U.S. History Unit 8 Study Guide

Saturday Night Massacre Archibald Cox

A year-long battle for the "Nixon tapes" followed. Archibald Cox, the special prosecutor whom Elliot Richardson had appointed to investigate the case, took the president to court in October 1973 to obtain the tapes. Nixon refused and ordered Attorney General Richardson to fire Cox. In what became known as the Saturday Night Massacre, Richardson refused the order and resigned. The deputy attorney general also refused the order, and he was fired. Solicitor General Robert Bork finally fired Cox. However, Cox's replacement, Leon Jaworski, proved equally determined to get the tapes. Several months after the "massacre," the House Judiciary Committee began examining the possibility of an impeachment hearing. E The entire White House appeared to be under siege. Just days before the Saturday Night Massacre, Vice President Spiro Agnew had resigned after it was revealed that he had accepted bribes from engineering firms while governor of Maryland. Agnew pleaded nolo contendere (no contest) to the charge. Acting under the Twenty-fifth Amendment, Nixon nominated the House minority leader, Gerald R. Ford, as his new vice-president. Congress quickly confirmed the nomination.

The Bush Administration Effects of 9/11 War against Iraq WMD

After the protests and legal actions subsided, George W. Bush was inaugurated as the 43rd president of the United States on January 20, 2001. Bush inherited several chal- lenges, including a weakening national economy and an energy problem in California. During his first months as president, Bush began to advance his political agenda. He declared plans to reform the federal role in education and to privatize Social Security. Bush also proposed a $1.35 trillion tax cut, which became law in June 2001. ANTITERRORIST MEASURES The political landscape changed dramatically after the September 11 terrorist attacks. The Bush administration, now with the over- whelming support of Congress and the American people, shifted its energy and attention to combating terrorism. In October 2001, Bush signed an antiterrorism bill into law. The law allowed the government to detain foreigners suspected of terrorism for seven days without charging them with a crime. By the following month, Bush had cre- ated the Department of Homeland Security, a government body set up to coordinate national efforts to combat ter- rorism. In addition, the federal government increased its involvement in aviation security. The Bush Administration also began waging a war against terrorism. In October 2001, coalition forces led by the United States began bombing Afghanistan. The Afghan government was harboring Osama bin Laden and his al- Qaeda terrorist network believed responsible for the September 11 attacks. In 2002, the coalition successfully broke up the al-Qaeda network in Afghanistan. Osama bin Laden, however, remained at large. (See the first issue in "Issues for the 21st Century," on page 1100.) Nonetheless, the Bush administration gained widespread public approval for the decisive steps taken. H Bush also scored a major success when direct elections were held for the first time in Afghanistan in October 2004. The Afghan people elected interim president Hamid Karzai as their first democratically elected president. Although Afghanistan still faced many problems, the elections were considered a positive move toward resolving them. In 2003, Bush expanded the war on terrorism to Iraq. Following the Persian Gulf War, Iraq had agreed to UN demands to stop the production of biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons. (However, throughout the 1990s, the leader of Iraq, Saddam Hussein, cooperated only partly with UN arms inspectors and even- tually barred them from entering his country.) After the September 11 attacks, Bush alleged that Hussein was supplying ter- rorists such as al-Qaeda with weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and called for renewed arms inspections in Iraq. The inspectors determined that Iraq had not resumed its WMD programs; but Hussein had again not cooperated fully with the inspection process. The United States and Great Britain then ended diplomacy with Iraq and invaded in March 2003. Within a month, Iraq's forces were defeat- ed and Hussein had gone into hiding. U.S. forces then began an intensive search for WMD in Iraq. No trace of chemical or biological weaponry were found. In December 2003, U.S. forces found and captured Saddam Hussein. The former dic- tator was handed over to the Iraqis to stand trial for crimes against humanity. (See the second issue in "Issues for the 21st Century," on page 1104.) At his trial, Hussein was found guilty, and on December 30, 2006, the former dictator was hanged. Meanwhile, on the home front, President Bush concen- trated on education and the economy. He signed into law an education reform plan entitled No Child Left Behind. This plan called for more accountability by states for students' success, mandatory achievement testing, and more school options available for parents. The economy posed a greater challenge, as corporate scandals, such as those related to such highly successful companies as Enron and WorldCom, rocked the nation. Congress responded to these corporate scandals by passing the Sarbanes- Oxley Act. This act established a regulatory board to oversee the accounting indus- try and its involvement with corporations. The scandals caused investors to lose faith in corporations, which had a negative effect on an already sluggish U.S. econ- omy. In 2003, Congress passed and Bush signed into law a $350 billion tax cut. Bush claimed that the tax cut would help the sagging economy and create jobs. Democrats opposed the cuts, saying they would mostly benefit the rich. The Democrats were overruled, however, because the Republican Party had gained control of Congress in the 2002 election. Now the Republicans held 51 of 100 seats in the Senate and 229 of 435 seats in the House of Representatives.

Watergate

As President Nixon fought with both houses of Congress, he also battled the more liberal elements of society, including the antiwar move- ment. Nixon had been elected in 1968 on a dual promise to end the war in Vietnam and mend the divisiveness within America that the war had created. Throughout his first term, Nixon aggressively moved to fulfill both pledges. The president de- escalated America's involvement in Vietnam and oversaw peace negotiations with North Vietnam. At the same time, he began the "law and order" policies that he had promised his "silent majority"—those middle-class Americans who wanted order restored to a country beset by urban riots and antiwar demonstrations. To accomplish this, Nixon used the full resources of his office—sometimes illegally. Nixon and members of his staff ordered wiretaps of many left-wing indi- viduals and the Democratic Party offices at the Watergate office building in Washington, D.C. The CIA also investigated and compiled documents on thou- sands of American dissidents—people who objected to the government's policies. The administration even used the Internal Revenue Service to audit the tax returns of antiwar and civil rights activists. Nixon began building a personal "ene- mies list" of prominent Americans whom the administration would harass. Nixon also enlisted the help of his combative vice-president, Spiro T. Agnew, to denounce the opposition. The vice-president confronted the antiwar protesters and then turned his scorn on those who controlled the media, whom he viewed as liberal cheerleaders for the antiwar movement. Known for his colorful quotes, Agnew lashed out at the media and liberals as "an effete [weak] corps of impudent snobs" and "nattering nabobs of negativism." The Watergate scandal centered on the Nixon administration's attempt to cover up a burglary of the Democratic National Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate office and apartment complex in Washington, D.C. However, the Watergate story began long before the actual burglary. Many historians believe that Watergate truly began with the personalities of Richard Nixon and those of his advisers, as well as with the changing role of the presidency.

President's men H.R. Haldeman John Ehrlichman John Mitchell John Dean

As he dis- tanced himself from Congress, Nixon confided in a small and fiercely loyal group of advisers. They included H. R. Haldeman, White House chief of staff; John Ehrlichman, chief domestic adviser; and John Mitchell, Nixon's former attorney general. These men had played key roles in Nixon's 1968 election victory and now helped the president direct White House policy. These men also shared President Nixon's desire for secrecy and the con- solidation of power. Critics charged that these men, through their person- alities and their attitude toward the presidency, developed a sense that they were somehow above the law. This sense would, in turn, prompt President Nixon and his advisers to cover up their role in Watergate, and fuel the coming scandal

Reaganomics Takes Over Budget cuts Tax cuts Supply-side economics Defense spending Strategic Defense Initiative

As soon as Reagan took office, he worked to reduce the size and influence of the federal government, which, he thought, would encourage private investment. Because people were anxious about the economy in 1980, their concern opened the door for new approaches to taxes and the federal budget. Reagan'sstrategyfordownsizingthefederalgovernmentincluded deep cuts in government spending on social programs. Yet his cuts did not affect all segments of the population equally. Entitlement programs that benefited the middle class, such as Social Security, Medicare, and veterans' pensions, remained intact. On the other hand, Congress slashed by 10 percent the budget for programs that benefited other groups: urban mass transit, food stamps, welfare benefits, job training, Medicaid, school lunches, and student loans. "Reaganomics" rested heavily upon supply-side economics. This theory held that if people paid fewer taxes, they would save more money. Banks could then loan that money to businesses, which could invest the money in resources to improve productivity. The supply of goods then would increase, driving down prices. At Reagan's urging, Congress lowered income taxes by about 25 percent over a three-year period. Reagan based his ideas for supply-side eco- nomics on the work of economists such as George Gilder and Arthur Laffer. At the same time, Reagan authorized increases in military spending that more than offset cuts in social programs. Between 1981 and 1984, the Defense Department budget almost doubled. Indeed, the president revived two controversial weapons systems—the MX missile and the B-1 bomber. In 1983, Reagan asked the country's scientists to develop a defense system that would keep Americans safe from enemy missiles. Called the Strategic Defense Initiative, or SDI, the sys- tem quickly became known as Star Wars, after the title of a popular movie. The Defense Department estimated that the system would cost trillions of dollars.

