Unit 8 Study Guide

What did many of the colonies of major countries believe in after WWII and during the Cold War?

After World War I, the demand for self-determination, the idea that each country should choose its own form of government and leaders, was spreading.

What did they do instead? What did they both create?

After World War II, the democratic United States and the authoritarian Soviet Union emerged as the strongest countries in the world. Both countries had expanded their territorial control and influence after the war.

Separatists in Spain Who were Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA)? What was ETA's goal? Peru's Shining Path What was the Shining Path's goal?

Another group that used terrorist tactics to advance a political agenda was the Basque Homeland and Freedom (ETA) organization, founded in 1959, which wanted independence for the Basque region in northern Spain, ETA actions killed more than 800 people and injured many others. In 1973, members of ETA killed the hand-picked successor to longtime dictator Francisco Franco. (See Topic 7.4.) Over the years, ETA announced several cease-fires. In 2011 it declared an end to violent actions and promised to work within the political system to achieve Basque independence.

What countries were involved in French West Africa?

As Britain negotiated independence with its African colonies, France did the same with its colonies in French West Africa. These included Senegal, the Ivory Coast, Niger, Upper Volta, and other territories. France had controlled them since the late 1800s with small military forces. France used indirect rule, which relied on local chiefs, existing governments, and other African leaders to maintain stability.

What resulted in the US taking over fighting in the Vietnam War?

As the Vietnam War worsened, American military involvement and casualties grew. In response, the antiwar movement became more vocal. President Richard Nixon began to withdraw U.S. troops in 1971; the last troops left in 1975. North Vietnam quickly gained control of South Vietnam. It is estimated that the Vietnam War resulted in between one million and two million deaths, including about 58,000 Americans. It also destabilized Southeast Asia. Communists soon won control of Laos and Cambodia, but the spread of communism stopped there.

Explain the Suez Crisis and the results of it.

Built by Egyptian laborers—thousands of whom died while working on the project—with money from French investment between 1859 and 1869, the Suez Canal had been under lease to the French for 99 years. To the Egyptians, this lease symbolized colonial exploitation, which Nasser pledged to fight. In addition, the British owned interests in the canal, which they administered jointly with the French. In 1956, Nasser seized the canal, and Israel invaded Egypt at the behest of Britain and France. The two European countries then occupied the area around the canal, claiming they were enforcing a UN cease-fire. However, the United States and the Soviet Union opposed British and French actions and used the United Nations to broker a resolution to the Suez Crisis.

Explain how these meetings could "set the stage" for the Cold War.

By 1945, the United States and the Soviet Union lacked trust in one another and had begun the aggressive rhetoric that would become standard for four decades following World War II. Potsdam and the earlier conferences failed to settle important issues between the world's major powers. As a result, the stage was set for a cold war between countries still devastated by a hot war.

What resulted in the independence movements?

By 1959, many of the French West African countries had negotiated their independence from France.

The Military-Industrial Complex Conflicts around the world intensified because of ___________________ and _________________. Describe a military-industrial complex

Conflicts around the world intensified because of fear and economic pressure. These military forces required large factories to build planes, tanks, and other goods. Since many countries lacked facilities to make their own weapons, the international weapons trade expanded greatly.

Who was in the "Big Three"?

During World War II, the leaders of Great Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union, known as the Big Three

There were three meetings after WWII between the "Big Three". Describe what occurred in each of the meetings: Tehran Conference Yalta Conference The Potsdam Conference

During the Tehran Conference in Iran in November 1943, the Allies agreed that the Soviet Union would focus on freeing Eastern Europe, while Britain and the United States would concentrate on Western Europe. In addition, Britain and the United States agreed to a Soviet demand to shift some Polish territory to the Soviet Union, which would be offset by Poland gaining territory elsewhere, mostly from Germany. By February 1945, the Allies knew that Germany was near defeat, but they disagreed about what should happen after Germany's surrender. At the Yalta Conference, at a resort on the Black Sea, the leaders focused on plans for reconstructing Eastern Europe and for defeating Japan. The final meeting among leaders of the Big Three, the Potsdam Conference, began in July 1945 in Germany. Harry Truman, who had become president after Roosevelt died on April 12, represented the United States. Churchill started the conference but lost his position as prime minister in mid-July and was replaced by Clement Atlee. Truman insisted on free elections in Eastern Europe. However, by then Soviet troops had occupied the region. Stalin refused Truman's demand. With the backing of Soviet power, communists eventually gained control of East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania.

