary portraits). And it is from the St. Catherine monastery at Mount Sinai, which was a locus of art and learning in the early centuries AD. Despite the use of encaustic, a very permanent media, very few icons from this period have survived. This is due to the iconoclastic controversy that rocked the eastern empire, in which individual works and entire structures were destroyed because of the belief that sacred images broke the second commandment. The history of Byzantine art is very fragmentary before the 9th century because of this widespread destruction.
What was one of the diseases afflicting patients to whom this hospital attended?
Ergotism was a common, but terrifying disease. It is this disease that was called Saint Anthony's Fire, and was portrayed in the fully open right panel of the triptych in the panel depicting the Temptation of Saint Anthony.
Who was Fra Filippo Lippi?
Fra Filippo Lippi was an orphan who became a friar when he was young. But he was by all accounts unsuited to monastic life. He had difficulties with the law, including forgery and embezzlement, and in the end, he kidnapped a nun named Lucretia, who later became his mistress and the mother of his son (who also became a painter, Filippino Lippi). Without the intervention of the Medici, he would have been utterly ruined by his behavior, but he managed to maintain his livelihood.
What parts of the Great Mosque of Cordoba can be seen of it at a distance?
From this view, the outer walls and the bell tower (which conceals the original minaret) are evident. Additionally, the addition of the 16th century cathedral, which was built into the structure of the mosque can be seem in silhouette against the skyline.
What is the location of the Last Supper?
Leonardo painted one of the most striking and memorable works for the refectory of the Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan.
How it the Church of Sainte-Foy related to the pilgrimages of the Romanesque period?
From this view, the pilgrim would have almost arrived at one of the most important pilgrimage churches en route to Santiago de Compostela in Northern Spain, the ultimate pilgrimage destination. Different roads ran through France to assist pilgrims in their journey, and many churches were built along these roads to create intermediate pilgrimage sites. This made the ownership of relics an important part of the survival for a village or abbey. In the case of Sainte Foy's relics, Conques stole them from another church. This was often excused by the thieves stating that the saint had asked them to move them.
What about Botticelli's style appealed in particular to the secular leaders of Florence?
He did not seek scientific accuracy in anatomy and perspective, but rather bent any rules necessary to communicate both the elegance and theatricality of this story. The lines and colors are crisp and clear, but also very lyrical---almost flowing, which appealed to the wealthy leaders of Florence. The female nude was also not known since Classical times, so using a Classical myth, that of Venus's birth, was an appropriate subject in which to apply this innovation.
Why did Sinan the Great move away from the segmented-style mosques?
He wanted to move away from the segmented-style mosques that did not exhibit the degree of monumentality and unity that he wanted, so he used the central plan, as in Hagia Sophia. In this way, the mihrab on the wall that faced Mecca, was visible from almost anywhere within the mosque.
Whose student had Titian been?
He was the student of Giorgione and Bellini, both who explored the expression of poetry in painting, creating works of mystery and mood. Titian continued this approach, although his works are less ambiguous than his former master's, Giorgione.
How are the images in the Golden Haggadah "read," and what does it depict?
Hebrew is written from right to left, so the Golden Haggadah opens from the right., and even the images have a different flow. In the four panels, beginning at the upper right, are the plagues, first of frogs, then in the upper left, of lice, and then the bottom right is a grievous "arov" in which beasts attack pharaoh, and the bottom left shows animals dying and dead.
How is this Bruegel's work significant in the history of European art?
His work is significant in the history of Western art by raising the importance of landscape painting as its own genre, rather than only used as a backdrop for other subjects.
What earlier structure was influential in the design of the façade of Il Gesu, and what other work was influential in its interior design of space? What does the style of the interior of Il Gesu express in its choices of Classical motifs and highly emotional spirituality?
Il Gesu owes a debt to the influence of Alberti's Santa Maria Novella in Florence for its façade. Niches on the façade hold statues, and the entire façade has a unified, harmonious effect. The interior owes a debt to Alberti's Sant' Andrea in Mantua in its interior design of space. The interior of the church, in typical Counter-reformation style, uses Classical motifs and even possibly repurposed Classical pilasters, but expressing a new and highly emotional Christian impact.
What does the term, moralized Bible mean, and who commissioned this and for whom?
In a moralized Bible, each Biblical scene is paired with another describing its moral visually. Textual summaries of the scriptures are provided on either side of the images to explain them. It is highly likely that these books were used for instruction by personal chaplains who served as tutors. The manuscript in which this illumination is found was also probably commissioned by Blanche of Castile, but in this case, as a wedding gift for Marguerite of Provence in 1234.
For what purpose was the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France painted?
In the dedication page of the manuscript commissioned by Blanche of Castile for her teenage son, Louis IX, during her regency (when she ruled until he was old enough) we see the flowering of Gothic book illumination. Those books commissioned by the monarchy are among the most sumptuous.
What does the Theodora mosaic depict, and what was its purpose?
In the mosaic of Theodora, the Empress of the Byzantine Empire, she also dressed in purple as her husband was in his own mosaic. Her mosaic sits directly across from Justinian's, showing both rulers proceeding toward Christ. Both mosaics are a means of showing honor to the newly built church, as well as advertising the right of the Emperor and Empress to rule. As they show their submission to Christ, so they also show that Christ recognizes them as the rulers of Ravenna and the Byzantine Empire.
What does the image from the Golden Haggadah that includes the Passover depict?
In the upper right, Miriam and the other women begin their song, taking up the timbrel and celebrating their freedom. On the upper left, the scene is shown of the master of the house buying unleavened bread (Matzoh) and sweet paste of fruit and nuts (Charoset) for the Passover. In the lower right the figures are looking for leavening in the house by candlelight, and in the lower left, a man is slaughtering a sheep on the ground, while two are hanging, dead, one already skinned and another being skinned. In the same panel to the left is a man washing the dishes.