Collapse of Communist Regimes East Germany October 1989 November 9, 1989 Early 1990 October 3, 1990 Poland Czechoslovakia Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania Yugoslavia Ethnic rivalries (ethnic cleansing) Muslims vs. Orthodox Serbs vs. Roman Catholic Croats

Before his resignation, Gorbachev had encouraged the people of East Germany and Eastern Europe to go their own ways. In 1988, when the Soviet Union was still intact, he reduced the number of Soviet troops in Eastern Europe and allowed non-Communist parties to organize in satellite nations, such as East Germany and Poland. He encouraged the satel- lite nations to move toward democracy. During a speech given at the Berlin Wall in 1987, President Reagan chal- lenged Gorbachev to back up his reforms with decisive action. In October 1989, East Germans startled the world by repudiating their Communist government. On November 9, 1989, East Germany opened the Berlin Wall, allowing free passage between the two parts of the city for the first time in 28 years. East German border guards stood by and watched as Berliners pounded away with hammers and other tools at the despised wall. In early 1990, East Germany held its first free elections, and on October 3 of that year, the two German nations were united. B Other European nations also adopted democratic reforms. Czechoslovakia withdrew from the Soviet bloc. The Baltic states of Latvia, Estonia, and Lithuania declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania made successful tran- sitions from communism. Yugoslavia, however, collapsed. Four of its six republics seceded. Ethnic rivalries deteriorated into a brutal war among Muslims, Orthodox Serbs, and Roman Catholic Croats, who were dividing Yugoslavia, each claiming parts of it. Serbia backed Serb minorities stirring up civil unrest in Croatia and Bosnia

Conservative Coalition Groups Goals

Beginning in the mid-1960s, the conserva- tive movement in the United States grew in strength. Eventually, conservative groups formed the conservative coalition—an alliance of business leaders, middle-class voters, disaffected Democrats, and fundamentalist Christian groups. Conservative intellectuals argued the cause of the conservative coalition in newspapers such as The Wall Street Journal and magazines such as the National Review, founded in 1955 by conservative William F. Buckley, Jr. Conservative think tanks, such as the American Enterprise Institute and The Heritage Foundation, were founded to develop conservative policies and principles that would appeal to the majority of voters.

Central American and Caribbean Policy Nicaragua Civil war 1977-79; Somoza vs. Sandinistas 1981: Reagan and Contras Grenada Overthrew pro-Cuban government; 1983 Panama Noriega; military dictator; international drug trade Yankee imperialism

Cold War considerations during the Reagan and Bush administrations continued to influence affairs in Central America and the Caribbean. In these places, the United States still opposed left-leaning and socialist governments in favor of gov- ernments friendly to the United States. NICARAGUA The United States had had a presence in Nicaragua ever since 1912, when President Taft sent U.S. Marines to protect American investments there. The marines left in 1933, but only after helping the dictator Anastasio Somoza come to power. The Somoza family ruled Nicaragua for 42 years. To keep control of its busi- ness empire, the family rigged elections and assassinated political rivals. Many people believed that only a revolution would end the Somoza dictatorship. Between 1977 and 1979, Nicaragua was engulfed in a civil war between Somoza's national guard and the Sandinistas, rebels who took their name from a rebel leader named Sandino who had been killed in 1934. When Sandinista rebels toppled the dictatorship of Somoza's son in 1979, President Carter recog- nized the new regime and sent it $83 million in economic aid. The Soviet Union and Cuba sent aid as well. In 1981, however, President Reagan charged that Nicaragua was a Soviet out- post that was exporting revolution to other Central American countries. Reagan cut all aid to the Sandinista government and threw his support to guerrilla forces known as the Contras because they were against the Sandinistas. By 1983, the Contra army had grown to nearly 10,000 men, and American officials from the CIA had stationed themselves to direct operations—without congressional approval. In response, Congress passed the Boland Amendment, banning military aid to the Contras for two years. However, Reagan's administration still found ways to negotiate aid to the Contras. On February 25, 1990, Nicaraguan president Daniel Ortega held free elec- tions, and Violeta de Chamorro, a Contra supporter, was elected the nation's new president. Chamorro's coalition was united only in opposition to the Sandinistas; it was too weak and divided to solve Nicaragua's ongoing problems. GRENADA On the tiny Caribbean island of Grenada, the United States used direct military force to accomplish its aims. After noting that the island was developing ties to Communist Cuba, President Reagan sent approximately 2,000 troops to the island in 1983. There they overthrew the pro-Cuban government, which was replaced by one friendlier to the United States. Eighteen American sol- diers died in the attack, but Reagan declared that the invasion had been necessary to defend U.S. security. PANAMA Six years later, in 1989, President Bush sent more than 20,000 soldiers and marines into Panama to overthrow and arrest General Manuel Antonio Noriega on charges of drug trafficking. Noriega had been receiving money since 1960 from the CIA, but he was also involved in the international drug trade. After he was indicted by a Miami grand jury, Noriega was taken by force by the American military and flown to Miami to stand trial. In April 1992, Noriega was convicted and sentenced to 40 years in prison. Many Latin American govern- ments deplored the "Yankee imperialism" of the action. However, many Americans—and Panamanians—were pleased by the removal of a military dic- tator who supported drug smuggling.

New Foreign Policy Challenges North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

Conflicts and confused alliances grew in the wake of the Cold War. The question of U.S. intervention overseas, and the globalization of the economy presented the United States with a host of new challenges. RELATIONS WITH FORMER COLD WAR FOES Maintaining strong relations with Russia and China became major goals for the Clinton administration. Throughout the 1990s, the U.S. and Russia cooperated on economic and arms- control issues. Still, Russia criticized U.S. intervention in Yugoslavia, where a bloody civil war raged. Meanwhile, U.S. officials protested against Russian attacks on rebels in the Russian region of Chechnya. U.S. relations with China were strained as well. Clinton had stressed that he would lean on China to grant its citizens more democratic rights. As president, however, he put greater emphasis on increasing trade with China. Despite con- cerns that Chinese spies had stolen U.S. defense secrets, Clinton supported a bill—passed in 2000—granting China permanent trade rights. TROOPS ABROAD With the Cold War over, the United States turned more of its attention to regional conflicts. President Clinton proved willing to use troops to end conflicts overseas. In 1991, military leaders in Haiti forced the elected presi- dent from office. Thousands of refugees fled the military leaders' harsh rule. In 1994, President Clinton dispatched American troops to Haiti, and the military rulers were forced to step down. Other interventions occurred in Yugoslavia. In 1991, Yugoslavia broke apart into five nations. In Bosnia, one of the new states, some Serb militias under Slobodon Milosevic (mee • LOH • sheh • vihch) began "ethnic cleansing," killing or expelling from their homes people of certain ethnic groups. In 1995, the United States helped negotiate a peace in Bosnia. Clinton sent U.S. troops to join NATO troops to help ensure the deal. About three years later, Serb forces attacked ethnic Albanians in the Serb province of Kosovo. The U.S. and its NATO allies launched air strikes against Serbian targets in 1999, forcing the Serbs to back down. American troops followed up by participating in an international peace-keeping force. In both Bosnia and Kosovo, the administration promised early withdrawal. However, the U.S. troops stayed longer than had been intended, drawing criticism of Clinton's policies. Seeing flourishing trade as essential to U.S. prosperity and to world economic and political stability, President Clinton championed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA). This legislation would bring Mexico into the free-trade zone that the United States and Canada already had formed. Supporters said NAFTA would strengthen all three economies and create more American jobs. Opponents insisted that NAFTA would transfer American jobs to Mexico, where wages were lower, and harm the environ- ment because of Mexico's weaker antipollution laws. Congress rejected these arguments, and the treaty was ratified by all three countries' legislatures in 1993. Once the treaty took effect, on January 1, 1994, trade with Mexico increased. Critics of free trade and the global economy remained vocal, however. In late 1999, the World Trade Organization (WTO), an organization that promotes trade and economic development, met in Seattle. Demonstrators protested that the WTO made decisions with little public input and that these decisions harmed poorer countries, the environment, and American manufacturing workers. Subsequent anti-globalization protests have been held worldwide. Violent clash- es erupted between police and demonstrators at the April 2001 third Summit of the Americas, held in Quebec City, Canada. Nevertheless, the activists failed to halt plans to launch, by 2006, the Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA)—an enlarged version of NAFTA covering the 34 countries in the Western Hemisphere, except Cuba.