Intensified Conflict In Uganda Under Idi Amin Describe Idi Amin's time as president of Uganda?

Few countries in the 1970s suffered as much as Uganda, a small country in eastern Africa ruled from 1971 to 1979 by Idi Amin, a military dictator so brutal he was known as the "Butcher of Uganda." Although he was aligned with Western democracies early on, he was later backed by the Soviet Union and East Germany. He declared himself president for life and set policies that worsened ethnic tensions, denied people basic human rights, and undermined economic stability. Amin was unpredictable. He was for a time the chairman of the Organization of African Unity and even a member of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights. But in 1972 he forcefully expelled 60,000 Asians from Uganda, most of whom were of Indian descent, and turned over their businesses to his supporters. He is believed to be responsible for up to 500,000 deaths among targeted ethnic groups during his reign. When he threatened neighboring Tanzania with attack, Ugandan nationalists joined forces with Tanzanian troops and forced Amin into exile.

Explain who Nasser was and what his goals were.

Following World War II, Egypt became one of six founding members of the Arab League, which grew to 22 member states. In 1952, General Gamal Abdel Nasser, along with Muhammad Naguib, overthrew the king and established the Republic of Egypt. Naguib became its first president; Nasser its second. Nasser was a great proponent of Pan-Arabism, a movement promoting the cultural and political unity of Arab nations. Similar transnational movements would attempt to unite all Africans (Pan-Africanism) and all working people (communism).

Ghana(Great Britain) - Leaders and Methods of Independence(Armed Struggle or Political Negotiation) - Major Events and Nationalist parties/organizations that assisted in Independence - Legacy & Outcomes What occurred after independence? What were the successes and/or struggles of the nation? How have they dealt with the legacy of colonialism?

Ghana created a new constitution in 1992, easing the transfer of power between elected governments. One point of national pride was that a Ghanaian leader, Kofi Annan, became UN Secretary General in 1997.

Who was the Vietnamese Communist leader?

Ho Chi Minh

Who came into aid the French troops?

However, many in South Vietnam, along with the United States, opposed the Communists and feared Ho would win the election. No election took place.

Poland Describe Wladyslaw Gomulka's time as secretary of the Polish Communist Party.

In 1956, Polish workers demonstrated against Soviet domination and demanded better living conditions. As a result, a new secretary of the Polish Communist Party, Wladyslaw Gomulka, came to power. He decided to pursue an independent domestic policy in Poland but continued to be loyal to the Soviet Union, allowing the continued presence of Soviet troops in Poland. The Soviet-established forced collectivization of farms ended at this time.

What was the Brezhnev Doctrine used for?

In 1968, the Soviet Union used the Brezhnev Doctrine, named for then-Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, to justify its actions. This doctrine stated that the Soviet Union and its allies would intervene if an action by one member threatened other socialist countries.

France Describe the student movement in France in 1968.

In 1968, the student movement reached epic proportions in Paris, France. Hundreds of thousands of students took to the streets, resulting in violence when police forces moved in. In sympathy, some 10 million French workers went on strike. It was the largest general strike in French history. President Charles de Gaulle called new elections in France and was able to remain in office when his party won.

Algeria(France) - Leaders and Methods of Independence(Armed Struggle or Political Negotiation) - Major Events and Nationalist parties/organizations that assisted in Independence - Legacy & Outcomes What occurred after independence? What were the successes and/or struggles of the nation? How have they dealt with the legacy of colonialism?

In Algeria, by contrast, religious tensions grew worse. As in other countries in North Africa and the Middle East, a growing right-wing Islamist movement that was willing to use violence challenged the power of mainstream Muslims. In 1992, an Islamist assassinated Algeria's president

Nelson Mandela Country they changed How were they NON-Violent and how did that lead to change?

