Unit 8: Global Atmospheric Change

troposphere

(lowest layer) 78% N, 21% O, 1% other trace gases: Water vapor, argon, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide

Using Figure 19-28, how can you reduce your CO2 Emissions?

- Calculate your carbon footprint (there are several helpful websites) - Drive a fuel-efficient car, walk, bike, carpool, and use mass transit - Reduce garbage by reducing consumption, recycling, and reusing more items - Use energy-efficient appliances and compact fluorescent or LED lightbulbs - Wash clothes in warm or cold water and hang them up to dry - Close window curtains to keep heat in or out - Use a low-flow showerhead - Eat less meat or no meat - Heavily insulate your house and seal all air leaks - Use energy-efficient windows - Set your hot-water heater to 49°C (120°F) - Plant trees - Buy from businesses working to reduce their emissions

Give two examples of what some companies are doing and two examples of what some colleges and universities have done to reduce their carbon footprints.

- Calstar recycles fly ash from coal-burning facilities and it has reduced the carbon footprint of brick-making by 80% - DuPont slashed its energy usage and cut its greenhouse gas emissions by 72% and saved $3 billion - ASU was the first university in the country to establish an entire academic program with its School of Sustainability - Students and faculty at Oberlin College in the U.S. state of Ohio created a Web-based system in some of the school's dorms that monitors use of energy and water, giving students realtime feedback that can help them to reduce their waste of these resources

Using Figure 18-12, what are the sources of the chemicals that lead to acid deposition?

- Cars/Transportation - Wind - Factory smoke - Lakes in deep soil high in limestone - Lakes in shallow soil low in limestone - Clouds/Precipitation

What are three ways in which governments can cooperate internationally to deal with projected climate change?

- Kyoto Protocol - technology transfer - protect large forests

What has the world done to reduce the threat of ozone depletion in the stratosphere?

- Montreal Protocol - Copenhagen Amendment

What are the top three indoor air pollutants in the United States?

- Pesticide residue and lead particles - Living organisms and their excrements - Toxic airborne spores of fungal growths

List five pieces of evidence that indicate that the atmosphere has been warming since 1975.

- average global surfcae temps have risen by about 1.4 F° and average global land temps have risen by about 2.5 F° - of the 12 hottest years on record, 11 have occurred since 2000, and the 12th was 1998 - glaciers are melting at increasing rates - floating arctic sea ice is shrinking - during the 20th century, the world's average sea level rose by 19cm

List the major human activities that add CO2, CH4, and N2O to the atmosphere.

- burning fossil fuels - livestock production - rice production - natural gas production - leaky coal mines - landfills - flooding of land behind large dams - use of nitrogen fertilizers - deforestation - agriculture

Using Figure 19-29, what can be done to prepare for Climate Disruption?

- move hazardous material storage tanks away from coast - expand existing wildlife reserves toward poles - stockpile 1- to 5-year supply of key foods - prohibit new construction on low-lying coastal areas or build houses on stilts - move people away from low-lying coastal areas - waste less water - develop crops that need less water - connect wildlife reserves with corridors

How do scientists get information about past temperatures and climates?

- radioisotopes in rocks and fossils - plankton and radioisotopes in ocean sediments - tiny bubbles, layers of soot, and other materials trapped in different layers of ancient air found in ice cores from glaciers - pollen from the bottoms of lakes and bogs - tree rings - temperature measurements taken regularly since 1861

Using Figure 18-32, what are some ways to reduce you UV Exposure?

- stay out of the sun, especially between 10 am and 3pm - do not use tanning parlors or sunlamps - when in the sun, wear clothing and sunglasses that protect against UV-A and UV-B radiation - be aware that overcast skies do not protect you - do not expose yourself to the sun if you are taking antibiotics or birth control pills when in the sun, use a sunscreen with a protection factor of at least 15

What are five factors that make it difficult to deal with the problem of projected climate disruption?

