Unit VIII: Motivation, Emotion, and Stress

About _____ percent of both men and women say they have sexual fantasies. Men (whether gay or straight) fantasize about sex more often, more physically, and less romantically.

95.

Despite shared family meals, adoptive siblings' body weights are uncorrelated with one another or with those of their adoptive parents. Rather, people's weights resemble those of their _______________________.

Biological parents.

Depictions of women being sexually coerced—and liking it—tend to increase viewers' acceptance of the ________________ that women enjoy rape, and they tend to increase male viewers' willingness to hurt women. Viewing images of sexually attractive women and men may also lead people to devalue their own partners and relationships.

False idea.

The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion.

Cannon-Bard theory of emotion.

___________________ have been history's most rapidly adopted technology. At the end of 2010, the world had 7.1 billion people and 6.8 billion mobile cell-phone subscriptions.

Cell phones.

People tend to attribute women's emotionality to their disposition and men's to their ________________________: "She's emotional. He's having a bad day."

Circumstances.

The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries. Also, North America's leading cause of death.

Coronary heart disease.

When your ___________________ doesn't function properly, it can err in two directions. Responding too strongly, it may attack the body's own tissues, causing some forms of arthritis or an allergic reaction. Underreacting, it may allow a dormant herpes virus to erupt or cancer cells to multiply.

Immune system.

A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Incentive.

Women are immunologically stronger than men, making them less susceptible to ________________, but this very strength also makes them more susceptible to self-attacking diseases, such as lupus and multiple sclerosis.

Infections.

Feeling insecurely attached to others during childhood can persist into adulthood. Some display __________________________, constantly craving acceptance but remaining vigilant to signs of possible rejection.

Insecure anxious attachment.

Feeling insecurely attached to others during childhood can persist into adulthood, in two main forms. Some are trapped in __________________________, feeling such discomfort over getting close to others that they employ avoidant strategies to maintain their distance.

Insecure avoidance attachment.

When hearing emotions conveyed in another language, anger is the emotion can people most ___________________.

Readily detect.

A resting period after orgasm, during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Refractory period.

Sex hormones, such as estradiol, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males and contributing to female sex characteristics. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Estrogen.

Stress perceived as positive, but this kind of stress still involves heightened arousal.

Eustress.

John sees a snake in the bushes. He begins to shake and feel fear simultaneously.

Example of Cannon-Bard.

Problems that consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning. Some involve sexual motivation, especially lack of sexual energy and arousal. For men, others include erectile disorder (inability to have or maintain an erection) and premature ejaculation.

Sexual dysfunction.

The four stages of sexual responding described by Masters and Johnson—excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Sexual response cycle.

With ________________________, the levels of leptin (which reports body fat to the brain) fall, and ghrelin (the appetite-stimulating stomach hormone) rise.

Sleep deprivation.

How we appraise an event influences how much stress we experience and how effectively we respond. The stressful event followed by appraisal (challenge or threat) followed by a response (focus or distraction). This is called the:

Stress cycle.

When short-lived, or when perceived as challenges, _______________ can have positive effects. A momentary stress can mobilize the immune system for fending off infections and healing wounds. Stress also arouses and motivates us to conquer problems.

Stressors.

Offered a __________________ standard portion, people put away more calories. In other studies (Wansink, 2006, 2007), even nutrition experts helped themselves to 31 percent more ice cream when given a big bowl rather than a small one, and 15 percent more when scooping with a big rather than a small scoop. Portion size matters.

Supersized.

_____________________ seem to be more sensitive to tastes because they have more taste buds on their tongues and tend to find bitter foods nastily bitter and sweet foods excessively sweet.

Supertasters.

You are walking down a dark alley late at night. You hear footsteps behind you and you begin to tremble, your heart beats faster, and your breathing deepens. You notice these physiological changes and interpret them as your body's preparation for a fearful situation.

Example of James-Lange.