In South Africa, the white-minority government codified a system of racial segregation, called apartheid, into law in the 20th century. Leading the black resistance to apartheid was a socialist lawyer, Nelson Mandela (1918—2013). Though early in his life he sometimes supported sabotage and other forms of violence, he was known for leading nonviolent protests. The victory over apartheid is described in Topic 9.5.

Explain what the government did to prevent tribalism.

In an effort to prevent tribalism from destroying the country, the government established a federation of 36 states with borders that cut across ethnic and religious lines. However, friction continued between Christian Yoruba, Igbo groups in the south, and Islamic groups in the northern states. The constitution of Nigeria permitted states to vote for a dual legal system of secular law and shariah. Eleven states voted for this option. In an additional effort to discourage ethnic strife, the constitution encouraged intermarriage among the ethnic groups.

Hungary Describe Imre Nagy''s time as political leader of Hungary.

In that same year, Hungarian protesters convinced the country's political leader Imre Nagy to declare Hungary's freedom from Soviet control and demand the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country. Nagy vowed to support free elections in which non-Communist parties would participate. He announced Hungary's neutrality in the Cold War and the withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Soviet leaders responded by invading Hungary, gaining control of Budapest in 1956. The Soviets captured Nagy and executed him. Many Hungarians fled to the West as refugees.

The United States What were people protesting for in the United States in 1968?

In the United States, students and others demonstrated for rights for women and African Americans. However, the largest and most heated protests were against the country's involvement in the war in Vietnam. After members of the Ohio National Guard killed four unarmed students during an antiwar demonstration at Kent State University on May 4, 1970, students and faculty at hundreds of US. colleges and universities went on strike.

An Age of Terrorism What replaced most of the large-scale open-conflict (war) between sovereign states after the Cold War?

In the post-Cold War period, large-scale open conflict between sovereign states was rare. Instead, individuals unaffiliated with any government committed terrorist acts in Western Europe, South America, the Islamic world, and the United States that intimidated and murdered civilians.

What were 3 factors that positioned the United States to become one of the most powerful countries in the world in the aftermath of WWII? 1. 2. 3.

Its industrial base and infrastructure not only remained intact but also grew stronger through government-funded military contracts. Further, the loss of life in the United States was far lower than in Europe. The relative prosperity of the United States allowed it to provide financial aid to European countries after the war. This aid program, called the Marshall Plan. The United States also had developed atomic weapons and used them during the war, making the country even more formidable. The Soviets successfully tested an atomic bomb of their own in 1949. By the end of the 1940s, only the Soviet Union could challenge the United States in military might and political influence.

What were some of the advancements in universities in the US that were invented during the wartime period?

Military research at universities and in private companies, often funded by government, resulted in tremendous technological developments during World War II. Among the items that were developed for, improved, or used more widely by the military were air pressure systems for airplane cabins, refrigeration for food, stronger plywood for construction, and a variety of plastics for many uses. One of the most important advances was the spread of the use of penicillin, which saved the lives of thousands of wounded soldiers. Each of these advances would be adapted for civilian use, thereby improving the lives of millions of people.

Conflict in Northern Ireland What denomination of Christianity were people in most of Ireland? What denomination of Christianity were people in Northern Ireland? What terrorist acts did some members of the IRA commit in London?

Most of Ireland, the portion dominated by Roman Catholics, gained independence from the United Kingdom in 1922. However, Northern Ireland, which was dominated by Protestants, remained part of the United Kingdom. Northern Ireland Catholics suffered discrimination, and many wanted their region to join the rest of the Irish Republic. Northern Ireland Protestants fiercely refused. The Catholic-Protestant conflict in Northern Ireland became more violent in the 1960s, with Catholics fighting as part of the Irish Republican Army (IRA) and Protestants with the Ulster Defense Association. Between 1969 and 1994, some 3,500 people died in the conflict. Some members of the IRA took their independence campaign to England by engaging in acts of terrorism, the use of violence to achieve political ends. These acts included setting off bombs in London and other cities. In 1994, the two sides reached a cease-fire. Later the IRA renounced violence and turned to politics to achieve its goals.