- the problem is global - the problem is a long-term political issue - the projected harmful and beneficial impacts of climate disruption are not spread evenly - many proposed solutions, such as sharply reducing or phasing out the use of fossil fuels, are controversial - some social scientists contend that humans are not "hard-wired" to respond to long-term threats

lead (Pb)

Heavy metal, solid at room temperature, enters the atmosphere as a particulate pollutant caused by vehicles burning gasoline, metal refineries, and power plants burning fossil fuels

sulfuric acid

H₂SO₄

ocean acidification

Increasing levels of acid in world's oceans due to their absorption of much of the (CO2) emitted into the atmosphere by human activities, especially the burning of carbon-containing fossil fuels. The (CO2) reacts with ocean water to form a weak acid and decreases the levels of carbonate ions (CO2) needed to form coral and the shells and skeletons of organisms such as crabs, oysters, and some phytoplankton.

ozone layer

Layer of gaseous ozone (O3) in the stratosphere that protects life on earth by filtering out most harmful ultraviolet radiation from the sun.

Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Organic compound that contains only carbon, chlorine and fluorine, produced as a volatile derivative of methane, ethane, and propane

Briefly describe the possible effects of a warmer atmosphere on sea ice and land-based ice, permafrost, and sea levels.

Sea ice - melting of arctic sea ice Land-based ice - melting of polar land-based ice Permafrost - melting of permafrost Sea levels - rising of sea levels

stratosphere

Second layer of the atmosphere, extending about 17-48 kilometers (11-30 miles) above the earth's surface. It contains small amounts of gaseous ozone (O3), which filters out about 95% of the incoming harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the sun.

industrial smog

Type of air pollution consisting mostly of a mixture of sulfur dioxide, suspended droplets of sulfuric acid formed from some of the sulfur dioxide, and suspended solid particles.

What is the equation for Photochemical Smog?

VOC + NOx + heat + sunlight + ground level ozone (photochemical smog)

negative feedback loop

When the initial change to a component of the system is undone by the series of changes within the feedback loop

indoor air pollution

accumulation of pollutants inside a building or structure

carbon dioxide

colorless, odorless gas caused by the burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, and the respiration of plants and animals

carbon monoxide

colorless, odorless, and highly toxic gas that forms during the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials

radon

colorless, odorless, radioactive gas that naturally occurs in soil and rock

albedo

different surfaces have different levels of reflectivity

primary pollutants

emitted directly into the air (SO2, CO, NO, CO2, NO2)

nitric acid

formed from NO₂ reacting with water vapor

air pollution

presence of chemicals in the atmosphere

atmosphere

thin blanket of gases surrounding the Earth

nitrous oxide

(N₂0) greenhouse gas emitted from fertilizers and animal wastes, and is produced by the burning of fossil fuels

sulfur dioxide

(SO₂) a colorless gas with an irritating odor

What gases are responsible for ozone depletion in the stratosphere?

- Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) - Halons - Methyl bromine - Carbon tetrachloride - Hydrobromoflurocarbons (HBFCs) - Hydrogen chloride - Methyl chloroform - N-propyl bromide - Hexachlorolmtadiene

Give two examples of what some countries are doing on their own to deal with climate change.

- Costa Rica aims to be the first country to become carbon neutral by cutting its net carbon emissions to zero by 2030 - China's government is working with the country's top 1,000 industries to implement tough energy efficiency goals

drought

Condition in which an area does not get enough water because of lower-than-normal precipitation or higher-than-normal temperatures that increase evaporation.

Using Figure 19-25, what are the trade-off of Cap-and-Trade Policies?

Advantages: - clear legal limit on emissions - rewards cuts in emissions - record of success - low expense for consumers Disadvantages: - revenues not predictable - vulnerable to cheating - rich polluters can keep polluting - puts variable price on carbon

Using Figure 19-24, what are the trade-offs of Carbon & Energy Taxes?

Advantages: - simple to administer - clear price on carbon - covers all emitters - predictable revenues Disadvantages: - tax laws can get complex - vulnerable to loopholes - doesn't guarantee lower emissions - politically unpopular

What is the role of water vapor in the atmosphere and how does it relate to other greenhouse gases in the warming process?

As the air warms, any given volume of air can hold more water vapor. This, the warming effect of other greenhouse gases can lead to a higher level of water vapor, which in turn amplifies the greenhouse effect.

What are the possible effects of climate disruption on biodiversity, food production, and human health and economies?

