Unit 4 Learning

Which of the following is a response acquired through classical conditioning? A) A woman's stomach growls when she looks at the clock and sees it is almost lunchtime. B) A dog salivates at the taste of food. C) A man pulls his hand away from a hot burner on the stove. D) A child cleans his room more often when he is rewarded for doing so. E) A driver stops speeding after receiving a ticket.

A) A woman's stomach growls when she looks at the clock and sees it is almost lunchtime.

A dog retrieves the newspaper every day because in the past it received a food reward for this behavior. The dog's behavior is an example of which of the following? A) An operant response B) A discriminative stimulus C) An unconditioned response D) An unconditioned stimulus E) A classically conditioned response

A) An operant response

Although people can acquire phobias to almost any object or situation, certain phobias (e.g., those to snakes, spiders, heights) are much more common than others. This finding can best be explained by which of the following concepts? A) Biological preparedness B) Spontaneous recovery C) Stimulus discrimination D) Stimulus generalization E) Observational learning

A) Biological preparedness

In a set of studies, Ivan Pavlov first touched a dog lightly on the side of its body and a few seconds later placed vinegar on the dog's tongue. The vinegar made the dog salivate. After several pairings of touch and vinegar, the dog began to salivate as soon as it was touched and before it was given the vinegar. In these studies which of the following was the conditioned stimulus? A) Touch to the body B) Vinegar on the tongue C) Salivation to the vinegar D) Salivation to the touch E) Time interval between the touch and the vinegar

A) Touch to the body

Robert Rescorla's contingency model of classical conditioning states that A) conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another B) contiguity of stimuli is sufficient for conditioning to occur C) reinforcement contingencies predict extinction D) any stimulus can become conditioned when paired with an unconditioned stimulus E) the only difference between the conditioned response and the unconditioned response is the stimulus used to elicit them

A) conditioning occurs only when one event reliably predicts another

In the first part of an experiment, one group of rats received reinforcement after correctly navigating a maze. A second group received no reinforcement after wandering around the maze. In the next part, both groups received reinforcement after navigating the maze. Despite not receiving reinforcement at the beginning of the experiment, the second group performed as well as the first. The learning that occurred in the second group in the absence of reinforcement is called A) latent learning B) extinction C) partial reinforcement D) observational learning E) classical conditioning

A) latent learning

After several trials during which a dog is given a certain kind of food at the same time that a specific tone is sounded, there is evidence of conditioning if the dog salivates when A) the tone only is presented B) the food only is presented C) the food and tone are presented together D) a different tone is presented with the food E) a different kind of food is presented without a tone

A) the tone only is presented

In classical conditioning, stimulus generalization occurs when an organism responds A) to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus B) to stimuli that are similar to the unconditioned stimulus C) to the conditioned stimulus the same way as to the unconditioned stimulus D) with different types of responses to neutral stimuli E) with different types of responses to the unconditioned stimulus

A) to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

Money most often modifies people's behavior because it is a powerful A) negative reinforcer B) secondary reinforcer C) conditioned stimulus D) high-order stimulus E) discriminative stimulus

B) secondary reinforcer

Of the following, which is essential for operant conditioning to occur? A) Partial reinforcement B) A behavioral consequence C) A stimulus substitution D) Spontaneous recovery E) Delayed conditioning

B) A behavioral consequence

Which of the following would a social learning theorist be most likely to propose as a cause for a fear of flying? A) A person has maladaptive thoughts about the safety of planes. B) A person observed someone else's fear of flying. C) A person had been negatively reinforced for flying on a plane. D) The fear was passed on from parents genetically. E) The fear is related to childhood trauma.

B) A person observed someone else's fear of flying.

Andi's best friend always screamed when she was in high places, and now Andi also screams when she is in high places. Which of the following theorists would say that Andi screams because she saw her friend scream? A) William James B) Albert Bandura C) Charles Spearman D) Carl Rogers E) Sigmund Freud

B) Albert Bandura

Which of the following is the most accurate statement regarding the difference between classical and operant conditioning? A) Classical conditioning involves the acquisition of voluntary responses, whereas operant conditioning involves reflexes. B) Classical conditioning involves the formation of associations between two stimuli, whereas operant conditioning involves the formation of associations between responses and their consequences. C) Classical conditioning was first demonstrated by Edward Thorndike's studies with cats, whereas operant conditioning was first demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov's studies with dogs. D) Classical conditioning involves a learner's active response in order to obtain reinforcement, whereas in operant conditioning the learner is passive. E) Classical conditioning relies mostly on negative reinforcement, whereas operant conditioning relies mostly on positive reinforcement.

B) Classical conditioning involves the formation of associations between two stimuli, whereas operant conditioning involves the formation of associations between responses and their consequences.