Communism in China Tiananmen Square April 1989; Chinese students; Beijing Collapse of pro-democracy movement

Even before perestroika unfolded in the Soviet Union, economic reform had begun in China. Early in the 1980s, the Chinese Communist government loosened its grip on business and eliminated some price controls. Students in China began to demand freedom of speech and a greater voice in government. In April 1989, university students in China held marches that quickly grewinto large demonstrations in Beijing's Tiananmen (tyänPänPmDnP) Square and that were stirring up civil unrest in Croatia and Bosnia. on the streets of other cities. In Tiananmen Square, Chinese students constructed a version of the Statue of Liberty to symbolize their struggle for democracy. China's premier, Li Peng, eventually ordered the military to crush the pro- testers. China's armed forces stormed into Tiananmen Square, slaughtering unarmed students. The world's democratic countries watched these events in horror on television. The collapse of the pro-democracy movement left the future in China uncertain. As one student leader said, "The government has won the battle here today. But they have lost the people's hearts."

Conservative movement builds Entitlement programs New Right

Ever since Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona had run for president in 1964, con- servatives had argued that state governments, businesses, and individuals needed more freedom from the heavy hand of Washington, D.C. By 1980, government spending on entitlement programs—programs that provide guaranteed bene- fits to particular groups—was nearly $300 billion annually. The costs together with stories of fraudulent benefits caused resentment among many taxpayers. In addition, some people had become frustrated with the government's civil rights policies. Congress had passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964 in an effort to eliminate racial discrimination. Over the years, however, judicial decisions and government regulations had broadened the reach of the act. A growing number of Americans viewed with skepticism what had begun as a movement toward equal opportunity. Although many people had rejected separate schools for blacks and whites as unfair and unequal, few wanted to bus their children long distances to achieve a fixed ratio of black and white students. As the 1970s progressed, right- wing grass-roots groups across the country emerged to support and promote single issues that reflected their key interests. These people became known as the New Right. The New Right focused its energy on controversial social issues, such as opposing abor- tion, blocking the Equal Rights Amendment, and evading court-ordered busing. It also called for a return to school prayer, which had been outlawed by the Supreme Court in 1962. Many in the New Right criticized the policy of affirmative action. Affirmative action required employers and educational institutions to give spe- cial consideration to women, African Americans, and other minority groups, even though these people were not necessarily better qualified. Many conser- vatives saw affirmative action as a form of reverse discrimination, favoring one group over another on the basis of race or gender. To members of the New Right, liberal positions on affirmative action and other issues represented an assault on traditional values.

Foreign Policy Helsinki Accords Vietnam

Following Kissinger's advice, Ford pushed ahead with Nixon's policy of negotiation with China and the Soviet Union. In November 1974, he met with Soviet premier Leonid Brezhnev. Less than a year later, he traveled to Helsinki, Finland, where 35 nations, including the Soviet Union, signed the Helsinki Accords—a series of agreements that promised greater cooperation between the nations of Eastern and Western Europe. The Helsinki Accords would be Ford's greatest presidential accomplishment. Like presidents before him, Ford encountered trouble in Southeast Asia. The 1973 cease-fire in Vietnam had broken down. Heavy fighting resumed and Ford asked Congress for over $722 million to help South Vietnam. Congress refused. Without American financial help, South Vietnam surrendered to the North in 1975. In the same year, the Communist gov- ernment of Cambodia seized the U.S. merchant ship Mayagüez in the Gulf of Siam. President Ford responded with a massive show of military force to rescue 39 crew members aboard the ship. The operation cost the lives of 41 U.S. troops. Critics argued that the mission had cost more lives than it had saved.

Carter Election of 1976

Gerald Ford won the Republican nomination for president in 1976 after fending off a powerful conservative challenge from former California governor Ronald Reagan. Because the Republicans seemed divided over Ford's leadership, the Democrats confidently eyed the White House. "We could run an aardvark this year and win," predicted one Democratic leader. The Democratic nominee was indeed a surprise: a nationally unknown peanut farmer and former governor of Georgia, Jimmy Carter. MR. CARTER GOES TO WASHINGTON During the post- Watergate era, cynicism toward the Washington establish- ment ran high. The soft-spoken, personable man from Plains, Georgia, promised to restore integrity to the nation's highest office, "I will never tell a lie to the American people." Throughout the presidential campaign, Carter and Ford squared off over the key issues of inflation, energy, and unemployment. On Election Day, Jimmy Carter won by a narrow margin, claiming 40.8 million popular votes to Ford's 39.1 million. B From the very beginning, the new first family brought a down-to-earth style to Washington. After settling into office, Carter stayed in touch with the people by holding Roosevelt-like "fireside chats" on radio and television. Carter failed to reach out to Congress in a similar way, refusing to play the "insider" game of deal making. Relying mainly on a team of advisers from Georgia, Carter even alienated congressional Democrats. Both parties on Capitol Hill often joined to sink the president's budget proposals, as well as his major policy reforms of tax and welfare programs.

Soviet Union declines December 1991: nationalism in 14 non-Russian republics; wanted independence; Soviet Union dissolved; Gorbachev resigns Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Russian president Boris Yeltsin February 1992; formal statement with Bush January 1993: START II

Gorbachev's introduction of democratic ideals led to a dramatic increase in national- ism on the part of the Soviet Union's non-Russian republics. In December 1991, 14 non-Russian republics declared their independence from the Soviet Union. Muscled aside by Russian reformers who thought he was working too slowly toward democracy, Gorbachev resigned as Soviet president. Soviet Union dissolves after 74 years A loose federation known as the Commonwealth of independent States (CIS) took the place of the Soviet Union. In February 1992, President George Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin issued a formal statement declaring an end to the Cold War that had plagued the two nations and divided the world since 1945. In January 1993, Yeltsin and Bush signed the START II pact, designed to cut both nations' nuclear arsenals by two-thirds.

Clinton wins the presidency Election of 1992 Why were Bush's approval ratings dropping? H. Ross Perot A "New" Democrat Clinton's strategies

Governor William Jefferson Clinton of Arkansas became the first member of the baby-boom generation to win the presidency. He captured the White House, at the age of 46, by vowing to strengthen the nation's weak economy and to lead the Democratic Party in a more moderate direction After the U.S. victory in the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Republican president George Bush's popularity had climbed to an 89 percent approval rating. Shortly after the war ended, however, the nation found itself in the grips of a recession. In early 1992, Bush's approval rating nose-dived to 40 percent. In his run for reelection, President Bush could not convince the public that he had a clear strategy for ending the recession and creating jobs. A Throughout the presidential race, Bill Clinton presented himself as the candidate to lead the nation out of its economic crisis. So did a third-party candidate—Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot. Perot targeted the soaring federal budget deficit as the nation's number one problem. A budget deficit occurs when the federal government borrows money to meet all its spending commitments. "It's time," Perot declared in his usual blunt style, "to take out the trash and clean up the barn." Election Day results, however, demonstrated that Clinton's center-of-the-road strategy had the widest appeal. Though Clinton won, he captured only 43 percent of the popular vote. Bush received 38 percent, while Perot man- aged an impressive 19 percent. Despite greatest achievement in the Persian Gulf War, President Bush was not as successful on the domestic front. He was hurt by rising deficits and a recession that began in 1990 and lasted through most of 1992. Bush was forced to raise taxes despite his campaign pledge. His approval rating had dropped to 49 percent by 1992. The weak economy and the tax hike doomed Bush's reelection campaign, and 12 years of Republican leader- ship came to an end.

Conservatives win political power

In 1976, Ronald Reagan lost the Republican nomination to the incumbent, Gerald Ford, in a very closely contested race. Four years later in a series of hard-fought primaries, Reagan won the 1980 nomination and chose George H. W. Bush as his running mate. Reagan and Bush ran against the incumbent president and vice-president, Jimmy Carter and Walter Mondale, who were nominated again by the Democrats despite their low standing in the polls.