Drug addicts, before becoming addicted, experience the euphoria of a drug with few negative consequences. Over time, however, they develop a tolerance for the drug, requiring increasing doses to get the same high. At the same time, their cravings and distressful feelings increase when going without the drug, leading to increased in withdrawal symptoms and a cycle of increasing drug use.

Example of opponent process theory of emotion.

During the initial _________________ phase, men's and women's genital areas become engorged with blood, a woman's vagina expands and secretes lubricant, and her breasts and nipples may enlarge.

Excitement.

In Phase 3, ________________ occurs. With exhaustion, you become more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.

Exhaustion.

______________________ form in the thymus and other lymphatic tissue and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

T lymphocytes.

Although the human body copes well with temporary stress, prolonged stress can damage it. The brain's production of new neurons slows and some neural circuits degenerate. ____________________ shortening is a normal part of the aging process; when they get too short, the cell can no longer divide and it ultimately dies.

Telomere.

Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others (tend) and bond with and seek support from others (befriend); results in the release of _____________________.

Tend-and-befriend response; oxytocin.

Why does further weight loss come slowly following a rapid loss during the initial three weeks of a rigorous diet?

The body reacts as if it's being starved and metabolic rates drop.

The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

The facial feedback effect.

Sexual dysfunction involves problems with arousal or sexual functioning. People with paraphilias such as exhibitionism, fetishism, and pedophilia, do experience sexual arousal, but they direct it in _______________________.

Unusual ways.

Food _____________ also stimulates eating. When foods were abundant and varied, eating more provided a wide range of vitamins and minerals and produced fat that protected them during winter cold or famine. When a bounty of varied foods was unavailable, eating less extended the food supply until winter or famine ended.

Variety.

The part of the brain that controls satiety. When this is stimulated, a rat will starve to death, acting as though it has eaten and does not need food.

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH).

The body's resting rate of energy expenditure.

Basal metabolic rate.

The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

Psychoneuroimmunology.

Any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension and some headaches.

Psychophysiological illness.

In men, normal fluctuations in testosterone levels, from man to man and hour to hour, have little effect on _____________________.

Sexual drive.

_____________________ occurs when blood sugar levels run too low because of a lack of food. This condition is accompanied by feelings of dizziness and weakness.

Hypoglycemia.

The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body's immune system.

Lymphocytes.

Some emotions (especially more complex feelings like hatred and love) travel a ________________. A stimulus following this path would travel (by way of the thalamus) to the brain's cortex. There, it would be analyzed and labeled before the command is sent out, via the amygdala (an emotion-control center), to respond.

"High road"

Sometimes our emotions (especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears) take what Joseph LeDoux (2002) has called the _________________, a neural shortcut that bypasses the cortex. Following this pathway, a fear-provoking stimulus would travel from the eye or ear (again via the thalamus) directly to the amygdala. This shortcut, bypassing the cortex, enables our greased-lightning emotional response before our intellect intervenes.

"Low road"

According to Roger E. Axtell, there is one "ultimate gesture" that carries a certain welcome characteristic, unlike any other single gesture. This ultimate gesture is known everywhere in the world. It is absolutely universal. It is rarely, if ever, misunderstood. It releases chemicals called endorphins into the system, creating a feeling of mild euphoria.

A smile.

In Phase 1, you have an ___________ reaction, as your sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated. Your heart rate zooms. Blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles. You feel the faintness of shock.

Alarm.

People who had scored high on ___________ were three times more likely to have had heart attacks, even after researchers controlled for smoking and weight.

Anger.

____________ strikes most people as a more masculine emotion.

Anger.

Such ostracism takes a toll: It elicits increased activity in brain areas, such as the ______________________, that also activate in response to physical pain. That helps explain another surprising finding: The pain-reliever acetaminophen (as in Tylenol and Anacin) lessens social as well as physical pain.

Anterior cingulate cortex.

Maslow's hierarchy is somewhat ________________; the order of such needs is not universally fixed. People have starved themselves to make a political statement.