Biodiversity: - extinctions of species - loss of biodiversity - loss of habitat - increased populations of insects and fungi that range trees - degraded forest ecosystems due to more frequent forest fires Food Production: - agricultural productivity will drop - reduced crop production - starvation and malnutrition Human Health and Economies: - raised number of deaths and illnesses - increase in heat-related deaths - rapid increase in multiplying insects, microbes, toxic molds, and fungi that can make us sick - hinders the fight against childhood mortality and malnutrition - increased production of pollens that cause allergies and asthma attacks - more itchy eyes and runny noses - reduced crop yields - increased spread of dengue fever and yellow fever - increased air pollution - increased heart ailments and respiratory problems - force millions of people to move, in search of better conditions - 150 million to 250 million environmental refugees would be forced to migrate because of greater hunger, flooding, and drought - cost of projected climate change would be up to 20% per year of the world's economic activity as measured by gross domestic output

Using Figure 19-8, describe the Atmospheric Temp & CO2 levels.

Both atmospheric temps and CO2 levels have increased over the years from 1880 to 2020

What are three key greenhouse gases and how do they differ in atmospheric lifetimes and warming potentials?

CO₂ (100 years) CH₄ (12 years; 25 times CO2) N₂O (114 years; 300 times CO2)

photochemical smog

Complex mixture of air pollutants produced in the lower atmosphere by the reaction of hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides under the influence of sunlight. Especially harmful components include ozone, peroxyacyl nitrates (PANs), and various aldehydes.

Clean Air Act

Designed to control air pollution at the national level and it set National Ambient Air Quality Standards

positive feedback loop

Feedback loop that causes a system to change further in the same direction.

ozone (pollutant)

Gaseous pollutant, variation of oxygen, found in lowest level of the atmosphere caused by vehicle exhaust and certain other fumes and formed from other pollutants (NOx + VOCs) in the presence of heat and sunlight

Describe the human body's defenses against air pollution, how they can be overwhelmed, and the illnesses that can result.

Hairs in your nose filter out large particles. Sticky mucus in the lining of your upper respiratory tract captures smaller (but not the smallest) particles and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. Sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus when pollutants irritate your respiratory system. In addition, hundreds of thousands of tiny, mucus-coated, hair-like structures, called cilia, line your upper respiratory tract. They continually move back and forth and transport mucus and the pollutants it traps to your throat where they are swallowed or expelled. Prolonged or acute exposure to air pollutants, including tobacco smoke, can overload or break down these natural defenses. Fine and ultrafine particulates can get lodged deep in the lungs and contribute to lung cancer, asthma, heart attack, and stroke. Years of smoking or breathing polluted air can lead to other lung ailments such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema, which leads to acute shortness of breath and usually to death.

Explain how each of the following might contribute to projected atmospheric warming and resulting global climate disruption: a. a hotter sun b. the oceans c. cloud cover d. air pollution

Hotter sun- The energy output of the sun plays the key role in the earth's temperature. Oceans- The world's oceans absorb CO2 from the atmosphere as part of the carbon cycle. The ability of the oceans to absorb CO2 decreases as water temperatures rise. As the oceans warm up, some of their dissolved CO2 is released into the lower atmosphere. Cloud cover- Increase in thin, wispy cirrus clouds at high altitudes could cause more warming of the lower atmosphere by preventing some heat from escaping into space Air pollution- While sulfate particles and other aerosols reflect sunlight, black carbon particles, or soot, have the opposite effect

volatile organic compounds (VOCs)

Organic compounds that exist as gases in the atmosphere or as gases that evaporate from sources on earth into the atmosphere

Using Figure 18-31, what are the effects of Ozone Depletion?

Human Health and Structures - worse sunburns - more eye cataracts and skin cancers - immune system suppression Food and Forests: - reduced yields for some crops - reduced seafood supplies due to smaller phytoplankton populations - decreased forest productivity for UV-sensitive tree species Wildlife: - more eye cataracts in some species - shrinking populations of aquatic species sensitive to UV radiation - disruption of aquatic food webs due to shrinking phytoplankton populations Air Pollution and Climate Change: - increased acid deposition - increased photochemical smog - degradation of outdoor painted surfaces, plastics, and building materials - while in troposphere, CFCs act as greenhouse gases

Montreal Protocol

International treaty (all countries participated) designed to protect the ozone layer by phasing out the production CFCs and replace with alternatives such as HCFCs. Considered the biggest environmental success story.

temperature inversion

Layer of dense, cool air trapped under a layer of less dense, warm air. It prevents upward-flowing air currents from developing. In a prolonged inversion, air pollution in the trapped layer may build up to harmful levels.