1984 election Landslide 1988 election George H.W. Bush

In 1984, Reagan and Bush won the Republican nominations for reelection without challenge. Walter Mondale, who had been vice-president under President Carter, won the Democratic Party's nomination and chose Representative Geraldine Ferraro of New York as his running mate. Ferraro became the first woman on a major party's presidential ticket. In 1984 the economy was strong. Reagan and Bush won by a landslide, carrying every state but Mondale's home state of Minnesota and the District of Columbia. In 1988, a majority of Americans were economically comfortable, and they attrib- uted their comfort to Reagan and Bush. When Michael Dukakis, the Democratic governor of Massachusetts, ran for the presidency in 1988 against George Bush, Reagan's vice-president, most voters saw little reason for change. George Bush simply built on President Reagan's legacy by promising, "Read my lips: no new taxes" in his acceptance speech at the Republican Convention. He stressed his commitment to the conservative ideas of the Moral Majority. Though Bush asserted that he wanted a "kinder, gentler nation," his cam- paign sponsored a number of negative "attack ads" aimed at his oppo- nents. He told audiences that Dukakis was an ultraliberal whose views were outside the mainstream of American values. In particular, Bush suggested that Dukakis was soft on crime and unpatriotic. Some commentators believed that the negative ads contributed to the lowest voter turnout in 64 years. Only half of the eligible voters went to the polls in 1988. Fifty-three percent voted for George Bush, who won 426 electoral votes. Bush's electoral victory was viewed, as Reagan's had been, as a mandate for con- servative social and political policies.

John Sirica

In January 1973, the trial of the Watergate burglars began. The trial's presiding judge, John Sirica, made clear his belief that the men had not acted alone. On March 20, a few days before the burglars were scheduled to be sen- tenced, James McCord sent a letter to Sirica, in which he indicated that he had lied under oath. He also hinted that powerful members of the Nixon administration had been involved in the break-in.

Cover-Up Unravels

In January 1973, the trial of the Watergate burglars began. The trial's presiding judge, John Sirica, made clear his belief that the men had not acted alone. On March 20, a few days before the burglars were scheduled to be sen- tenced, James McCord sent a letter to Sirica, in which he indicated that he had lied under oath. He also hinted that powerful members of the Nixon administration had been involved in the break-in. In March 1974, a grand jury indicted seven presidential aides on charges of con- spiracy, obstruction of justice, and perjury. The investigation was closing in on the president of the United States. In the spring of 1974, President Nixon told a television audi- ence that he was releasing 1,254 pages of edit- ed transcripts of White House conversations about Watergate. Nixon's offering failed to sat- isfy investigators, who demanded the unedited tapes. Nixon refused, and the case went before the Supreme Court. On July 24, 1974, the high court ruled unanimously that the president must surrender the tapes. The Court rejected Nixon's argument that doing so would violate national security. Evidence involving possible criminal activity could not be withheld, even by a president. President Nixon maintained that he had done nothing wrong. At a press conference in November 1973, he proclaimed defiantly, "I am not a crook."

The Cold War ends Mikhail Gorbachev Reform Glasnost Perestroika INF Treaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty)

In March of 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the general secretary of the Communist Party in the Soviet Union. His rise to power marked the beginning of a new era in the Soviet Union. Gorbachev had inher- ited a host of problems in the Soviet Union. Many of them revolved around the Soviet economy, which was under a great amount of stress. Reagan added pressure by increasing U.S. defense spending. When the Soviets attempted to keep up, their economy was pushed to the brink of collapse. A skilled diplomat and political leader, Gorbachev advocated a policy known as glasnost (Russian for "open- ness"). He allowed open criticism of the Soviet government and took steps toward freedom of the press. In 1985, he out- lined his plans for perestroika, a restructuring of Soviet society. He called for less government control of the econo- my, the introduction of some private enterprise, and steps toward establishing a democratic government. Gorbachev recognized that better relations with the United States would allow the Soviets to reduce their mili- tary spending and reform their economy. As a result, he ini- tiated a series of arms-control meetings that led to the INF Treaty (Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty) signed on December 8, 1987. The treaty eliminated two classes of weapons systems in Europe and allowed each nation to make on-site inspections of the other's military installations.

President Nixon and His White House

In November of 1968, Richard M. Nixon had just been elected president of the United States. He chose Henry Kissinger to be his special adviser on foreign affairs. During Nixon's second term in 1972, as the United States struggled to achieve an acceptable peace in Vietnam, Kissinger reflected on his relationship with Nixon. Nixon and Kissinger ended America's involvement in Vietnam, but as the war wound down, the nation seemed to enter an era of limits. The economic prosperi- ty that had followed World War II was ending. President Nixon wanted to limit the federal government to reduce its power and to reverse some of Johnson's liberal policies. At the same time, he would seek to restore America's prestige and influence on the world stage—prestige that had been hit hard by the Vietnam experience. One of the main items on President Nixon's agenda was to decrease the size and influence of the federal government. Nixon believed that Lyndon Johnson's Great Society programs, by promoting greater federal involve- ment with social problems, had given the federal government too much respon- sibility. Nixon's plan, known as New Federalism, was to distribute a portion of federal power to state and local governments. A To implement this program, Nixon proposed a plan to give more financial freedom to local governments. Normally, the federal government told state and local governments how to spend their federal money. Under revenue sharing, state and local governments could spend their federal dollars however they saw fit within certain limitations. In 1972, the revenue-sharing bill, known as the State and Local Fiscal Assistance Act, became law. WELFAREREFORM Nixonwasnotassuccessful,however,inhisattempttoover- haul welfare, which he believed had grown cumbersome and inefficient. In 1969, the president advocated the so-called Family Assistance Plan (FAP). Under the FAP, every family of four with no outside income would receive a basic federal pay- ment of $1,600 a year, with a provision to earn up to $4,000 a year in supplemen- tal income. Unemployed participants, excluding mothers of preschool children, would have to take job training and accept any reasonable work offered them.

The Race for the White House Election of 2000 Al Gore vs. George W. Bush

In the 2000 presidential race, the Democrats chose Vice President Al Gore to suc- ceed Bill Clinton. The Republicans nominated George W. Bush, governor of Texas and the son of the former president. Ralph Nader, a long-time consumer advocate, ran for the Green Party, which championed environmental causes and promoted an overall liberal agenda. On the eve of the election, polls showed that the race would be tight. In fact, the election proved one of the closest in U.S. his- tory. Determining a winner would take over a month. As election night unfolded, Al Gore appeared to take the lead. The television networks projected that he would win Florida, Pennsylvania, and Michigan—states rich in electoral votes that would ultimately decide the winner of the race. Then, in a stunning turn of events, the TV networks recanted their original projection about Gore's victory in Florida and proclaimed the state "too close to call." As midnight passed, it became clear that whoever won Florida would gain the 270 electoral votes needed to win the election. About 2 A.M., the networks predict- ed Bush the winner of Florida—and thus the presidency. However, as the final votes in Florida rolled in, Bush's lead shrank considerably and the state again became too close to call. By the next day, Al Gore had won the popular vote by more than 500,000 votes out of 105 million cast across the nation. Meanwhile, George Bush's razor-thin victory in Florida triggered an automatic recount. DISPUTE RAGES IN FLORIDA In the weeks following the election, lawyers and spokespersons went to Florida to try to secure victory. The recount of the state's bal- lots gave Bush a win by just over 500 votes—but the battle for the presidency did not end there. The Gore campaign requested manual recounts in four mostly Democratic counties. Bush representatives opposed the manual recounts. James A. Baker III, former secretary of state and leader of the Bush team in Florida, argued that such recounts would raise the possibility of political mischief. As the manual recounting began on November 12, the Republicans sued to stop the recounts; a month-long court fight followed. The battle ultimately reached the Supreme Court. On December 12, the court voted 5 to MAIN IDEA Analyzing Issues G How did the election of 2000 highlight both the weaknesses and the strengths of America's election process? 4 to stop the recounts, thus awarding the Florida electoral votes and the presidency to Bush. The justices argued that manual recounts lacked uniform standards and, therefore, violated equal protection for voters. G

Republicans gain more power Election of 2004

In the early 2000s, two more elections garnered even more power for the Republicans. CALIFORNIA RECALL The economic problems that had rocked the country were especially acute in California. These problems, as well as a statewide elec- tricity crisis, caused many Californians to lose confidence in Democratic governor Gray Davis. Davis was reelected in 2002 by a slim margin, but Davis opponents began petitioning for a recall vote. Eventually, they gathered enough signatures to force a recall election. On October 7, 2003, more than 55 percent of voters chose to recall Davis. In the California gubernatorial election that followed, the actor Arnold Schwarzenegger defeat- ed 134 other candidates, capturing over 48 percent of the vote. BUSH REELECTED IN 2004 Although President Bush had received much initial support for the war on terrorism that he began wag- ing after the September 11 attacks, many Americans came to question his decision to invade Iraq. They were dismayed by the daily reports of violence and chaos in the country and the failure to find weapons of mass destruction there. In 2004, Bush was reelected in a presidential race that deeply divided the nation. During Bush's second term, discontent about the war grew. At the same time, controversies arose over warrantless spying on American citizens and alleged misus- es of government agencies for partisan political gain. The president was also criti- cized over his response to Hurricane Katrina. In the 2006 mid-term elections, Democrats regained control of the House and the Senate, and many were hopeful about their chances to win the White House in 2008.