On what ideas and theories did Durer base his portrayal of the human figure?
In this engraving, Durer first applied Vitruvius' theory on human proportions (which relate to arithmetical ratios), in contrapposto poses. These are the "ideal" human figures, and were the basis for Durer's "perfect man" and "perfect woman" studies.
In what way does Raphael represent the Classical world and the idea of philosophy as a means to seek truth in this fresco of the School of Athens?
In this fresco, Raphael portrays the great philosophers, mathematicians, and scientists from the Classical world, grouping them according to the topics of their discussion, such as in the center, Plato and Aristotle each hold their treatises while Plato points upward (representing his philosophies), and Aristotle points to the earth, which represents his source of insight as observations of the natural world.
Who is depicted in the icon of the Theotokos and Child?
In this icon, the Theotokos is holding the infant Christ, and gazing forward in a serene pose. They are flanked by the saints Theodore and George, and behind them, two angels look upward to heaven.
What does the interior of Chartres Cathedral reveal about the structure?
In this image, the nave is seen with the rib and panel vault above. The pointed arches line the nave on either side. The nave is also wider than that of any other cathedral in France (52 feet), and in the center of the nave is a circular maze pattern in the floor with 320 yards of winding shapes
What is depicted in the image looking from the apse in the image of San Vitale?
In this image, the view is from the apse looking back across the nave of San Vitale. It is clear that this is not a basilica, but a centrally-planned design. It has eight piers that alternate with curving exedrae (small rooms or niches) with columned openings.
What is portrayed in the miniature called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, and how is linear perspective used in this example?
In this miniature, several events of the story leading up to and following Jacob Wrestling with the Angel are shown, including the procession of Jacob, his wives, and sons walking on the path, then crossing the bridge, which curls around to allow the narrative to fit into the space provided. The perspective is not rational, linear perspective, but skewed to fit story and communicate ideas
What techniques were used to create the Merovingian looped fibulae?
In this pair of Frankish fibulae, the technique of cloisonné is used, which involved inlaying semi-precious stones and glass into partitioned (the French meaning of cloisonné) areas of metal, creating colorful effects. To produce this, wires were soldered onto a metal base, and the separate areas were filled semi-precious stones or with glass (which was then heated to fuse the glass).
What does the plan of the Great Mosque of Cordoba depict, and in what ways is the structure different from a cathedral structure?
In this plan, the difference in structure of the mosque from the cathedral is apparent. This work contains a columned hall—called a hypostyle hall. There is also a large courtyard filled with trees and a fountain. The Umayyad caliphate imported many items that were from the lands that had originally been under their control, including from their homeland in Baghdad. Some of these items included orange and palm trees.
What else, besides the two concentric octagons, can be seen in the plan of San Vitale?
In this plan, the long horizontal oblong at the top shows the narthex (entrance) to the church, entering into the outer aisle that surrounds the central octagonal nave. The apse is opposite the main entrance, and a semicircular extension flanked by two circular sacristy.
In what way does the expression of this work reveal the humanist ideals of the Renaissance?
In this series of works, Raphael uses two frescos to represent Truth, one using theology and one philosophy, which is this work. That both means of understanding are compatible expresses the Renaissance humanist view.
How did Alberti design this façade?
In this work, Alberti organized the façade and built over three houses from the medieval period, making the structure seem lighter in weight toward the top than the lowest floor, which has smaller windows and has a more austere approach. Flat pilasters supporting full entablatures delineate each story on the palazzo. On the first floor, he used Tuscan pilasters, on the second floor, pilasters using a composite of ionic and Corinthian, and for the third floor, Corinthian pilasters
Why is the Venus of Urbino significant in the study of Renaissance painting?
In this work, Titian established the standard for the reclining female that later artists were to emulate and use as inspiration for their own art. The diagonal of her figure is balanced by the diagonal created in the color of red in the lower left corner portraying her couch, and the red of the background woman's red skirt, which also parallels the other colors in the foreground: the white linen and ivory skin, and dark curtain.
What size is the Bayeux Tapestry, and what does it depict?
It is about 20 inches tall and 230 feet long (although some estimate that it was originally 10 feet longer, since the final scenes are not depicted. It narrates the Norman invasion of England in 1066, including the events in the two years that led up to the conquest as well as events following it. In this image, William and his followers eat a sumptuous feast, with poultry served on spits, and everyone getting their fill.
What was the original format of Rebecca and Eliezer in the Vienna Genesis, and what does this scene depict?
It is believed that originally about ninety-six folios and 192 illustrations were included in the manuscript. In this image, we see the meeting of Rebecca and Eliezer at the well, and the spring is shown as a water nymph, showing the influence of classical painting on the artist.
What is the identifying information for the Mosque of Córdoba?
It is the Great Mosque of Córdoba, Spain. Constructed during the Umayyad dynasty c. 785-786 A.D. using stone masonry.
What can be deduced from the miniatures from the Vienna Genesis, based on the process and cost of production?
Manuscript production was a major undertaking, requiring preparation of the animal skin (vellum is usually from goat or sheep), then dyeing the skin purple, writing the calligraphy (in silver ink!), painting the miniatures and binding the manuscript. The patron must have been a very powerful and/or wealthy individual or group.
In what ways did the importance of pilgrimages influence the design of the interior of the Church of Sainte-Foy and other Romanesque cathedrals?
Many churches built in the Romanesque period were specifically pilgrimage churches, holding the relics of a saint, and attracting pilgrims to visit. They were designed to handle large crowds of people navigating through the nave and apse, around the ambulatory with its radiating chapels holding relics (including the reliquary of Sainte Foy), and then out the transept exit.
What kinds of symbolism in The Arnolfini Portrait represent Flemish customs?
Many of the items in the image are also part of the traditional Flemish marriage customs, from the groom offering the bride clogs (seen at the lower left corner), to the single lit candle in the chandelier. Other symbols were added to emphasize spiritual aspects of marriage, including the small dog in the lower center, which was a symbol of fidelity.