Using Figure 18-17, what are some major Indoor Air Pollutants in your home?

Particulates Styrene Formaldehyde

What is the major indoor air pollutant in developing countries?

Particulates from the indoor burning of wood, charcoal, dung, crop residues, coal, and other fuels in open fires or in unvented or poorly vented stoves

How do scientists use models to make projections about future temperature changes?

Mathematical models stimulate interactions among incoming sunlight, clouds, land masses, oceans, ocean currents, concentrations of greenhouse gases and air pollutants, and other factors within the earth's complex climate system. They run these continually improving models on supercomputers and compare the results to known past climate changes.

What are two basic approaches to dealing with the projected harmful effects of global climate disruption?

Mitigation and Adaptation

nitrogen oxide

NO and NO₂ collectively

greenhouse effect

Natural effect that releases heat in the atmosphere near the earth's surface. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, and other gases in the lower atmosphere (troposphere) absorb some of the infrared radiation (heat) radiated by the earth's surface. Their molecules vibrate and transform the absorbed energy into longer-wavelength infrared radiation in the troposphere. If the atmospheric concentrations of these greenhouse gases increase and other natural processes do not remove them, the average temperature of the lower atmosphere will increase.

climate

Physical properties of the troposphere of an area based on analysis of its weather records over a long period (at least 30 years). The two main factors determining an area's climate are its average temperature, with its seasonal variations, and the average amount and distribution of precipitation.

climate change tipping points

Point at which an environmental problem reaches a threshold level where scientists fear it could cause irreversible climate disruption.

Using Figure 18-27, what are some solutions to Indoor Air Pollution?

Prevention: - ban indoor smoking - set stricter formaldehyde emissions standards for carpet, furniture, and building materials - prevent radon infiltration - use naturally based cleaning agents, paints, and other products Reduction and Dilution: - use adjustable fresh air vents for work spaces - circulate air more frequently - circulate a buildingś air through rooftop greenhouses - use solar cookers and efficient, vented wood-burning stoves

Using Figure 18-25, what are some solution to Air Pollution?

Prevention: - burn low-sulfur coal or remove sulfur from coal - convert coal to a liquid or gaseous fuel - switch from coal to natural gas and renewables Reduction or Dispersal: - disperse emissions (which increase downwind pollution) using tall smokestacks - remove pollutants from smokestack gases - tax each unit of pollution produced

Using Figure 19-22, what are some ways to Slow Climate Disruption?

Prevention: - cut fossil fuel use (especially coal) - shift from coal to natural gas - repair leaky natural gas pipelines and facilities - improve energy efficiency - shift to renewable energy resources - reduce deforestation - use more sustainable agriculture and forestry - put a price on greenhouse gas emissions Cleanup: - sequester CO2 by planting trees and preserving forests and wetlands - sequester carbon in soil using biochar - sequester CO2 deep underground (with no leaks allowed) - sequester CO2 in the deep ocean (with no leaks allowed) - remove CO2 from smokestack and vehicle emissions

Using Figure 18-15, what are the solutions to Acid Deposition?

Prevention: - reduce coal use and burn only low-sulfur coal - use natural gas and renewable energy resources in place of coal - remove SO₂ and NOₓ from smoke stack gases and remove NOₓ from motor vehicular exhaust - tax SO₂ emissions Cleanup: - add lime to neutralize acidified lakes - add phosphate fertilizer to neutralize acidified lakes - add lime to neutralize acidified soils

carbon capture and storage

Process of removing carbon dioxide gas from coal-burning power and industrial plants and storing it somewhere (usually underground or under the seabed) so that it is not released into the atmosphere, essentially forever.

Explain the connections among low-sulfur coal, atmospheric warming and toxic mercury.

Some U.S. power plants have lowered emissions by switching from high-sulfur to low-sulfur coals. However, this has increased emissions that contribute to atmospheric warming and projected climate change. This occurs because low-sulfur coal has a lower heat value, which means that more coal must be burned to generate a given amount of electricity. Low-sulfur coal also has higher levels of toxic mercury and other trace metals, so burning it emits more of these hazardous chemicals into the atmosphere.