Fall of a President Release of the tapes Nixon resigns Effects of Watergate

In the spring of 1974, President Nixon told a television audi- ence that he was releasing 1,254 pages of edit- ed transcripts of White House conversations about Watergate. Nixon's offering failed to sat- isfy investigators, who demanded the unedited tapes. Nixon refused, and the case went before the Supreme Court. On July 24, 1974, the high court ruled unanimously that the president must surrender the tapes. The Court rejected Nixon's argument that doing so would violate national security. Evidence involving possible criminal activity could not be withheld, even by a president. President Nixon maintained that he had done nothing wrong. At a press conference in November 1973, he proclaimed defiantly, "I am not a crook." Even without holding the original tapes, the House Judiciary Committee determined that there was enough evidence to impeach Richard Nixon. On July 27, the committee approved three articles of impeachment, charging the president with obstruction of justice, abuse of power, and contempt of Congress for refusing to obey a congressional subpoena to release the tapes. On August 5, Nixon released the tapes. They contained many gaps, and one tape revealed a disturbing 181/2-minute gap. According to the White House, Rose Mary Woods, President Nixon's secretary, accidentally erased part of a conversation between H. R. Haldeman and Nixon. More importantly, a tape dated June 23, 1972—six days after the Watergate break-in— that contained a conversation between Nixon and Haldeman, disclosed the evidence investi- gators needed. Not only had the president known about the role of members of his admin- istration in the burglary, he had agreed to the plan to obstruct the FBI's investigation. The evidence now seemed overwhelming. On August 8, 1974, before the full House vote on the articles of impeachment began, President Nixon announced his resignation from office. always, Nixon admitted no guilt. He merely said that some of his judgments "were wrong." The next day, Nixon and his wife, Pat, returned home to California. A short time later, Gerald Ford was sworn in as the 38th president of the United States. The effects of Watergate have endured long after Nixon's resignation. Eventually, 25 members of the Nixon Administration were convicted and served prison terms for crimes connected to Watergate. Along with the divisive war in Vietnam, Watergate produced a deep disillusionment with the "imperial" presidency. In the years following Vietnam and Watergate, the American public and the media devel- oped a general cynicism about public officials that still exists today. Watergate remains the scandal and investigative story against which all others are measured.

Won by a landslide

Incumbent Republican President Richard Nixon defeated Democratic Senator George McGovern of South Dakota. ... Nixon won the election in a landslide, taking 60.7% of the popular vote and carrying 49 states, and he was the first Republican to sweep the South.

Conservative victories in 1984 and 1988 Conservative coalition groups Business people Southerners Westerners Reagan democrats

It was clear by 1984 that Reagan had forged a large coalition of conservative voters who highly approved of his policies. These voters included the following: • businesspeople—who wanted to deregulate the economy • Southerners—who welcomed the limits on federal power • Westerners—who resented federal controls on mining and grazing • Reagan Democrats—who agreed with Reagan on limiting federal government and thought that the Democratic Party had drifted too far to the left

The Ford and Carter Years How did Ford become president?

James D. Denney couldn't believe what he was hearing. Barely a month after Richard Nixon had resigned amid the Watergate scandal, President Gerald R. Ford had grant- ed Nixon a full pardon. "[S]omeone must write, 'The End,'" Ford had declared in a televised statement. "I have concluded that only I can do that." Denney wrote a letter to the editors of Time magazine, in which he voiced his anger at Ford's decision. James Denney's feelings were typical of the anger and the disillusion- ment with the presidency that many Americans felt in the aftermath of the Watergate scandal. During the 1970s, Presidents Gerald Ford and Jimmy Carter sought to restore America's faith in its leaders. At the same time, both men had to focus much of their attention on battling the nation's worsening economic situation. Upon taking office, Gerald R. Ford urged Americans to put the Watergate scan- dal behind them. "Our long national nightmare is over," he declared. The nation's nightmarish economy persisted, however, and Ford's policies offered little relief

Foreign Policy Human rights Panama Canal Collapse of detente

Jimmy Carter rejected the philosophy of realpolitik—the pragmatic policy of negotiating with powerful nations despite their behavior—and strived for a for- eign policy committed to human rights. ADVANCING HUMAN RIGHTS Jimmy Carter, like Woodrow Wilson, sought to use moral principles as a guide for U.S. foreign policy. He believed that the United States needed to commit itself to promoting human rights—such as the free- doms and liberties listed in the Declaration of Independence and the Bill of Rights—throughout the world. Putting his principles into practice, President Carter cut off military aid to Argentina and Brazil, countries that had good relations with the United States but had imprisoned or tortured thousands of their own citizens. Carter followed up this action by establishing a Bureau of Human Rights in the State Department. Carter's philosophy was not without its critics. Supporters of the containment policy felt that the president's policy undercut allies such as Nicaragua, a dictatorial but anti-Communist country. Others argued that by supporting dictators in South Korea and the Philippines, Carter was acting inconsistently. In 1977, Carter's poli- cies drew further criticism when his administration announced that it planned to give up ownership of the Panama Canal. ince 1914, when the United States obtained full ownership over the Panama Canal, Panamanians had resented having their nation split in half by a foreign power. In 1977, the two nations agreed to two treaties, one of which turned over control of the Panama Canal to Panama on December 31, 1999. In 1978, the U.S. Senate, which had to ratify each treaty, approved the agreements by a vote of 68 to 32—one more vote than the required two-thirds. Public opinion was also divided. In the end, the treaties did improve relationships between the United States and Latin America. WhenJimmyCartertookoffice, détente—the relaxation of tensions between the world's super- powers—had reached a high point. Beginning with President Nixon and continuing with President Ford, U.S. officials had worked to ease relations with the Communist superpowers of China and the Soviet Union. However, Carter's firm insistence on human rights led to a breakdown in relations with the Soviet Union. President Carter's dismay over the Soviet Union's treatment of dissidents, or opponents of the government's policies, delayed a second round of SALT negotiations. President Carter and Soviet pre- mier Leonid Brezhnev finally met in June of 1979 in Vienna, Austria, where they signed an agreement known as SALT II. Although the agreement did not reduce armaments, it did pro- vide for limits on the number of strategic weapons and nuclear-missile launchers that each side could produce. The SALT II agreement, however, met sharp opposition in the Senate. Critics argued that it would put the United States at a military disadvantage. Then, in December 1979, the Soviets invaded the neighboring country of Afghanistan. Angered over the invasion, President Carter refused to fight for the SALT II agreement, and the treaty died.

Alexander Butterfield, second bomb

John Dean delivered the first bomb. In late June, during more than 30 hours of testimony, Dean provided a startling answer to Senator Howard Baker's repeated ques- tion, "What did the president know and when did he know it?" The former White House counsel declared that President Nixon had been deeply involved in the cover-up. Dean referred to one meeting in which he and the president, along with several advisers, discussed strategies for continuing the deceit. The White House strongly denied Dean's charges. The hearings had sud- denly reached an impasse as the com- mittee attempted to sort out who was telling the truth. The answer came in July from an unlikely source: presiden- tial aide Alexander Butterfield. Butterfield stunned the committee when he revealed that Nixon had taped virtually all of his presidential conversa- tions. Butterfield later claimed that the taping system was installed "to help Nixon write his memoirs." However, for the Senate committee, the tapes were the key to revealing what Nixon knew and when he knew it