What are some of the theories surrounding the style in which Michelangelo portrayed these female figures of the sybils?
Michelangelo portrayed all the female sibyls as muscular and powerful, which shows their strength and importance. Perhaps this was done to communicate their mythological divine status—that they were more than human, or perhaps it was an early statement of the strength and equal importance of women, or perhaps it was simply because Michelangelo's aesthetic sense was so influenced by the sculptural qualities of the figure's muscle and bone, that he enjoyed portraying more masculine qualities in his art, or perhaps it is also because of the availability of models, who were primarily male.
What kind of technical challenges and processes did Michelangelo use to paint the Flood?
Michelangelo worked slowly and laboriously on this scene: there are twenty-nine sections of plaster on the painting of the Flood (indicating the amount of the image that was painted at each time) some sections were possibly plastered by his assistants. Shortly after Michelangelo began painting this fresco, he noticed mold growing on the plaster, which indicated it was drying too slowly. He discovered that for the humid Roman climate, more sand was needed in the plaster. After he began increasing the proportion of sand in the plaster, no more of the frescos had problems.
In what way were works like this connected to the Reformation of Northern Europe?
Northern European art of the Reformation shows the drastic changes in worldview and religious focus that became a part of the political, social, and artistic world of the Reformation.
What kind of text is included in the print, Allegory of Law and Grace, and how is the human figure used to express the dichotomy presented?
On either side of the tree, which is "dead" on the law side, and "alive" on the grace side, a nude figure appears, but on the law side, the figure flees from a tormenting devil, while on the grace side, he receives Christ's sacrifice, and is made whole. Additionally, at the bottom of the panel are six columns of Bible texts, emphasizing the teachings portrayed in the image.
What is portrayed on the Tympanum (the semicircular area above the doors and beneath the arch) on the Church of Sainte-Foy?
On the Last Judgment Tympanum at Conques, is Christ, who sits enthroned, His right hand pointing upward to the saved and His left hand gestures down to the damned.
What does the painting on the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France depict?
On the top tier are Blanche and Louis, each enthroned under their own trefoil (tri-lobed) arch, with miniature towns above the arches. Beneath them are a monk and a younger scribe, with the monk instructing the scribe about creating a book. The scribe works on an illumination on a page that has already been divided into roundels. We can see Blanche in a gesture indicating her own instruction of her son, who listens attentively. This is the dedication page for the Bible that identifies the purpose for the commission and the importance of the book.
What was one of Sinan's goals in designing the Mosque of Selim II? What was one of the remarkable quality of Sinan's work?
One of his goals was to surpass the achievement of the Hagia Sophia, making a dome larger than the one of that monument. Another remarkable quality of Sinan's work is that it integrates not only the square with the dome, but also integrates the octagon with these shapes.
Who was one of Botticelli's major patrons, and to what is his style often compared?
One of the most well-known of the many artists who worked for the Medici was Botticelli. His style has been compared to the allegorical pageants that were often staged in Florence. In this way, we can see how the drama and display of both Classical and medieval styles are fused into a new, dreamlike Renaissance expression.
In what style is the Entombment of Christ painted, and what qualities suggest this?
Pontormo includes all the characteristics of early Mannerist painting, which breaks from the harmonious, rationally structured compositions of the earlier Renaissance. He uses intense, light colors to emphasize the emotional impact, places his figures in a swirling, energetic design, rather than a stable pyramidal format. Instead of having a strong mass in the center of the painting, this area is empty, symbolic of the loss and grief the figures are experiencing. The figures themselves are slightly distorted from a realistic representation, with small heads in proportion to the rest of the body, and each figure is twisting, moving, stepping, or falling dramatically.
What is the function of the Pyxis of al-Mughira, and for whom was it made?
Pyxidae were secular objects (which is the reason for figural elements in the decoration), and often given as gifts to those in the royal household on special occasions. They contained cosmetics and perfumes and were made for both men and women. This work was made for the 19 year old prince, al-Mughira, likely on his coming of age or another important milestone in his life.
Why is there Byzantine architecture in Ravenna, Italy?
Ravenna contains some of the best-preserved Byzantine mosaics and architecture from the early Byzantine period because in 539, Justinian's general Belisarius captured it from the Ostrogoths and made it essentially an extension of Constantinople.
Who were involved in the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels?
Saint Cuthbert was born about the time Aiden established the monastery and later became its most well known bishop, having the Lindisfarne Gospels, which were produced here, dedicated to him. The individuals involved in the creation of the Lindisfarne Gospels were Eadfrith, who succeeded the bishop at Lindisfarne after St. Cuthbert's successor, and who is said to have written the text. His successor, Ethelwald, is said to have bound the book, and the hermit: Billworth, who made the ornate metalwork in gold, jewels and silver for the outer covering, and Aldred, who added the Anglo-Saxon text (the original text was the Latin Vulgate, which was written by Eadfrith).
How was San Vitale named, and what makes it unique in Christian architecture?
San Vitale is named in honor of the 2nd century Saint Vitalis, who was martyred at Ravenna, and the church was dedicated by Bishop Maximus. It is unique in both the architecture of Ravenna from the 6th century as well as among other churches in Italy. It was particularly influential in the group of structures that shape the interior space using octagonal design (particularly in Islamic architecture).
What is significant about the style and subject of Madonna and Child with Two Angels?
Some have speculated that the model for this painting was Lucretia, and the angel turns to give the viewer a mischievous grin as he holds the Christ Child up to His mother. While the scene is very spiritual, it is also very tender, sweet, and intimate, very different from the more symbolic and abstract images of the medieval period and proto-renaissance. He seems to celebrate the tangible world in a delicate, lyrical style, in some ways, much like Botticelli's work.
How does Triumph in the Name of Jesus increase the drama and emotional intensity of the painting?