Why was France reluctant to give up colonies in this area?

Over the years, France Invested in West Africa, building railroads, advancing agricultural development, and benefitting in trade revenue that grew substantially. But by the mid-1950s, various African political parties (democratic, socialist, and communist) and leaders arose in French West Africa.

Islamic Terrorism What are the names of the Islamic terrorist groups in the section? Which Islamic terrorist group was the the deadliest? How were they funded?

Several small groups used a fundamentalist interpretation of Islam, one widely condemned by mainstream Muslims, to justify terrorism. Among these groups were the Boko Haram in West Africa, al-Shabaab in East Africa, the Islamic State of Iraq, the Levant (ISIL) in the Middle East, and the Taliban in Afghanistan. Most victims were Muslims. Some high-profile attacks occurred in European cities such as Madrid, London, and Paris.

Who were the Viet Cong?

South Vietnamese who supported the Communists, known as Viet Cong, fought a guerrilla war against U.S. troops.

Which two empires crumbled? What was the result of their crumbling?

The Austro-Hungary Empire and the Ottoman Empire crumbled, restructured into multiple new countries. However, in China, India, and throughout Africa, Europeans generally maintained their power, even expanding it over territories that had been part of the Ottoman Empire.

What was the Biafran Civil War?

The Biafran Civil War began in 1967 when the Igbos, a Westernized, predominantly Christian tribe in the southeastern oil-rich Niger River Delta area, tried to secede from the northern-dominated government.

What did the Igbos seek?

The Igbos sought autonomy because of targeted attacks against them by the Hausa-Fulani Islamic group in the north. They declared themselves an independent nation called Biafra.

What was the result of the Igbos' secession?

The Igbos' secession movement failed, and Biafra ceased to exist when the war ended, in 1970. Nigeria granted amnesty to a majority of Igbo generals, but civilian government did not return. A series of military coups with generals in command of the government continued until the 1999 election of Olusegun Obasanjo, who presided over a democratic civilian government called the Fourth Republic of Nigeria.

The self-rule of India began in the 19th century under the Indian National Congress with its leader, Mohandas Gandhi. What were the independence tactics of the Indian National Congress? What did the Muslim League advocate for? When Britain failed to follow through on promises for more rights for Indians, what did Indian people do? Example? What resulted in the division between the Muslims and the Hindus of Indian?

The National Congress's tactics included mass civil disobedience, and it remained a powerful governmental force after Indian independence. The Muslim League, founded in 1906, advocated a separate nation for Indian Muslims. Indian people increased their protests for full independence from British rule. The Royal Indian Navy Revolt in 1946 was instrumental in bringing Britain to the realization it could no longer rule India. Muslims campaigned for an independent Muslim country— Pakistan. India and Pakistan both gained independence in 1947.

Explain the historical context of colonial Quebec, Canda

The Quebecois historically aligned themselves with France rather than England. Over the centuries, efforts to create a separate independent state have flared up—sometimes with violent results.

Explain the Quiet Revolution and what the results were of it.

The Quiet Revolution of the 1960s involved much political and social change in Quebec, with the Liberal Party gaining power and reforming economic policies that led to further desires for separation from the rest of British-controlled Canada. French Canadian nationalism expanded, and splinter groups adopted extreme tactics, including terrorist bombings that began in 1963. Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, a native of Quebec, was able to preserve the country's unity. Later, in 1995, a referendum to make Quebec an independent nation failed by a narrow margin.

The Franco Dictatorship in Spain Why did the United States support Francisco Franco in spite of his human rights violations? What did Spain do when Franco died?

The dictator Francisco Franco ruled Spain from 1939 to 1975. (See Topic 7.4.) He had come to power by overthrowing a popularly elected government that included many leftists, Franco's fervent anti-communism made him an ally of the United States. It also led his government to execute, Imprison, or send to labor camps hundreds of thousands of political dissenters. However, opposition to his authoritarianism remained. When Franco died, Spain took the opportunity to move toward democracy.