The operant conditioning concept of negative reinforcement is illustrated in which of the following scenarios? A) Malia teaches her cat to jump through a hoop by first teaching the cat to jump over her arm, then through a circle Malia forms with her arms, then through an actual hoop. B) Ervin always buckles his seat belt to stop the beeping sound his car makes when the seat belt is unbuckled. C) Whenever Gizele masters a piano piece, her teacher puts a sticker on the page of music. D) When Grizilla's dog tries to steal her food, she taps him on the nose and says "NO!" sharply. E) After Ben stays out after curfew, his parents tell him he is not allowed to spend time with his friends for one month.

B) Ervin always buckles his seat belt to stop the beeping sound his car makes when the seat belt is unbuckled.

Four-year-old Scott fell down the stairs at his grandmother's house. Although he was not badly hurt, he was very frightened. Now, whenever his parents mention visiting his grandmother's house, he feels anxious and fearful. In classical conditioning terms, what are the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) in the scenario, respectively? A) Grandmother's house; fear B) Grandmother's house; falling C) Fear; grandmother's house D) Falling; anxiety E) Anxiety; fear

B) Grandmother's house; falling

Being able to perform a complex action after watching another person perform it is an example of which of the following types of learning? A) Insight B) Social C) Latent D) Classical conditioning E) Operant conditioning

B) Social

B. F. Skinner's claim that the environment determines an individual's behavior was criticized for A) failing to explain how personality can change over time B) failing to acknowledge cognitive influences on behavior C) failing to acknowledge situational factors D) attributing behavior solely to genetics E) emphasizing unconscious influences on behavior

B) failing to acknowledge cognitive influences on behavior

In operant conditioning, the concept of contingency is exemplified by an "if A, then B" relationship in which A and B, respectively, represent A) stimulus, response B) response, reinforcement C) stimulus, reinforcement D) response, stimulus E) stimulus, stimulus

B) response, reinforcement

In high school, it did not seem to make a difference how much Clive studied Spanish; he always earned poor grades. Now that Clive is in college, he is required to take Spanish again. According to the concept of learned helplessness, which of the following statements can be most expected from Clive as he starts the new Spanish class? A) "Spanish is a difficult subject that I am very poor at." B) "I sure hope that my Spanish professor is better than my high school Spanish teacher." C) "Why study? There isn't anything I can do to improve my Spanish skills." D) "If I spend more time studying, I'm sure I will do better than in high school." E) "I need to find a good tutor to help me learn Spanish; I can't learn it on my own."

C) "Why study? There isn't anything I can do to improve my Spanish skills."

In order to get more audience participation, a radio show offers a prize to the first person to call the show at the beginning of every hour. The show is using which of the following schedules of reinforcement? A) Continuous B) Fixed ratio C) Fixed interval D) Variable ratio E) Variable interval

C) Fixed interval

Which of the following best reflects contemporary interpretations of classical conditioning? A) They remain relatively unchanged from earlier interpretations by people like E. L. Thorndike. B) They are primarily based on the theory of contiguity. C) They take into account cognitive processes like expectancy. D) They are in agreement with the interpretations of behaviorists like B. F. Skinner. E) They make a clear distinction between long-term and short-term memory.

C) They take into account cognitive processes like expectancy.

Which of the following is a partial reinforcement schedule that is most resistant to extinction? A) Noncontingent B) Shaping C) Variable ratio D) Fixed ratio E) Fixed interval

C) Variable ratio

Which of the following operant conditioning concepts is an example of positive punishment? A) Honeybees will automatically stick out their tongue when sugar water is placed on their antennae. If a neutral odor is paired with the sugar water, the bees will eventually stick out their tongue. Finally, if a second neutral odor is paired with the first odor, the bees will learn to stick out their tongue in response to this odor. B) As a reward for LaKeisha getting good grades, her parents take her out to dinner at her favorite restaurant. C) While driving through the state of Mississippi, Lance was stopped for speeding and had to pay an expensive speeding ticket. As a result, he no longer goes over the speed limit when driving in Mississippi. D) Caroline was caught stealing money from her brother's room. As punishment, her parents said she could not use social media for three weeks. E) A rat was taught to dunk a ball into a miniature basketball hoop in order to receive a treat. After the rat stopped receiving treats, it eventually stopped playing basketball. A week later, however, the rat randomly started playing basketball again.

C) While driving through the state of Mississippi, Lance was stopped for speeding and had to pay an expensive speeding ticket. As a result, he no longer goes over the speed limit when driving in Mississippi.