Some of the artwork literally extends into real space, like stage sets, which is consistent with the theatricality of the work and the drama intended to be part of the experience. Additionally, thin glazes of darker paint enhance shadows on the actual architectural framework in order to increase the illusion of the three-dimensionality and reality of the forms that break the border into real space.
In what cultural context and environment was the Rottgen Pieta made?
The 14th century was a troubled one, with wars, famine, and plague bringing great suffering and death to many. This is the environment in which this work was produced. The suffering of Christ and His mother relate to the environment of intense suffering of those who viewed this work, and who likely found solace in the understanding and pity that Christ had for them, since He had experienced so much pain Himself.
What was the function of the Alhambra, and how did it earn its name?
The Alhambra earned its name because of its reddish walls. The name is an approximation of the Arabic term for red castle. It is located on top of a hill on the left bank of the river Darro, to the west of the city of Grenada, Spain, which was a strategic point, with a view over the whole city and the meadow. The complex is surrounded by ramparts and has an irregular shape.
What is the form of the Bayeux Tapestry, and to what other artforms is it stylisicially related?
The Bayeux Tapestry is not actually a tapestry at all, but a work of wool embroidery on linen. It is closely related stylistically to Romanesque manuscript illumination, and its borders contain images of real and imaginary creatures that can also be found in the books of this period.
What is significant about the Chartres Cathedral?
The Chartres Cathedral, also known as Notre Dame de Chartres, is truly a landmark of Western architecture. It is the exemplary expression of the Gothic style in architecture because it employs all the structural elements that define Gothic architecture, including the pointed arch, the rib-and-panel vault, and particularly, the flying buttresses.
What is some of the important information the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza provides, and how is it portrayed?
The Codex provides information about the pre-conquest Aztec empire and daily life in the early conquest period. In this image, the history and organization of the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan (the place of the prickly pear cactus) is portrayed. The city was built in the middle of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of Mexico in 1325. It shows the physical organization of Tenochtitlan, divided into four triangular sections separated by blue diagonals, representing canals.
What was the function of the Court of the Lions of this area of the Alhambra?
The Court of the Lions is named after the twelve lions that are part of the white marble fountain in the middle of the patio, one of the most important examples of Muslim sculpture. These lion sculptures throw jets of water in the fountain. The large basin rests on top of the twelve lions encircling it. It is at the center of the section of the Alhambra called the Palace of the Lions, in which the sultana and her family, as well as the king's harem lived.
What is the Golden Haggadah, and where was it likely made?
The Golden Haggadah was probably made near Barcelona in about 1320 and is one of the most remarkable surviving Spanish Haggadot manuscripts from the medieval period. The Haggadah, (meaning 'narration') is the Hebrew service-book used in Jewish households on the Passover Eve, to commemorate the Exodus from Egypt at a festive meal filled with meaning. Haggadot are some of the most frequently decorated Jewish prayer books. Used in home celebrations, Haggadot provided ample opportunities for creativity and expression. In the Golden Haggadah, the manuscript includes both the main text and Passover poems that were part of the liturgy in the Spanish rites. The text is also preceded by a cycle of miniature paintings with tooled gold backgrounds.
What design was the original structure of the Hagia Sophia, what does it communicate through this, and what materials were used? What changes have been added to the original structure?
The Hagia Sophia fuses both the longitudinal plan (i.e., basilica), and the vertically oriented central plan (i.e., San Vitale). It is very different from Roman construction, using brick instead of concrete, and expressing the mysticism of the Eastern Christian faith. After the Muslim conquest of Byzantium, four minarets were added, and much of the interior decoration was changed.
For use in what context was the Isenheim altarpiece made?
The Isenheim altarpiece is a triptych of complex construction— built like a cabinet of statues covered by two layers of folding wings. Here we see the large altarpiece closed. The altar was commissioned for the choir of a monastery church adjacent to their hospital.
What is the identifying information for the Isenheim altarpiece, and what is the difference between its closed and open imagery?
The Isenheim altarpiece was painted by Matthias Grunewald. c. 1512-1516 A.D. using oil on wood. When closed, Grunewald portrayed saints who were especially connected to the themes of illness and suffering. St. Anthony is pictured on one wing, St. Sebastian on the other. Using these and the images of the suffering Savior as both a means to comfort and to inspire, since the work was displayed in a church connected to a hospital. When opened, the altarpiece reveals scenes of the risen Christ, the Nativity, and the Annunciation. The scene of the Resurrection is in many ways, a combination of Transfiguration, Resurrection, and Ascension, as Christ is above the ground and hovers over a guard, His glory shining in a huge halo of multiple colors and pure white skin.
What is the significance of the location of the Lindisfarne Gospels?
The Lindisfarne Gospels were made in Northumbria, on Holy Island, which is just off the coast. On this island, an early Christian outpost and monastery were founded in the first half of the 7th century by Saint Aiden, who was a monk from the Columban monastic system (founded by the Irish Saint Columba, or Colum Cille).
In what context was the Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece) meant to be used?
The Merode Altarpiece was made for private devotion within a home setting; with its central panel just 24" square, it could be easily folded and moved when needed. But it was based on the style and format of the larger altarpieces made for churches and chapels.
Who were some of the artists whose work was used to decorate The Sistine Chapel?
The Renaissance artists who contributed work to fill this chapel include Michelangelo Buonarroti, Raphael Sanzio, Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini and Sandro Botticelli.
What is the history of the Sistine Chapel and its decorations?
The Sistine Chapel was built by Pope Sixtus IV in 1475 as the pope's chapel, and the chapel is named in his honor. Shortly after its completion in 1481, Pope Sixtus commissioned many of the finest painters to paint frescos on the walls 30 years before Michelangelo's famous works were commissioned. The ceiling was originally painted by Piero Matteo d'Amelia, whose work was destroyed in the repainting commissioned by Pope Julius II in 1508 from Michelangelo.