Arbitrary.

______________________ form in the bone marrow and release antibodies that fight bacterial infections.

B lymphocytes.

___________________ people tend to smoke more, exercise less, and have more than a doubled rate of heart attack death than undepressed people.

Depressed.

The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Drive-reduction theory.

Females are also more likely to express _________________—to cry and to report distress when observing someone in distress. Women also tend to experience emotional events, such as viewing pictures of mutilation more deeply, with more brain activation in areas sensitive to emotion. And they are better at remembering the scenes later.

Empathy.

The need for self-esteem, achievement, competence, and independence; need for recognition and respect from others.

Esteem needs.

In poorer nations that lack easy access to money and the food and shelter it buys, _______________________ more strongly predicts feelings of well-being. In wealthy nations, where most are able to meet basic needs, _______________________ is a better predictor. Self-esteem matters most in individualist nations, whose citizens tend to focus more on personal achievements than on family and community identity.

Financial satisfaction; home-life satisfaction.

Asked to describe personal episodes that made them feel especially bad about themselves, people will—about __________________________—describe a relationship difficulty.

Four times out of five.

Social influence is another factor for obesity. One 32-year study of 12,067 people found them most likely to become obese when a ______________ became obese. If the obese friend was a close one, the odds of likewise becoming obese almost tripled.

Friend.

Hans Selye's concept of the body's adaptive response to stress in three phases—alarm, resistance, exhaustion.

General adaptation syndrome (GAS).

Hormone secreted by empty stomach; sends "I'm hungry" signals to the brain.

Ghrelin.

The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues. When its level is low, we feel hunger.

Glucose.

A more effective approach to lie detection uses a _________________________, which also assesses a suspect's physiological responses to crime-scene details known only to the police and the guilty person. If a camera and computer had been stolen, for example, only a guilty person should react strongly to the brand names of the stolen items. Given enough such specific probes, an innocent person will seldom be wrongly accused.

Guilty knowledge test.

Those wishing to lose weight are advised to make a lifelong change in _______________: Get enough sleep; boost energy expenditure through exercise; limit variety and minimize exposure to tempting food cues; eat healthy foods and reduce portion sizes; space meals throughout the day; beware of the binge; monitor eating during social events; forgive the occasional lapse; and connect to a support group.

Habits.

Maslow's pyramid of human needs, beginning at the base with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety needs and then psychological needs become active.

Hierarchy of needs.

A tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state; the regulation of any aspect of body chemistry, such as blood glucose, around a particular level.

Homeostasis.

__________________ occurs when blood sugar levels run too high. This condition, also known as diabetes, results when cells in the pancreas do not metabolize carbohydrates.

Hyperglycemia.

A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

Instinct.

Hormone secreted by pancreas; controls blood glucose.

Insulin.

The physiological response comes before the cognitive label.

James-Lange theory of emotion.

The part of the brain that controls the desire to eat. When this structure is stimulated, a rat will eat without becoming satiated.

Lateral hypothalamus (LH).

EEG recordings have revealed brain waves that indicate familiarity with crime information. fMRI scans have shown liars' brains activating in places that honest people's brains do not, such as activity in the _________________________________, which become active when the brain inhibits truth-telling.

Left frontal lobe and anterior cingulate cortex.

Protein hormone secreted by fat cells; when abundant, causes brain to increase metabolism and decrease hunger.

Leptin.

Texting and e-mailing have been displacing phone talking, which by 2009 accounted for ______________ of U.S. mobile network traffic.

Less than half.

Although cultures share a universal facial language for basic emotions, they differ in how much emotion they express. Those that encourage individuality, as in Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand, and North America, display mostly visible emotions. Those that encourage people to adjust to others, as in China, tend to have ________________ displays of personal emotions.

Less visible.

When communicating electronically rather than face to face, we often are _____ focused on others' reactions, less self-conscious, and thus less inhibited. We become more willing to share joys, worries, and vulnerabilities.