Domestic Agenda Energy crisis National Energy Act Economic crisis Civil rights

Like Gerald Ford, President Carter focused much of his attention on battling the country's energy and economic crises but was unable to bring the United States out of its economic slump. Carter considered the energy crisis the most important issue facing the nation. A large part of the problem, the president believed, was America's reliance on imported oil. On April 18, 1977, during a fireside chat, Carter urged his fellow Americans to cut their consumption of oil and gas. Many of the economic problems Jimmy Carter strug- gled with resulted from long-term trends in the economy. Since the 1950s, the rise of automation and foreign competition had reduced the number of manu- facturing jobs. At the same time, the service sector of the economy expanded rapidly. This sector includes industries such as communications, transportation, and retail trade. The rise of the service sector and the decline of manufacturing jobs meant big changes for some American workers. Workers left out of manufacturing jobs faced an increasingly complex job market. Many of the higher-paying service jobs required more education or specialized skills than did manufacturing jobs. The lower-skilled service jobs usually did not pay well. Growing overseas competition during the 1970s caused further change in America's economy. The booming economies of West Germany and countries on the Pacific Rim (such as Japan, Taiwan, and Korea) cut into many U.S. markets. Many of the nation's primary industries—iron and steel, rubber, clothing, auto- mobiles—had to cut back production, lay off workers, and even close plants. Especially hard-hit were the automotive industries of the Northeast. There, high energy costs, foreign competition, and computerized production led companies to eliminate tens of thousands of jobs. Although Carter felt frustrated by the country's economic woes, he took special pride in his civil rights record. His administration included more African Americans and women than any before it. In 1977, the president appointed civil rights leader Andrew Young as U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. Young was the first African American to hold that post. To the judicial branch alone, Carter appointed 28 African Americans, 29 women (including 6 African Americans), and 14 Latinos. However, President Carter fell short of what many civil rights groups had expected in terms of legislation. Critics claimed that Carter—preoccupied with battles over energy and the economy— failed to give civil rights his full attention. Meanwhile, the courts began to turn against affirmative action. In 1978, in the case of Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, the Supreme Court decided that the affirmative action policies of the university's medical school were unconstitutional. The decision made it more difficult for organizations to establish effective affirmative action programs. In addition, Carter presented Congress with more than 100 proposals on energy conservation and development. Representatives from oil- and gas-producing states fiercely resisted some of the proposals. Automobile manufacturers also lobbied against gas-rationing provisions. "It was impos- sible for me to imagine the bloody legislative battles we would have to win," Carter later wrote. Out of the battle came the National Energy Act. The act placed a tax on gas-guzzling cars, removed price con- trols on oil and natural gas produced in the United States, and extended tax credits for the development of alternative energy. With the help of the act, as well as voluntary con- servation measures, U.S. dependence on foreign oil had eased slightly by 1979. Unfortunately, these energy-saving measures could do little to combat a sudden new economic crisis. In the summer of 1979, renewed vio- lence in the Middle East produced a second major fuel shortage in the United States. To make matters worse, OPEC announced another major price hike. In 1979 inflation soared from 7.6 percent to 11.3 percent. Faced with increasing pressure to act, Carter attempted an array of measures, none of which worked. Carter's scatter- shot approach convinced many people that he had no eco- nomic policy at all. Carter fueled this feeling of uncertainty by delivering his now-famous "malaise" speech, in which he complained of a "crisis of spirit" that had struck "at the very heart and soul of our national will." Carter's address made many Americans feel that their president had given up. By 1980, inflation had climbed to nearly 14 percent, the highest rate since 1947. The standard of living in the United States slipped from first place to fifth place in the world. Carter's popularity slipped along with it. This eco- nomic downswing—and Carter's inability to solve it during an election year—was one key factor in sending Ronald Reagan to the White House.

Social issues Affirmative Action Reverse discrimination

Many in the New Right criticized the policy of affirmative action. Affirmative action required employers and educational institutions to give spe- cial consideration to women, African Americans, and other minority groups, even though these people were not necessarily better qualified. Many conser- vatives saw affirmative action as a form of reverse discrimination, favoring one group over another on the basis of race or gender. To members of the New Right, liberal positions on affirmative action and other issues represented an assault on traditional values.

John Dean, first bomb

McCord's rev- elation of possible White House involvement in the burglary aroused public interest in Watergate. President Nixon moved quickly to stem the growing concern. On April 30, 1973, Nixon dismissed White House counsel John Dean and announced the resignations of Haldeman, Ehrlichman, and Attorney General Richard Kleindienst, who had recently replaced John Mitchell following Mitchell's resignation. The president then went on television and denied any attempt at a cover-up. He announced that he was appointing a new attorney general, Elliot Richardson, and was authoriz- ing him to appoint a special prosecutor to investigate Watergate. "There can be no whitewash at the White House," Nixon said. The president's reassurances, however, came too late. In May 1973, the Senate began its own investigation of Watergate. A special committee, chaired by Senator Samuel James Ervin of North Carolina, began to call administration officials to give testimony. Throughout the summer millions of Americans sat by their televisions as the "president's men" aides." testified one after another.

Judicial power shifts to the right Sandra Day O'Connor Antonin Scalia Anthony M. Kennedy Justice William Rehnquist

One of the most important ways in which Reagan accomplished his conservative goals was through his appointments to the Supreme Court. Reagan nominated Sandra Day O'Connor, Antonin Scalia, and Anthony M. Kennedy to fill seats left by retiring judges. O'Connor was the first woman to be appointed to the Court. He also nominated Justice William Rehnquist, the most conservative justice on the court at the time, to the position of chief justice. President Bush later made the Court even more con- servative when David H. Souter replaced retiring justice William Brennan. Bush also nominated Clarence Thomas to take the place of Thurgood Marshall. However, contro- versy exploded when law professor Anita Hill testified that Thomas had sexually harassed her when she worked for him in the 1980s. During several days of televised Senate hearings, committee members questioned Thomas, Hill, and witnesses for each side. Thomas eventually won approval by a final vote of 52 to 48. The Reagan and Bush appointments to the Supreme Court ended the liberal control over the Court that had begun under Franklin Roosevelt. These appointments became increasingly significant as the Court revisited con- stitutional issues related to such topics as discrimination, abortion, and affirmative action. In 1989, the Court, in a series of rulings, restricted a woman's right to an abortion. The Court also imposed new restrictions on civil rights laws that had been designed to protect the rights of women and minorities. During the 1990-1991 session, the Court narrowed the rights of arrested persons.

Ronald Reagan Qualifications 1980 presidential election

Originally a New Deal Democrat, Ronald Reagan had become a conservative Republican during the 1950s. He claimed that he had not left the Democratic Party but rather that the party had left him. As a spokesman for General Electric, he toured the country making speeches in favor of free enterprise and against big government. In 1964, he campaigned hard for Barry Goldwater, the Republican candidate for president. His speech supporting Goldwater in October 1964 made Reagan a serious candidate for public office. In 1966, Reagan was elected governor of California, and in 1970, he was reelected. In 1980, Reagan ran on a number of key issues. Supreme Court decisions on abortion, pornography, the teaching of evolution, and prayer in public schools all concerned conservative voters, and they rallied to Reagan. The prolonged Iranian hostage crisis and the weak economy under Carter, particularly the high rate of inflation, also helped Reagan. Thanks in part to his acting career and his long experi- ence in the public eye, Reagan was an extremely effective candidate. In contrast to Carter, who often seemed stiff and nervous, Reagan was relaxed, charming, and affable. He loved making quips: "A recession is when your neighbor loses his job. A depression is when you lose yours. And recovery is when Jimmy Carter loses his." Reagan's long-standing skill at sim- plifying issues and presenting clear- cut answers led his supporters to call him the Great Communicator. Also, his commitment to military and economic strength appealed to many Americans. Presidential Election of 1980 Electoral Party Candidate Votes Republican Ronald Reagan 489 Democratic Jimmy Carter 49 Independent John Anderson Only 52.6 percent of American voters went to the polls in 1980. Reagan won the election by a nar- row majority; he got 44 million votes, or 51 percent of the total. His support, however, was spread throughout the country, so that he carried 44 states and won 489 elec- toral votes. Republicans also gained control of the Senate for the first time since 1954. As Reagan assumed the presidency, many people were buoyed by his genial smile and his assertion that it was "morning again in America." C Now, conservatives had elected one of their own—a true believer in less government, lower taxes, and traditional values. Once elected, Reagan worked to translate the con- servative agenda into public policy.

Moderate Reform and Economic Boom Health Care Reform Hillary Rodham Clinton Never voted on Balanced Budget and an Economic Boom How did Clinton and Congress create budget surplus? Reforming welfare How did Clinton and Congress work together?

President Clinton demonstated his willingness to pursue both liberal and conservative policies on health care, the budget deficit, crime, and welfare. HEALTH CARE REFORM Clinton had pledged to create a plan to guarantee affordable health care for all Americans, especially for the millions of Americans who lacked medical insurance. Once in office, Clinton appointed First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton, a skilled lawyer and child-wel- fare advocate, to head the team creating the plan. The president presented the health care reform bill to Congress in September 1993. Congress debated the plan for a year. Intense lobbying and Republican attacks on the plan for promoting "big government" sealed its doom. In the end, Congress never even voted on the bill. President Clinton was more successful in his efforts to reduce the federal budget deficit. Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress agreed in 1997 on legislation to balance the fed- eral budget by the year 2002. The bill cut spending by billions of dollars, lowered taxes to win Republican support, and included programs aimed at helping chil- dren and improving health care. A year later, Clinton announced that—for the first time in nearly 30 years— the federal budget had a surplus. That is, the government took in more than it spent. Surpluses were used, in part, to pay down the nation's debt, which had soared to around $5.5 trillion. Perhaps the most effective tool in generating a surplus was the booming econ- omy. About the time Clinton took office, the economy rebounded. Unemployment fell and the stock market soared to new heights. As a result, the government's tax revenues rose, and fewer people received public aid. These factors helped slash the federal debt. REFORMING WELFARE Clinton and the congressional Republicans cooperated to reform the welfare system. In 1996, a bill was proposed to place limits on how long people could receive benefits. It also put an end to a 61-year federal guaran- tee of welfare, and instead gave states "block grants"—set amounts of federal money they could spend on welfare or for other social concerns. Although liberal Democrats feared the effects of eliminating the federal safety net for the poor, the president backed the bill. Over the next few years, states moved millions of people from welfare to jobs. Because of the strong econ- omy, the transition was more successful than some had been predicting.