What does the image of the hall from the Mosque of Córdoba depict, and what is the significance of these horseshoe style arches to the Great Mosque of Cordoba and beyond?
The Visigoths often used the horseshoe-style arch in the architecture they produced after the Roman Empire collapsed and before the Umayyads entered the picture. Through the conquest and influence of the Umayyads, the horseshoe arch eventually spread across North Africa from Morocco to Egypt. The mosque includes a large hypostyle prayer hall (hypostyle means, filled with columns), as well as a lush courtyard, and a covered walkway that encircles it. A minaret was also added, now encased in a squared, tapered bell tower. The vast hypostyle prayer hall mesmerizes with its repeating geometric patterns. Repurposed ancient Roman columns were used, to which were added two-tiered, symmetrical arches that alternated white stone and red brick.
What is the emphasis in movement of the interior space in the nave of Il Gesu?
The aisles are used to house individual chapels instead of an ambulatory space. The focus is toward the altar. The transepts have also been reduced to large side chapels, rather than extending outward and breaking the forward thrust of the dominant shape of the nave. This strong forward emphasis became the prominent design of Catholic churches.
What symbols and theories influenced Durer's symbolism in this engraving of Adam and Eve?
The animals are symbolic of the four humors, the choleric cat, melancholic elk, sanguine rabbit, and phlegmatic ox that were based on the ancient Greek Hippocrates' theories, but that were expanded by medieval tradition that described the humors as falling out of balance with the Fall. The cat and mouse in the foreground symbolize the predator and the innocent, and this tension also relates the interaction between the two human figures in their Fall into sin.
What does the Justinian mosaic depict, and where is it located?
The back wall of the apse choir contains a mosaic of Christ giving a wreath to Saint Vitalis, and the bishop who began the construction of San Vitale offers a model of the church. The Justinian mosaic is placed on the left wall of the same choir apse, at a right angle to the main mosaic, in many ways continuing the procession of attendants moving toward Christ and the martyred saint. Justinian, the emperor of Byzantium, is portrayed in the center (in purple), holding a paten. The bishop Maximus is to the right, with the gold sash, and he is identified by a label above. There is an ornate border, as well.
What are some stylistic cues that inform the viewer that this is a mosaic based on Byzantine aesthetics, instead of Classical aesthetics?
The blue sky of the real world has been replaced by the golden light of spiritual symbolism, and the figures are weightless, abstract, and very linear, rather than modeled with bodies that occupy real space.
What are some of the important qualities revealed in the plan of the Mosque of Selim II?
The central dome is dominant, and the mihrab, which is at the top center of the dome in this orientation, can be seen pointing to the southeast, toward Mecca. The integration of the square and octagonal base can also be seen clearly, with the half-domes alternating with the shallow alcoves of the flat arched sides.
What is the design of the structure of the Pazzi chapel?
The chapel itself is a rectangular layout containing one square room in the central area, covered by an umbrella-shaped dome, and two sides of the remaining space, each covered by a shallow barrel vault with round windows.
What is seen of the structure of the Hagia Sophia in the plan?
The dome is set in the center (seen in outline), with semispherical domes and smaller domes rolling organically out from the center dome. It is longitudinal in its axis, with a wide narthex that leads to either the nave or the aisles, but the thrust is forward toward the apse opposite the narthex. The clergy were those who celebrated the liturgy in the nave (the central area below the dome), while the laypeople watched from the aisles to either side.
What does this detail on the doors of the Great Mosque of Cordoba depict?
The entries on the outside of the mosque include a door enclosed in a horsehoe arch. In this entry, there are also latticework windows with poly-lobed arches as well as the horseshoe arches.
How large is the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy, what materials does it use, and how did it use spoila?
The face in this reliquary was likely originally the head of a Roman statue of a child. The repurposing of old materials and parts of art and architecture in new forms of art is known as spolia. This reliquary has a wooden core, covered in gold and silver gilt, as well as jewels and cameos, and it 33 ½ inches high.
What is the identifying information for the frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza?
The frontispiece of the Codex Mendoza was commissioned by the Viceroyalty of New Spain. c. 1541-1542 A.D. and made using ink and color on paper.
What social, political, and religious influences impacted the purpose of Merode Altarpiece?
The growing dissatisfaction with the clergy may have been one of the influences leading to the popularity of private devotional altarpieces like this one. When religious works were made for private use, they often integrated the secular and spiritual—in fact, some art historians have noted that the separation was almost eliminated completely. The setting of the Annunciation triptych is an ordinary Flemish house—bringing the Biblical narrative into the contemporary world. On the far left are the donor (Peter Inghelbrecht—whose last name means "angel bringer") and his wife, kneeling in reverence while gazing in through the open door to the scene in the central panel, in which the angel, Gabriel announces the incarnation to Mary.
How was the hall of the sisters named, and where is it located?
The hall of the sisters was named after the two big twin marble flagstones that are part of the floor. The Hall is rectangular and has interlacing ceilings. The lighting in this hall and the dome it contains were carefully planned, receiving light from small lateral windows. Its floor is paved with marble and has a small fountain with a jet and a little channel that carries the water to the Patio of the Lions.
What was the intended purpose of the Codex Mendoza, and how did this intended purpose change?
The intention was to send the Codex to the Spanish King, Emperor Charles V, but it never arrived because it was taken by French pirates enroute.
What are some of the compositional techniques that Leonardo used in the Last Supper?
The long table that is placed horizontally situates Christ and His 12 apostles and creates a stark and dramatic stage for the action Leonardo conveys. Jesus, in the center, has just stated, "One of you is about to betray me." Matt. 26:22, and the reactions of the different disciples show their shock, horror, and confusion. Christ is somewhat isolated, and away from the swirling emotion around Him, yet there is also a sadness and loneliness in His isolation, foreshadowing His suffering yet to come. The disciples are groups in four sets of three. Christ is in the center both proportionally as well as the focal point of the linear perspective used in the design. All receding lines converge on the horizon behind His head.