There were obvious tensions between the Soviet Union and the US, but why would they not fight each other militarily?

The most likely reason for this was that the two sides were afraid of the outcome if they were to fight one another

Martin Luther King Jr. Country they changed How were they NON-Violent and how did that lead to change?

The most prominent of African American civil rights leaders in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s was a Baptist minister, the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr. The civil rights movement used various tactics to achieve its goals: • Court decisions, such as Brown v. Board of Education of' Topeka, Kansas, that banned forced racial segregation of schools in the United States • A year-long boycott of public buses in Montgomery, Alabama (1955—1956), which ended segregation in public transit • Massive marches, such as the 250,000-person March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom in 1964

What was the result of the Vietnamese war of independence?

The peace treaty split the country into North and South Vietnam, with elections planned for 1956 that would reunite the country.

Czechoslovakia What demands of the people did Alexander Dubcek give in to?

The reform movement in Czechoslovakia reached a peak in the Prague Spring of 1968. Alexander Dubcek, first secretary of the Communist Party, acceded to the demands of the Czech people by increasing freedom of speech and the press and allowing greater freedom to travel. He also agreed to make the political system more democratic.

Mohandas Gandhi Country they changed How were they NON-Violent and how did that lead to change?

Topic 7.5 described how Mohandas Gandhi led nonviolent marches, boycotts, and fasts to oppose British colonial rule in India. In 1947, India became independent.

Why were Europe and Asia not leaders after WWII. What did a lot of countries "flee" to?

When the war ended in 1945, parts of Europe and Asia had been devastated. The war resulted in 40 million to 60 million deaths. It destroyed factories, roads, bridges, and other structures needed for industrial production, It forced millions of people to move. Many were fleeing communism or searching for safety and opportunity.

Terrorism in the United States Aside from 9/11, who was responsible for the majority of the terrorist attacks in the United States?

While the September II attack was the deadliest act of terrorism in the United States, it was not the only one. Acts of terrorism in the United States come from different sources and groups, including domestic groups, some of which are associated with white-nationalist or extreme right-wing views. One of the largest of these occurred when two anti-government extremists bombed a federal building in Oklahoma City in 1995, killing 168 people. Other attacks targeted Muslims, Jews, and blacks.

Which major countries were devastated the most? What did countries like France and Great Britain lose during the war?

Worst hit were the Soviet Union, Poland, and Germany. Each lost between 10 and 20 percent of its population. Countries such as Great Britain and France, despite their losses, maintained strong traditions of democracy and the rule of law. However, because of the massive physical destruction and population loss in victorious and defeated nations, Europe became less influential and powerful in the rest of the world, while the United States and the Soviet Union became more powerful.

The second way is how Angola gained their independence and that is through ____________________________.

armed struggle

There are basically two ways nations started to decolonize and gain independence, the first way is how India gained their independence, through _________________________.

political negotiation

1968: The Year of Revolt List the countries that revolted in 1968 What caused many of the protests and revolts in 1968?

• In Yugoslavia. students marched against authoritarian government. • In Poland and Northern Ireland, people protested over religious issues. • In Brazil, marchers demanded improvements in public education and fairer treatment of workers. • In Japan, students protested both university financial policies and government support for the United States in the war in Vietnam.

Foundations for dismantling of colonial empires: In the colonized world, movements for_____________________________ grew. Often they included both advocates for ____________________________ and proponents of ___________________________. World War II had so weakened _______________________ and ______________________, and the other colonial powers that they had fewer resources to resist independence. The Cold War between the US and the Society Union gave ___________________________________ two superpowers to recruit as supporters.

• In the colonized world, movements for self-determination grew. Often, they included both advocates of greater self-rule and proponents of full independence. • World War II had so weakened Great Britain, France, and the other colonial powers that they had fewer resources to resist independence. • The Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union gave anti-colonial activists two superpowers to recruit as supporters.