Rough Road Pardoning Nixon Inflation, economic recession OPEC

President Ford's pardon of Richard Nixon outraged many Americans. But President Ford argued that the pardon of Richard Nixon was in the coun- tr y's best interest. In the event of a Watergate trial, Ford argued, "ugly passions would again be aroused. . . . And the credibility of our free institutions . . . would again be challenged at home and abroad." Ford called the pardon decision "the most difficult of my life, by far." In 2001, after more than 25 years, Ford received the John F. Kennedy Profiles in Courage Award for his courageous decision in the face of public opposition By the time Ford took office, America's economy had gone from bad to worse. Both inflation and unemployment continued to rise. After the massive OPEC oil-price increases in 1973, gasoline and heating oil costs had soared, pushing infla- tion from 6 percent to over 10 percent by the end of 1974. Ford responded with a program of massive citizen action, called "Whip Inflation Now" or WIN. The president called on Americans to cut back on their use of oil and gas and to take other energy-saving measures. In the absence of incentives, though, the plan fell flat. Ford then tried to curb inflation through a "tight money" policy. He cut government spending and encour- aged the Federal Reserve Board to restrict credit through higher interest rates. These actions triggered the worst economic recession in 40 years. As Ford implemented his economic programs, he continually battled a Democratic Congress intent on pushing its own economic agenda. During his two years as president, Ford vetoed more than 50 pieces of legislation.

Deregulating the economy Deregulation

Reagan achieved one of his most important objectives—reducing the size and power of the federal government—in part by cutting federal entitlement pro- grams but also through deregulation, the cutting back of federal regulation of industry. As part of his campaign for smaller government, he removed price controls on oil and eliminated federal health and safety inspections for nursing homes. He deregulated the airline industry (allowing airlines to abandon unprofitable air routes) and the savings and loan industry. One of the positive results of this deregulation was that it increased competition and often resulted in lower prices for consumers. In a further effort at deregulation, President Reagan cut the budget of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), which had been established in 1970 to fight pollution and conserve natural resources. He ignored pleas from Canada to reduce acid rain and appointed opponents of the regulations to enforce them. For example, James Watt, Reagan's secretary of the interior, sold millions of acres of public land to private developers— often at bargain prices. He opened the continental shelf to oil and gas drilling, which many people thought posed environmental risks. Watt also encouraged timber cutting in national forests and eased restrictions on coal mining

Persian Gulf War Iraq invades Kuwait; also wanted Saudi Arabia Operation Desert Storm Cease-fire February 28, 1991

Regardless of the scandal surrounding the Iran-Contra affair, conflict with Iraq (which was Iran's long-standing enemy) and its leader, Saddam Hussein, soon eclipsed U.S. problems with Iran. During the 1980s, Iran and Iraq had fought a prolonged war, and Hussein found himself with enormous war debts to pay. Several times, Hussein had claimed that the oil-rich nation of Kuwait was really part of Iraq. On August 2, 1990, Iraqi troops invaded Kuwait. The Iraqi invaders looted Kuwait; then they headed toward Saudi Arabia and one-half of the world's known oil reserves, which would severely threaten U.S. oil supplies. D For several months, President Bush and Secretary of State James Baker organized an international coalition against Iraqi aggression. With the support of Congress and the UN, President Bush launched Operation Desert Storm to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi control. On January 16, 1991, the United States and its allies staged a massive air assault against Iraq. On February 23, they launched a suc- cessful ground offensive from Saudi Arabia. On February 28, 1991, President Bush announced a cease-fire. Operation Desert Storm was over. Kuwait was liberated. Millions of Americans turned out for the victory parades that greeted returning soldiers. After the debacle in Vietnam, H. NORMAN SCHWARZKOPF they were thrilled the war was over, with fewer than 400 casualties among UN coalition forces. (However, there were subsequent reports that Gulf veterans were suffering from disabilities caused by chemicals used in the war.) By con- trast, Iraq had suffered an estimated 100,000 military and 1934- In 1988, Norman Schwarzkopf, shown above, became comman- der in chief of forces in Asia and Africa. During the Persian Gulf War, more than 540,000 men civilian deaths. During the embargo that followed, many and women served under the Iraqi children died from outbreaks of cholera, typhoid, enteritis, and other diseases.

Moral majority

Religion, especially evangelical Christianity, played a key role in the growing strength of the conservative coalition. The 1970s had brought a huge religious revival, especially among fundamentalist sects. Each week, millions of Americans watched evangelist preach- ers on television or listened to them on the radio. Two of the most influential televangelists were Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson. Falwell formed an organization called the Moral Majority. The Moral Majority consisted mostly of evangelical and fundamentalist Christians who interpreted the Bible literally and believed in absolute standards of right and wrong. They condemned liberal attitudes and behaviors and argued for a restoration of tradi- tional moral values. They worked toward their political goals by using direct-mail campaigns and by raising money to support candidates. Jerry Falwell became the spokesperson for the Moral Majority. As individual conservative groups formed networks, they created a move- ment dedicated to bringing back what they saw as traditional "family values." They hoped their ideas would help to reduce the nation's high divorce rate, lower the number of out-of-wedlock births, encourage individual responsibility, and generally revive bygone prosperity and patriotic times.

Middle East Trouble Spots Iran-Contra Scandal Sale of arms to Iran in exchange for American hostages in Lebanon; profits sent to Contras in Nicaragua Boland Amendment

Results favorable to U.S. interests were more difficult to obtain in the Middle East. Negotiating conflicts between ever-shifting governments drew the United States into scandal and its first major war since Vietnam. In 1983, terrorist groups loyal to Iran took a number of Americans hostage in Lebanon. Reagan denounced Iran and urged U.S. allies not to sell arms to Iran for its war against Iraq. In 1985, he declared that "America will never make concessions to terrorists." Therefore, Americans were shocked to learn in 1986 that President Reagan had approved the sale of arms to Iran. In exchange for those sales, Iran promised to win the release of seven American hostages held in Lebanon by pro-Iranian ter- rorists. What's more, members of Reagan's staff sent part of the profits from those illegal arms sales to the Contras in Nicaragua—in direct viola- tion of the Boland Amendment. President Reagan held a press conference to explain what had happened. In the summer of 1987, special committees of both houses of Congress con- ducted a dramatic inquiry into the Iran-Contra affair during a month of joint televised hearings. Among those testifying was Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, a member of the National Security Council staff who played a key role in provid- ing aid to the Contras. North appeared in military uniform adorned with service ribbons and badges. In defending his actions, North talked about patriotism and love of country. He asserted that he thought he was carrying out the president's wishes and that the end of helping the Contras justified almost any means. After a congressional investigation, Special Prosecutor Lawrence E. Walsh, early in 1988, indicted various members of the Reagan administration who were involved in the scandal. Oliver North was found guilty of aiding the cover-up. He was fined and sentenced to perform community service. (His conviction was later overturned because he testified under a grant of limited immunity.). On Christmas Eve of 1992, President Bush pardoned a number of Reagan officials.