What does some of the symbolism represent in the Pyxis of al-Mughira?
The ornaments include medallions showing lions eating and attacking bulls, which symbolize victory—likely an allusion to the power and importance of the Umayyad Caliphs in Spain, which were rivals of the Abbasid Caliphate in Baghdad.
In what sequence did Michelangelo paint the Genesis scenes on the ceiling, and what is the symbolism in this painting?
The painting of the Flood was the first of the Genesis scenes that Michelangelo produced on the ceiling. The image the Ark is, of course, The Church is symbolized by the ark, in which the righteous will be saved.
What does the plan from the image set show of the Alhambra, and what does it not show?
The plan focuses on the Nasrid Palaces, while the oldest part of the Alhambra is to the west, and the most recent additions, including the palace of King Charles I is to the south, while additional courtyards and other structures in the Upper Alhambra are to the east-southeast. There are three independent areas in the Nasrid Palaces.
What does the plan of Chartres Cathedral reveal?
The plan of Chartres Cathedral shows its symmetrical and harmonious design. Its wide nave is crossed close to the center with the transept, making the choir and apse larger in proportion to the rest of the structure. It has five radiating chapels along the apse, three larger ones in the center and two smaller ones at either end. The cathedral housed the relic of the tunic of Virgin Mary. Chartres actually has a three-portal layout, which is unique.
Who was the patron for Hunters in the Snow (and the other works in its series), and what tradition does this painting continue?
The series was originally created for a local Antwerp merchant, but only five of the six survive today. The surviving paintings include Hunters in the Snow, The Gloomy Day, The Return of the Herd, Harvesters, and Haymaking, each representing about two months of the year. This series continues the tradition of Late Gothic manuscript art, such as Books of Hours, which depict the different seasons through landscape and the human activities in each of the seasons.
What is the history of the site of the Great Mosque of Córdoba, and what are some of the most striking features it contains now?
The site was originally a pagan temple dedicated to Janus (in Roman times), and then was rebuilt by the Umayyad dynasty. The courtyard contains a fountain and an orange grove. When seen from street level, the outer walls conceal the size of the Mosque by the modest height of its outer walls, which rise only to 40 ft. The building was expanded for over two hundred years.
What does the image of the Liberation from the Golden Haggadah depict?
The top two panels continue the last of the plagues, the death of the firstborn, adding a panel to show their funeral, adding to the importance and impact of this final blow. In the very upper right corner of the right panel, the angel of death is shown. The bottom two panels show, on the right, the pharaoh's cavalry coming after the Hebrews, while the left side shows the same cavalry drowning, with the Hebrews safe from both the water and their attackers. Water is depicted using blue wavy lines in pale and darker shades.
How does the interior structure of the Sistine Chapel influence the design of the frescos it contains?
The unified architectural structure of the chapel's interior facilitates the unified sequence of narrative paintings, rather than separate windows in which images are placed, Three tiers of fresco narrative paintings make up each of the sidewalls. The altar wall, also loosely divided into three tiers, portrays a single narrative of the final judgment, which Michelangelo painted for Pope Paul III decades after he had completed the ceiling.
What does the interior of the Hagia Sophia depict?
The view of the Hagia Sophia dome and its pendentive construction is shown here. The light creates a ring around the base of the dome, making it appear to float on light. Some of the columned aisles are seen, here, as well as some of the remaining interior decoration, including the large discs with Arabic script, added after the Islamic conquest.
What materials and shapes are used in the design of the Pazzi chapel?
The wall opens on a small square apse called scarsella covered in a frescoed dome portraying the sky above Florence. The four terra cotta Evangelists that decorate the pendentives have been attributed to Brunelleschi as well. The interior uses both white stucco walls accented with gray stone trim (pietra serena or "serene stone").
What is the identifying information for the Pazzi Chapel?
This work is entitled the Pazzi Chapel, which is in the Basilica di Santa Croce in Florence, Italy. It was designed by Filippo Brunelleschi c. 1429-1461 A.D. and uses masonry.
What do the three areas of the Nasrid Palaces contain?
There are three independent areas in the Nasrid Palaces. The first is the Mexuar, which was the part used for State affairs and semi-public concerns. It is located on the west side, close to the entrance. The area of the Comares Palace, which is the thick walled square tower at the northernmost point, and stands 45 meters high, the highest tower in the Alhambra. It and the Emperor's Palace to the east were the official residence of the king. The Comares Palace was decorated in a typically Muslim style. The Palace of the Lions (containing the Court/Patio of the Lions with its fountain), which was the private area of the palace for the Harem, was located directly south of the Emperor's palace and connected by the Hall of the Sisters and includes Christian influences in its style.
What symbolism is used in the Merovingian looped fibulae?
These fibulae depict the symbol of the eagle, a popular motif in native north European art, and fish. The top of each fibula is in the shape of an Eagle's head, and they may be repeated in a smaller scale along the bottom and two on the edges. Fish are also depicted on the main body of the brooches, with different partitions for their scales.
What is the identifying information for the Merovingian looped fibulae?
These works are called Merovingian looped fibulae and are from Early medieval Europe. They were made in the mid-sixth century A.D. of silver gilt worked in filigree, with inlays of garnets and other stones.
What is the identifying information for Il Gesu, and for what purpose was Il Gesu founded?
This cathedral is called Il Gesu, and was built in Rome, Italy. The architect who designed the plan of the church was Giacomo da Vignola, and the architect responsible for designing the façade was Giacomo della Porta. It was built in the 16th century A.D of brick, marble, fresco, and stucco. Il Gesu was founded as the mother church of the Jesuit order and is located in the heart of Rome.
What is the identifying information for Triumph of the Name of Jesus, including its location?