When the fire alarm sounded in the middle of the night, Ada woke up and made her way from her bedroom, down the stairs, and out the front door in the dark. Ada's ability to navigate her way through the dark house is an example of using A) her prefrontal cortex B) blindsight C) a cognitive map D) the serial position effect E) observational learning

C) a cognitive map

A particular group of brain cells seems to provide a basis for observational learning. Researchers call these specialized cells A) efferent neurons B) afferent neurons C) mirror neurons D) motor neurons E) Schwann cells

C) mirror neurons

Punishment is most effective in eliminating undesired behavior when the A) behavior is complex B) behavior was very recently acquired C) punishment is delivered soon after the behavior D) punishment is delivered by someone with authority E) punishment is both mental and physical

C) punishment is delivered soon after the behavior

Carlos wants to lose weight but is having a hard time motivating himself to go to the gym after work because he enjoys watching movies after work instead. To increase his likelihood of going to the gym, Carlos should A) reward himself just before going to the gym B) set a goal of going to the gym at least seven times a week C) reward himself immediately after going to the gym D) avoid people who go to the gym E) make an effort to spend time watching movies when not at the gym

C) reward himself immediately after going to the gym

The first time four-year-old Savannah attempted to make her bed, her father praised her for covering the pillow with a blanket. After a few times, her father began praising Savannah for covering the pillow and tucking in the corners of the sheet. Finally, Savannah's father praised her when she covered the pillow, tucked in the corners of the sheet, and smoothed the blanket. The process described in this scenario is known as A) negative reinforcement B) spontaneous recovery C) shaping D) latent learning E) implicit learning

C) shaping

Studies of learning have shown that animals develop an aversion for tastes associated with A) electric shock B) extinguished associations C) sickness D) novel stimuli E) starvation

C) sickness

Which of the following is the best example of shaping? A) A child receives five dollars each time he cleans his room. B) An employee receives a termination notice after coming to work late every day over a period of three months. C) A child gets candy from a dispenser one time but gets nothing from the dispenser the next two times. D) A teacher rewards a student for sitting quietly for ten minutes on Monday, fifteen minutes on Tuesday, twenty minutes on Wednesday, and thirty minutes on Thursday. E) A rat receives a mild shock each time it tries to open the door of its cage.

D) A teacher rewards a student for sitting quietly for ten minutes on Monday, fifteen minutes on Tuesday, twenty minutes on Wednesday, and thirty minutes on Thursday.

Diego's new puppy Agatha has developed the annoying habit of begging for food when people are eating. Using operant conditioning, which of the following would be the most effective technique for Diego to use to get Agatha to stop begging for food? A) Diego should feed Agatha a large, filling meal when she first starts begging. B) Diego should only feed Agatha on rare occasions when she begs. C) Diego should never feed Agatha when she begs, but instead should pet her. D) Diego should consistently ignore Agatha when she begs. E) Diego should provide a distinctive signal, such as ringing a bell, whenever dinner is ready to be put on the table.

D) Diego should consistently ignore Agatha when she begs.

Which of the following is an example of using positive reinforcement to get a toddler to repeat the response of washing his hands after eating? A) Explaining that washing his hands promotes cleanliness B) Taking away toys when he forgets to wash his hands C) Spanking him for not washing his hands D) Giving him a treat for washing his hands E) Allowing him to have dessert if he finishes his meal

D) Giving him a treat for washing his hands

Emiko's cat often meows for food. Emiko decides to eliminate the behavior by feeding the cat only when it does not meow. Over the next few weeks, she sometimes ignores the cat when it meows. Other times, she feeds the cat when it meows. Which of the following is the most reasonable prediction to make about the cat's meowing for food? A) It will disappear due to extinction. B) It will decrease overall but not extinguish. C) It will remain unchanged due to a continuous schedule of reinforcement. D) It will increase due to a variable schedule of reinforcement. E) It will increase due to positive punishment.

D) It will increase due to a variable schedule of reinforcement.

For extinction to occur, which of the following must be true of the conditioned response (CR), the conditioned stimulus (CS), and the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) ? A) The CR occurs after the CS but does not occur after other stimuli. B) The CR occurs after a stimulus that is similar to the CS. C) The CS and the UCS are repeatedly paired, and the CR gains strength. D) The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses strength. E) When the CR loses strength, a rest period is given, after which the CS again elicits the CR.

D) The CS is repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS, and the CR loses strength.