Committee to Reelect the President

The press soon discovered that the group's leader, James McCord, was a former CIA agent. He was also a security coordinator for a group known as the Committee to Reelect the President (CRP). John Mitchell, who had resigned as attorney gen- eral to run Nixon's reelection campaign, was the CRP's director

Middle East Camp David Accords Iran Hostage Crisis

Through long gasoline lines and high energy costs, Americans became all too aware of the troubles in the Middle East. In that area of ethnic, religious, and eco- nomic conflict, Jimmy Carter achieved one of his greatest diplomatic triumphs— and suffered his most tragic defeat. hrough negotiation and arm-twisting, Carter helped forge peace between long-time enemies Israel and Egypt. In 1977, Egyptian president Anwar el-Sadat and Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin met in Jerusalem to discuss an overall peace between the two nations. In the summer of 1978, Carter seized on the peace initiative. When the peace talks stalled, he invited Sadat and Begin to Camp David, the presidential retreat in Maryland. After 12 days of intense negotia- tions, the three leaders reached an agreement that became known as the Camp David Accords. Under this first signed peace agreement with an Arab country, Israel agreed to withdraw from the Sinai Peninsula, which it had seized from Egypt during the Six-Day War in 1967. Egypt, in turn, formally recognized Israel's right to exist. Still, many issues were left unresolved.oking at the hard work ahead, Carter wrote playfully in his diary, "I resolved to do everything possible to get out of the negotiating business!" Little did the president know that his next Middle East negotiation would be his most painful. By 1979, the shah of Iran, an ally of the United States, was in deep trouble. Many Iranians resented his regime's widespread corruption and dictatorial tactics. In January 1979, revolution broke out. The Muslim religious leader Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (FQyE-tIPlE rL-hIPlE kI-mAPnC) led the rebels in overthrowing the shah and establishing a religious state based on strict obedience to the Qur'an, the sacred book of Islam. Carter had supported the shah until the very end. In October 1979, the president allowed the shah to enter the United States for cancer treatment, though he had already fled Iran in January 1979. The act infuriated the revolution- aries of Iran. On November 4, 1979, armed students seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran and took 52 Americans hostage. The militants demanded that the United States send the shah back to Iran in return for the release of the hostages. Carter refused, and a painful year- long standoff followed, in which the United States continued quiet but intense efforts to free the hostages. The captives were finally released on January 20, 1981, shortly after the new president, Ronald Reagan, was sworn in as president. Despite the hostages' release after 444 days in captivity, the crisis in Iran seemed to underscore the limits that Americans faced during the 1970s. Americans also realized that there were limits to the nation's environmental resources. This realization prompted both citizens and the government to actively address environmental concerns.

Re-election 1972 Watergate burglary

Throughout his political career, Richard Nixon lived with the overwhelming fear of losing elections. By the end of the 1972 reelection campaign, Nixon's cam- paign team sought advantages by any means possible, including an attempt to steal information from the DNC headquarters. At 2:30 A.M., June 17, 1972, a guard at the Watergate complex in Washington, D.C., caught five men breaking into the campaign head- quarters of the DNC. The burglars planned to photograph documents outlining Democratic Party strategy and to place wiretaps, or "bugs," on the office telephones. The press soon discovered that the group's leader, James McCord, was a former CIA agent. He was also a security coordinator for a group known as the Committee to Reelect the President (CRP). John Mitchell, who had resigned as attorney gen- eral to run Nixon's reelection campaign, was the CRP's director. The cover-up quickly began. Workers shredded all incriminating documents in Haldeman's office. The White House, with President Nixon's consent, asked the CIA to urge the FBI to stop its investigations into the burglary on the grounds of national security. In addition, the CRP passed out nearly $450,000 to the Watergate burglars to buy their silence after they were indicted in September of 1972. C Throughout the 1972 campaign, the Watergate bur- glary generated little interest among the American public and media. Only the Washington Post and two of its reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, kept on the story. In a series of articles, the reporters uncovered infor- mation that linked numerous members of the administra- tion to the burglary. The White House denied each new Post allegation. Upon learning of an upcoming story that tied him to the burglars, John Mitchell told Bernstein, "That's the most sickening thing I ever heard." The firm White House response to the charges, and its promises of imminent peace in Vietnam, proved effective in the short term. In November, Nixon was reelected by a landslide over liberal Democrat George S. McGovern. But Nixon's popular support was soon to unravel.

Bob Woodward Carl Bernstein

Throughout the 1972 campaign, the Watergate bur- glary generated little interest among the American public and media. Only the Washington Post and two of its reporters, Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein, kept on the story. In a series of articles, the reporters uncovered infor- mation that linked numerous members of the administra- tion to the burglary. The White House denied each new Post allegation. Upon learning of an upcoming story that tied him to the burglars, John Mitchell told Bernstein, "That's the most sickening thing I ever heard."

Imperial presidency

When Richard Nixon took office, the executive branch—as a result of the Great Depression, World War II, and the Cold War— had become the most powerful branch of government. In his book The Imperial Presidency, the historian Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., argued that by the time Richard Nixon became president, the executive branch had taken on an air of imperial, or supreme, authority. President Nixon settled into this imperial role with ease. Nixon believed, as he told a reporter in 1980, that "a president must not be one of the crowd. . . . People . . . don't want him to be down there saying, 'Look, I'm the same as you.'" Nixon expanded the power of the presidency with little thought to constitutional checks, as when he impounded funds for federal programs that he opposed, or when he ordered troops to invade Cambodia without congressional approval.

Partisan politics and impeachment Election of 1996 Impeached?

While Clinton and Congress worked together on deficit reduction and NAFTA, relations in Washington became increasingly partisan. In the midst of political wrangling, a scandal rocked the White House, and Bill Clinton became the sec- ond president in U.S. history to be impeached. REPUBLICANS TAKE CONTROL OF CONGRESS In mid-1994, after the failure of President Clinton's health care plan and recurring questions regarding his lead- ership, Republican congressman Newt Gingrich began to turn voters' dissatis- faction with Clinton into support for Republicans. He drafted a document called the Contract with America—ten items Republicans promised to enact if they won control of Congress. They included congressional term limits, a balanced- budget amendment, tax cuts, tougher crime laws, and welfare reform. E In the November 1994 election, the Republicans handed the Democrats a humiliating defeat. Voters gave Republicans control of both houses of Congress for the first time since 1954. Chosen as the new Speaker of the House, Newt Gingrich was jubilant. President Clinton and the Republican-controlled Congress clashed. Clinton opposed Republican budgets that slowed entitlements—federal programs which provide for basic human needs—such as Social Security and Medicaid. Clinton and Congress refused to compromise, and the Republicans refused to pass the larger budgets he wanted. As a result, the federal government shut down for almost a week in November 1995, and again for several weeks in the next two months. THE 1996 REELECTION The budget standoff helped Clinton, as did the strong economy and passage of the welfare reform law of 1996, which suggested an improved working relationship with Congress. As a result, voters reelected Clinton in November 1996. With 49 percent of the popular vote, he outpolled the Republican nominee, U.S. Senator Bob Dole, and the Reform Party candidate, H. Ross Perot. Still, the Republicans maintained control of the House and Senate. Both President Clinton and Republican leaders pledged to work more cooperative- ly. Soon however, the president faced his most severe problems yet. F CLINTON IMPEACHED President Clinton was accused of improperly using money from a land deal with the Whitewater Development Company to fund his 1984 gubernatorial reelection campaign. In addition, Clinton allegedly had lied under oath about having an improper relationship with a young White House intern. In 1998, Clinton admitted that he had had an improper relationship with the young woman, but he denied lying about the incident under oath or attempting to obstruct the investigation. In December 1998, the House of Representatives approved two articles of impeachment, charging the president with per- jury and obstruction of justice. Clinton became only the second president—and the first in 130 years—to face a trial in the Senate. At the trial a month later, the Senate fell short of the 67 votes—a two-thirds majority—required to con- vict him. Clinton remained in office and apolo- gized for his actions.

Crime and terrorism 1993 World Trade Center 1995 Oklahoma City April 1999 Columbine September 11, 2001 9/11 attacks

he improved economy—along with enlargement of police forces—com- bined to lower crime rates in the 1990s. However, fears were raised among Americans by acts of violence and terrorism around the country. A shocking crime occurred April 1999 when two students at Columbine High School, in Colorado, killed 12 students and a teacher and wounded 23 others, and then shot themselves. Americans were appalled at copycat crimes that began to occur. Some called for tougher gun control, while oth- ers argued that exposure to violent imagery should be curtailed. Violence had pervaded tele- vision news throughout the decade. In 1993, terrorists had exploded bombs in the World Trade Center in New York City. This was closely followed by a 1995 blast that destroyed a nine-story federal office building in Oklahoma City, killing 168 children, women, and men. Timothy McVeigh, an American vet- eran of the Gulf War, was found guilty in the Oklahoma bombing. He was executed in 2001, the first use of the federal death penalty in 38 years. Although American embassies and mili- tary targets abroad were subject to sporadic and deadly terrorist attacks during the decade, the U.S. was in no way prepared for a devastating attack that took place on its own soil on the morning of September 11, 2001. In a coordinated effort, two hijacked com- mercial jets struck the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, one crashing just minutes after the other. The jets exploded on impact and subsequently leveled the tallest buildings of New York's skyline, the symbolic center of American finance. About an hour later, a third plane tore into the Pentagon building, the U.S. military headquarters outside Washington, D.C. Air travel ceased almost immediately; across the nation planes in the air were ordered to land. During the evacuation of the White House and the New York financial district, a fourth hijacked plane crashed near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. About 3,000 people were killed in the attacks. These included all the passengers on all four planes, workers and visitors in the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, and hundreds of rescue workers. (See the first issue in "Issues for the 21st Century," on page 894.)