This ceiling fresco is called Triumph of the Name of Jesus, and is located in Il Gesù, which is located in Rome, Italy by Giovanni Battista Gaulli between 1676-1679 A.D. The fresco, Triumph in the Name of Jesus is located above the nave, which includes the same initials, IHS, in light with a cross above them in the central area of the painting portraying the light of Heaven.
What is the identifying information about the Last Supper?
This fresco is entitled the Last Supper, and was painted by Leonardo da Vinci. c. 1494-1498 A.D. While it is a fresco, it is painted as a secco fresco using oil and tempera.
What is the identifying information for the School of Athens, and in what context was it made?
This fresco is entitled, School of Athens, and was painted by Raphael in 1509-1511 A.D. Raphael's School of Athens is part of a fresco series for the Pope Julius II private offices and library in the Vatican. He completed four works that each expresses an important category of understanding: Truth, Good and Beauty.
What does the symbolism in The Arnolfini Portrait reveal about culture of the northern Renaissance, particularly the Low Countries?
This integration of the religious sphere and the secular sphere is apparent in Van Eyck's Arnolfini Portrait, in which many religious symbols are used to communicate the ideals of earthly marriage.
What is the identifying information for Chartres Cathedral?
This is Chartres Cathedral, located in Chartres, France. It was built in Gothic Europe. Original construction c. 1145-1155 A.D.; reconstructed c. 1194-1220 A.D., and the materials used were limestone and stained glass.
What is the identifying information for the Golden Haggadah?
This is a miniature from the Golden Haggadah from late medieval Spain. c. 1320 A.D., and is an illuminated manuscript (pigments and gold leaf on vellum.
What is the identifying information for the Alhambra?
This is called the Alhambra, and is located in Granada, Spain. It was built by the Nasrid Dynasty in 1354-1391 A.D. It consists of whitewashed adobe stucco, wood, tile, paint, and gilding.
What is the identifying information for the Bayeux Tapestry?
This is called the Bayeux Tapestry, is English or Norman, and is from Romanesque Europe. c. 1066-1080 A.D. The media is embroidery on linen.
What is the identifying information for Theotokos and Child between Saints?
This is entitled the Virgin (Theotokos) and Child between Saints Theodore and George and was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the sixth or early seventh century A.D. in encaustic on wood.
What is the identifying information for the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France?
This is the Dedication Page with Blanche of Castile and King Louis IX of France. It was made in Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 A.D. and is from an Illuminated manuscript, using ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum.
What is the identifying information for the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy?
This is the Reliquary from the Church of Sainte-Foy in Conques, France. The reliquary itself is from the ninth century A.D., with later additions of gold, silver, gemstones, and enamel over wood.
What is the identifying information for the Sistine Chapel?
This is the Sistine Chapel ceiling and altar wall frescoes, located in Vatican City, Italy. Michelangelo painted the ceiling frescos c. 1508-1512 A.D., and the altar frescos c. 1536-1541 A.D.
What is the identifying information for the St. Matthew cross-carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels?
This is the St. Matthew cross-carpet page from the Lindisfarne Gospels, from Early medieval (Hiberno Saxon) Europe. c. 700 A.D. It is an Illuminated manuscript, made from ink, pigments, and gold on vellum.
What is the identifying information for the Scenes from the Apocalypse?
This miniature is entitled, Scenes from the Apocalypse and is from Bibles moralisées, and made in Gothic Europe. c. 1225-1245 A.D. It is part of an iIlluminated manuscript, using ink, tempera, and gold leaf on vellum.
What is the identifying information for Madonna and Child with Two Angels?
This painting is called Madonna and Child with Two Angels, painted by Fra Filippo Lippi. c. 1465 A.D. in tempera on wood.
What is the identifying information for the Pyxis of al-Mughira?
This work is entitled the Pyxis of al-Mughira, from the Umayyad dynasty. c. 968 A.D. It is made of carved ivory.
What is the identifying information for the Venus of Urbino, and who was Titian?
This painting is called Venus of Urbino, and was painted by Titian. c. 1538 A.D. using oil on canvas. Titian was a Venetian artist who was instrumental in the change to painting on canvas, replacing the popular wood panels of the earlier Renaissance and medieval period. He worked on a canvas under-painted with a red ground, which gave his works a rich warmth.
What is the identifying information about the Birth of Venus?
This painting is called the Birth of Venus and was painted by Sandro Botticelli. c. 1484-1486 A.D. in tempera on canvas.
What is the identifying information for the Hunters in the Snow, and how does this painting relate to the larger work of which it is part?
This painting is entitled Hunters in the Snow and was painted by Pieter Bruegel the Elder in 1565 A.D. using oil on wood. This is one of six panel paintings by Pieter Bruegel the Elder portraying landscape scenes that represent different seasons.
What is the identifying information for the Entombment of Christ?
This painting is entitled, Entombment of Christ, painted by Jacopo da Pontormo from 1525-1528 A.D. It uses oil on wood as the media.
What is the identifying information for the print of Allegory of Law and Grace?
This print is entitled, Allegory of Law and Grace, made by Lucas Cranach the Elder. c. 1530 A.D. using woodcut and letterpress. It is based on an oil painting of the same title.
What is the significance of the scene of the Last Judgment on the entrance to a church?
This scene would have served as a reminder to those entering the Church of Saint-Foy about the joys of heaven and torments of hell. The last judgment is one of the most common themes of tympanums, reminders of the reward awaiting all at the end of life.
What does the scene of a battle from the Bayeux Tapestry portray?
This scene, from the Bayeux Tapestry (Embroidery) shows the English fighting bravely in the Battle of Hastings, wielding battle axes and javelins, and throwing rocks, but they are no match for the Norman cavalry, who plow into them and defeat them.
What is the identifying information for the Rottgen Pieta, and what does the title communicate about this work?