Explain how atmospheric warming, global drought, extreme weather, and an intensified water cycle are related.

Some scientists hypothesize that higher temperatures due to atmospheric warming are intensifying the water cycle and adding more water vapor to the atmosphere. This would increase the warming effect (because water vapor is a greenhouse gas) and lead to more evaporation followed by greater warming in another example of a positive feedback loop. One effect of this intensified water cycle, according to the scientists, is that in some areas droughts will last much longer and will be more widespread. Climate models show that along with increasing drought, a more intensified water cycle with more water vapor in the atmosphere will also bring more flooding to some areas due to heavy snowfall or rainfall. A report said that there is an increased likelihood of extreme weather events due to atmospheric warming.

Summarize the trends in atmospheric warming and cooling over the past 900,000 years and during the last century.

The atmosphere has experienced prolonged periods of global cooling and global warming. These alternating cycles of freezing and thawing are known as glacial and interglacial (between ice ages) periods.

Using the Core Case Study, describe the nature, origin, and harmful effects of the massive South Asian Brown Clouds.

The clouds contain small particles of dust, smoke, and ash resulting from drought and from the clearing and burning of forests for planting crops. They also contain particles of soot (mostly from diesel engine exhaust and from the burning of biomass such as wood and animal dung); acidic compounds from vehicle exhaust and coal-burning power plant emissions; and particles of toxic metals such as mercury and lead, produced mostly by coal-burning facilities, metal smelters, and waste incinerators. The South Asian Brown Clouds have been a factor in the gradual melting of the Himalayan glaciers, which are the source of water for most of Asia's major rivers. Pollution in the South Asian Brown Clouds contributes to at least 380,000 premature deaths every year, mostly in China and India.

How does a temperature inversion affect air pollution levels?

The cooler air is denser than the warmer air above it, the air near the surface does not rise and mix with the air above. If this condition persists, pollutants can build up to harmful and even lethal concentrations in the stagnant layer of cool air near the ground.

acid deposition

The falling of acids and acid-forming compounds from the atmosphere to the earth's surface. Acid deposition is commonly known as acid rain, a term that refers to the wet deposition of droplets of acids and acid-forming compounds.

Kyoto Protocol

Treaty on global warming which first phase went into effect in 2005 with 187 countries participating. It requires 36 participating developed countries to cut their emissions of CO₂, CH₄, and N₂O (greenhouse gases) to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.

Using Figure 18-2, list Earth's atmospheric layers in order from the surface outward, be sure to include the change in temperature.

Troposphere (Decrease) Ozone Layer (Increase) Stratosphere (Increase) Mesosphere (Decrease) Thermosphere (Increase)

What the major environmental impacts from acid deposition on vegetation, lakes, human-built structures and human health?

Vegetation: - Reduced plant productivity - Reduced ability of soils to buffer or neutralize acidic inputs - Weakens plants and trees - Leaves them vulnerable to stresses such as severe cold, diseases, insect attacks, and drought Lakes: - Less fish - Suffocates many kinds of fish by stimulating excessive mucus formation, which clogs their gills Human-built Structures: - Damages statues and buildings Human Health: - Causes respiratory problems

particulates

Very small particles of soot, dust, or other matter, tiny droplets of liquids (aerosols) caused by diesel engines, power plants/industries, volcanoes, windblown dust, mining/quarrying, wood stoves (indoor), and sea salt

What are greenhouse gases and how do they affect the atmosphere?

Water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O3) Contribute to the warming of the atmosphere, amplify the greenhouse effect, and increase global average temperatures

Explain why weather and climate are not the same.

Weather consists of short-teen changes in atmospheric variables such as temperature, precipitation, wind, and barometric pressure in a given area over a period of hours or days. Climate is determined by the average weather conditions of the earth or of a particular area, especially temperature and precipitation, over periods of at least three decades to thousands of years.

atmospheric pressure

force, or mass, per unit area of a column of air caused by the bombardment of a surface by the molecules in air

secondary pollutants

primary pollutants react with one another or air to form new harmful pollutants (HNO3, O3, H2SO4)

geoengineering

trying to manipulate certain natural conditions to help counter an enhanced greenhouse effect