Less.

_______________ have tended to spend greater-than-average time online.

Lonely people.

Research on semistarvation found that men who were given just enough food to stabilize their weight at 25 percent below their starting weight ________________________________.

Lost interest in social activities.

In humans, hormones more loosely influence sexual behavior, although sexual desire rises slightly at ovulation among women with mates. When at peak fertility in their menstrual cycle, women express increased preference for _______________________ and ability to detect sexual orientation, but also increased apprehensiveness of men perceived as potentially sexually coercive.

Masculine faces.

Psychologists attempt to detect fleeting signals of deceit in facial expressions. Eyeblinks, for example, decrease during the cognitive demands of lying and increase afterward. Other researchers are developing software that analyzes facial ___________________________ or compares the language of truth-tellers and of liars (who use fewer first-person pronouns and more negative- emotion words).

Microexpressions.

_____________________ would lead to optimal performance. When taking an exam, for example, it pays to be moderately aroused—alert but not trembling with nervousness. We have since learned that optimal arousal levels depend the task as well, with more difficult tasks requiring lower arousal for best performance.

Moderate arousal.

We are eating more and moving less, with lifestyles approaching those of animal feedlots (where farmers fatten inactive animals). In the United States, jobs requiring _________________________ declined from about 50 percent in 1960 to 20 percent in 2011.

Moderate physical activity.

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Motivation.

Those who score high on __________________ are especially active on social networking sites. They collect more superficial "friends." They offer more staged, glamorous photos. And, not surprisingly, they seem more narcissistic to strangers viewing their pages.

Narcissism.

Sleep researchers have discovered that genital arousal accompanies all types of dreams, even though most dreams have __________________________.

No sexual content.

Significant _____________ increases the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, and certain types of cancer, thus increasing health care costs and shortening life expectancy.

Obesity.

In one study, polygraph experts interpreted the polygraph data of 100 people who had been suspects in theft crimes. Half the suspects were guilty and had confessed; the other half had been proven innocent. Had the polygraph experts been the judges, more than ______________ of the innocent would have been declared guilty, and one-fourth of the guilty would have been declared innocent.

One-third.

Richard L. Solomon's theory contends that the primary or initial reaction to an emotional event (State A) will be followed by an opposite secondary emotional state (State B). In other words, a stimulus that initially inspires displeasure will likely be followed by a pleasurable after-feeling and vice versa. Also, after repeated exposure to the same emotional event, the (State A) reaction will begin to weaken, whereas the (State B) reaction will strengthen in intensity and duration. Thus, over time, the after-feeling can become the prevailing emotional experience associated with a particular stimulus event.

Opponent process theory of emotion.

_________________________ holds that some motivated behaviors actually increase arousal. Well-fed animals will leave their shelter to explore and gain information, seemingly in the absence of any need-based drive.

Optimal arousal theory.

Hunger-triggering hormone secreted by hypothalamus.

Orexin.

At ________________, there are muscle contractions all over the body. These were accompanied by further increases in breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates. pulse rate surges from about 70 to 115 beats per minute. A woman's arousal and orgasm facilitate conception by positioning the uterus to receive sperm, and drawing the sperm further inward. A woman's orgasm therefore not only reinforces intercourse, which is essential to natural reproduction, it also increases retention of deposited sperm. The pleasurable feeling of sexual release apparently is much the same for both sexes.

Orgasm.

Worldwide, humans use many forms of __________________—exile, imprisonment, solitary confinement—to punish, and therefore control, social behavior. For children, even a brief time-out in isolation can be punishing.

Ostracism.

Digestive tract hormone; sends "I'm not hungry" signals to the brain.

PYY.

_____________________ found evidence for universal facial expressions-six in total. They are fear, disgust, happiness, anger, sadness, and surprise.

Paul Ekman.

Even after other risk factors such as smoking had been ruled out, ___________________ were more than twice as likely as optimists to develop heart disease.