This sculpture is entitled the Rottgen Pietà, from Late medieval Europe. c. 1300-1325 A.D. It is made of painted wood. A Pieta (meaning pity or mercy) is a visual representation of the Virgin Mary holding Christ's body after the descent from the cross. It is meant as a reflective piece. A Pieta is related to the similar scene of the Lamentation of Christ, which is also taken from the Passion, except the Pieta is more reflective, and quieter. Most commonly it consists of only of the dead Jesus lying on the lap of the Virgin Mary.
What is the identifying information for the sculpture of David, and where was the finished sculpture located?
This sculpture is entitled, David, sculpted by Donatello. c. 1440-1460 A.D. and cast in bronze. Donatello sculpted this bronze for the Medici courtyard
What is the identifying information for the Palazzo Rucellai?
This structure is entitled, Palazzo Rucellai and is located in Florence, Italy. Leon Battista Alberti was the architect who designed it c. 1450 A.D. It was built of stone and masonry.
What is the significance of the Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere window, and where is it located?
This window is called Notre Dame de la Belle Verriere window and is located at Chartres Cathedral. And is also called "The Blue Virgin" because of this intense blue light, that filters through it, and it is also known as "Our Lady of the Beautiful Window" (English translation of the above name). This window is located on the south side of the Cathedral, at the entrance to the choir, and it is one of the few windows to have survived the fire in 1194. No unfiltered light enters the cathedral. Chartres' many blue-tinged and red stained-glass windows create an otherworldly light, unlike any other space in existence, particularly because most of its 12th-and 13th-century stained glass windows survive.
What is the identifying information about Adam and Eve?
This work is called Adam and Eve, by Albrecht Durer in 1504 A.D. It is an engraving, which is a type of print.
What is the identifying information for the miniature called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, from the Vienna Genesis?
This work is called Jacob Wrestling the Angel, and is from the Vienna Genesis. It was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the early sixth century A.D. which was an illuminated manuscript made of tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum.
What is the identifying information for the miniature of Rebecca and Eliezer from the Vienna Genesis?
This work is called Rebecca and Eliezer at the Well, and is from the Vienna Genesis. It was made in Early Byzantine Europe in the early sixth century A.D. which was an illuminated manuscript made of tempera, gold, and silver on purple vellum.
What is the identifying information for San Vitale?
This work is called San Vitale and is located in Ravenna, Italy. It is an example of architecture from Early Byzantine Europe. c. 526-547 A.D. and is made of brick, marble, stone veneer, and mosaic.
What is the identifying information for the Arnolfini Portrait?
This work is called The Arnolfini Portrait, painted by Jan van Eyck. c. 1434 A.D., using oil on wood.
What is the identifying information for Hagia Sophia?
This work is called the Hagia Sophia (holy wisdom), built in Constantinople (Istanbul). Anthemius of Tralles and Isidorus of Miletus were the architects, constructing the church from 532-537 A.D. It is made of brick and ceramic elements with stone and mosaic veneer.
What is the identifying information for the Annunciation Triptych?
This work is entitled the Annunciation Triptych (Merode Altarpiece), and is from the workshop of Robert Campin, made between 1427-1432 A.D. and using oil on wood.
What is the identifying information for Mosque of Selim II? Who was the architect, and how does this structure relate to the rest of his work?
This work is entitled the Mosque of Selim II, built in Edirne, Turkey by Sinan between 1568-1575 A.D. of brick and stone. The Mosque of Selim II was designed by the architect known as Sinan the Great when he was almost 80 years old. It was his crowning achievement.
What is the identifying information for the Church of Sainte-Foy?
This work of architecture is called the Church of Sainte-Foy, located in Conques, France. It was built during the Romanesque period in Europe. c. 1050-1130 A.D
What significance does the miniature of the St. Luke Incipit Page have?
This work, the St. Luke incipit page, is the third page in the series of illustrated introductory Gospel pages. Its highly ornate initial letters and words of the Gospel text provide a visual transition from the intensely visual forms of the earlier illustrations and cross-carpet pages to the text itself. The calligraphy throughout is insular majuscule, with a very elegant forming of each of the letters.
What is shown when the inner layer of wings (shown) is opened, along with the predella?
When the two wings portraying the Nativity and the wings on the predella are opened, the three-dimensional inner cabinet of the altarpiece is shown.
Who was Alberti, and what was his major contributions to the architecture of the Renaissance?
While Alberti began his architectural career later in life, he made a crucial contribution to the architecture in Renaissance Italy. He is also responsible for disseminating in writing Brunelleschi's theories on perspective, allowing artists from many areas to apply these new techniques to their own work. He also was the first to have an extensive knowledge of Vitruvius' treatise, enabling him to have expert knowledge of Roman architecture.
In what ways was Leonardo's technique in painting this fresco different from buon fresco, and what issues did this cause?
While it has been recently cleaned and restored, the painting remains in poor condition. It was painted as a fresco, but applying the paints to dry plaster (a secco), as opposed to true fresco (buon fresco) which is applied to wet plaster. He mixed oil and tempera, and very quickly, the paint began to flake. While true fresco actually bonds the pigment to the plaster, so that as it dries, the paint becomes part of the wall, when using dry, a secco approach, the paint rests on the surface. If there is any moisture in the wall (from rain, leaky roof, humidity, etc.), the plaster can make the surface paint flake off.
What is significant about the miniatures from the Vienna Genesis?
While it is likely not the first Christian manuscript to have been made, it is the earliest example currently known. It is called the Vienna Genesis because of its current location, but it was likely originally made in Syria or Constantinople
What can be understood from the façade of Chartres Cathedral that is important to the understanding of this work?
While much of the cathedral is in the high Gothic style, the façade was built earlier (before the fire), in early Gothic style. The mismatched west spires show the organic development of the architecture of Chartres. The south spire is a 349-foot high plain Romanesque pyramid dating from the 1140s (on the right), while the north is a 377-foot early 16th-century Flamboyant Gothic spire on top of an older tower (on the left).