A mental image of a spatial layout is called A) an algorithm B) a mental set C) a heuristic D) a cognitive map E) insight

D) a cognitive map

A cancer patient becomes nauseated following chemotherapy treatments. After a few treatments, the patient begins having a sick feeling whenever entering the treatment room. The treatment room has become A) a primary reinforcer B) a conditioned reinforcer C) a neutral stimulus D) a conditioned stimulus E) an unconditioned stimulus

D) a conditioned stimulus

The principles of operant conditioning are best illustrated by A) exposing a client to anxiety-provoking stimuli B) replacing a response to a stimulus with an alternative response C) deep relaxation techniques D) a token economy to reinforce adaptive behaviors E) development of intrinsic motivation

D) a token economy to reinforce adaptive behaviors

Seven-year-old Raj never wants to clean his room, but his parents know how much he loves watching television. They tell him if he cleans his room, he'll get to watch his favorite television shows. According to operant conditioning theory, Raj is most likely to A) refuse to clean his room B) watch television without cleaning his room C) scream at his parents D) clean his room E) lose interest in watching television

D) clean his room

An individual's fear of dogs that is lost as the individual is exposed to dogs in nonthreatening situations is referred to by behaviorists as a fear that has been A) satiated B) suppressed C) repressed D) extinguished E) punished

D) extinguished

Brian was having difficulty solving a riddle, but after sleeping, he suddenly understood the answer. Brian's newfound knowledge was probably the result of A) a cognitive map B) reinforcement C) observational learning D) insight E) latent learning

D) insight

Q25 Graph of conditioning The above graph of conditioning shows which of the following concepts? A) Avoidance and escape learning B) Habituation and blocking C) Positive and negative reinforcement D) Generalization, discrimination, and higher order conditioning E) Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

E) Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

The idea that the explanation for prejudice lies in children's modeling of their parents' prejudicial beliefs, emotions, and behaviors is most closely aligned with the theories of which of the following? A) Lev Vygotsky B) John B. Watson C) Jean Piaget D) B. F. Skinner E) Albert Bandura

E) Albert Bandura

Because studies of learning show that events occurring close together in time are easier to associate than those occurring at widely different times, parents should probably avoid which of the following? A) Corporal punishment B) Mild punishment C) Consistent punishment D) Inescapable punishment E) Delay of punishment

E) Delay of punishment

Which of the following is the best example of a learning predisposition? A) Pigeons can be trained to play tic-tac-toe. B) Cats become quicker at escaping out of boxes with practice. C) A chimpanzee suddenly realizes it can use a stick to retrieve an out-of-reach banana. D) Rewarding a person for a behavior leads to an increase in that behavior. E) It is easier to condition a person to be fearful of rats than of cars.

E) It is easier to condition a person to be fearful of rats than of cars.

Which of the following is the best example of the learning principle of reinforcement? A) Sammy's father stopped buying him candy when Sammy cried, and Sammy stopped crying for candy for a while. However, one day Sammy randomly started crying for candy again. B) Coraline trained her cats to respond in different ways to two different whistle pitches. They would come to be fed when she blew one whistle and leave when she blew the other whistle so she could clean their litter boxes. C) Five-year-old Mandy learned to write with a pencil, but she can also write with a marker, a crayon, or a pen. D) Marla audited a class, so she never took any quizzes or tests throughout the year. However, she decided she wanted to take the end-of-year final and received a very high grade without taking earlier exams. E) James drank coffee before he took and passed a difficult test with a high grade, so now he drinks coffee before every test he takes because he believes doing so will help him score well on the tests.

E) James drank coffee before he took and passed a difficult test with a high grade, so now he drinks coffee before every test he takes because he believes doing so will help him score well on the tests.

Q24 Graph media violence and aggressive what explains Which of the following provides an effective explanation for the data above? A) Operant conditioning B) Classical conditioning C) Prepared conditioning D) Self-actualization E) Observational learning

E) Observational learning

Patients with schizophrenia treated in a hospital receive plastic coins when they perform desirable behaviors, such as cleaning their rooms. They can then trade the coins for rewards, such as snacks. This type of treatment program is based on which of the following? A) Counterconditioning B) Observational learning C) Cognitive restructuring D) Learned helplessness E) Operant conditioning

E) Operant conditioning

Dylan has difficulty solving a physics problem in class. The next day, he suddenly thinks of a solution to the problem as he is watching a friend play the guitar. The thought process that Dylan experienced is an example of A) spontaneous recovery B) social learning C) discrimination D) latent learning E) insight learning

E) insight learning

Four-year-old Moesha screams and cries because she wants a candy bar. When her father, Bill, finally gives in and buys her the candy, she stops screaming. Bill tells the grocery clerk it will always be worth paying for candy to get Moesha to stop screaming. Bill's act of buying the candy is A) an example of sublimation B) subject to classical conditioning C) met with an aversive consequence D) positively reinforced E) negatively reinforced

E) negatively reinforced

The technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations is called A) positive reinforcement B) negative reinforcement C) distributed practice D) modeling E) shaping

E) shaping