Pessimists.

The need to satisfy hunger and thirst.

Physiological needs.

In the ________________ phase, excitement peaks as breathing, pulse, and blood pressure rates continue to increase. The penis becomes fully engorged and some fluid—frequently containing enough live sperm to enable conception—may appear at its tip. Vaginal secretion continues to increase.

Plateau.

__________________ don't literally detect lies. Instead, they measure emotion-linked changes in breathing, cardiovascular activity, and perspiration.

Polygraphs.

____________________ tend to trigger more left frontal lobe activity. People with positive personalities—exuberant infants and alert, enthusiastic, energized, and persistently goal-directed adults—also show more activity in the left frontal lobe than in the right.

Positive moods.

Pictures of our loved ones also activate a brain region associated with safety—the _______________________—that dampens feelings of physical pain.

Prefrontal cortex.

After an alarming event, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration are high, and you have an outpouring of hormones. Hans Selye would most likely guess that you are in which general adaptation syndrome phase?

Resistance.

During Phase 2, _________________, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high. Your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream. You are fully engaged, summoning all your resources to meet the challenge.

Resistance.

During the _________________ phase, the body gradually returns to its unaroused state as the engorged genital blood vessels release their accumulated blood—relatively quickly if orgasm has occurred, relatively slowly otherwise.

Resolution.

___________________ states emotions arise when we appraise an event as harmless or dangerous, whether we truly know it is or not. We appraise the sound of the rustling bushes as the presence of a threat. Later, we realize that it was "just the wind."

Richard Lazarus.

____________________ contended that we actually have many emotional reactions apart from, or even before, our interpretation of a situation. Perhaps you can recall liking something or someone immediately, without knowing why; some emotional responses—especially simple likes, dislikes, and fears—involve no conscious thinking.

Robert Zajonc and Joseph LeDoux.

The need to love and be loved, to belong and be accepted; need to avoid loneliness and separation.

Safety and belongingess needs.

The need to feel that the world is organized and predictable; to feel safe.

Safety needs.

The need to live up to our fullest and unique potential.

Self-actualization needs.

The need to find meaning and identity beyond the self.

Self-transcendence needs.

The point at which an individual's "weight thermostat" is supposedly set. When the body falls below this weight, an increase in hunger and a lowered metabolic rate may act to restore the lost weight.

Set point.

Extreme or prolonged stress can harm us. Adults who suffer _______________________ stress are at an increased risk for chronic disease, heart problems, and death.

Severe or prolonged.

Men and women with sexual dysfunctions can often be helped through _______________. In behaviorally oriented therapy, for example, men learn ways to control their urge to ejaculate, and women are trained to bring themselves to orgasm. Starting with the introduction of Viagra in 1998, erectile disorder has been routinely treated by taking a pill.

Therapy.

First, our physiological arousal is much the same from one emotion to another. Anxiety, irritation, and guilt all prompt similar physiological reactivity. Second, many innocent people do respond with heightened tension to the accusations implied by the critical questions.

Two issues of polygraphs.

The Schachter-Singer theory that to experience emotion one must (1) be physically aroused and (2) cognitively label the arousal.

Two-factor theory of emotion.

Friedman and Rosenman's term for competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type A.

Friedman and Rosenman's term for easygoing, relaxed people.

Type B.

After analyzing 125 studies of sensitivity to nonverbal cues, Judith Hall (1984, 1987) concluded that ___________ generally do surpass men at reading people's emotional cues when given "thin slices" of behavior. Women have also surpassed men in other assessments of emotional cues, such as deciding whether a male-female couple is a genuine romantic couple or a posed phony couple, and in discerning which of two people in a photo is the other's supervisor.

Women.

Most ______________ who experience sexual distress relate it to their emotional relationship with the partner during sex.

Women.

The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Yerkes-Dodson law.

Do you eat more when eating with others?

Yes. The presence of others tends to amplify our natural behavior tendencies.