Water Resources Final Exam
List the three main problems associated with desalination.
- High cost - Requires enormous amount of energy - Extremely saline waste products
Future Global Water Management Solutions Outline
1. Privatization of water treatment and delivery 2. Groundwater recharge 3. Water conservation 4. Water education 5. Invest in stormwater infrastructure
Future Global Freshwater Management Issues
1. Rapid population growth 2. Lack of wastewater treatment 3. Environmental degradation to freshwater 4. Stormwater mismanagement
The Need for Cooperation
1. The Human Factor 2. Ethics 3. The Power of the Individual
Historical Overview (Municipal Water Departments)
1600s: Water was carried to homes in buckets Water was plentiful, population was small & pollution was a word not found in their vocabulary 1666: New York City's first public well was constructed 1671: Second public well was built 1700s to 1800s: Increase in population led to water issues • Cholera epidemic in 1832 • Deadly fires in 1776, 1828, 1835 These tragedies taught the communities that small, hand dug wells were simply not capable of providing safe and adequate water supplies for a growing city. Thus Department of Public Works, or Department of Public Utilities, or Water and Sewer Department, or Water Works Department were born.
In Florida and New Mexico, ___ % of their freshwater source comes from groundwater.
90%
Final Drinking Water Treatment
After filtration is completed, water is held in basins where fluoridation and disinfection can occur. Fluoridation: Preventive medicine program to improve teeth health • Sodium Fluoride (NaF) is added Chlorination: Disinfection process • Chlorine gas is used to kill the remaining bacteria and viruses • Activated carbon is used to reduce chlorine odor & taste Ozone gas and ultraviolet systems may also be used in this final stage
Arizona Water Agencies
Arizona Dept. of Environmental Quality (ADEQ) is responsible for water quality and waste management programs Water Quality Division (WQD): Looks after the water quality Waste Programs Division (WPD): Regulates disposal of hazardous wastes & use of underground storage tanks Arizona Geological Survey (AZGS): Provides impartial information on Water Resources Arizona Game and Fish Dept: Responsible for the conservation, enhancement and restoration of state's wildlife resources and habitats
Legal and Institutional framework in Mexico
Based on principle that water is a national asset... • Irrigation law of 1926 • Secretariat of Agriculture and Water Resources (SARH) in 1976 • Urban water supply and sewerage service is provided by municipalities with SARH responsible for planning, designing, and constructing major aqueducts. This caused serious problems of coordination aggravating the already critical situation. • In 1986 the Mexican Institute of Water Technology was created as a federal institution to develop, adapt, and transfer technology and to train qualified personnel for management, conservation and remediation of water. • In response, National Water Commission (NWC) was created in 1989 becoming the sole federal authority dealing with water management • National Water Law (1992) provides modern regulatory framework for water management and creation of River Basin Councils
Which Country contains nearly 20% of the global freshwater supply?
Canada
List the TWO multi-state water agencies created through agreements between the U.S. states and the federal government?
Chesapeake Bay Commission and the Missouri River Basin Association
Which of the following TWO countries have the most exploding urban population growth? CHOOSE two countries.
China and India
From the 1700s to the 1800s, tragedies taught the communities that small, hand dug wells were simply not capable of providing safe and adequate water supplies for a growing city. Name TWO of these tragedies.
Cholera epidemic in 1832 and the deadly fires in 1776, 1828 & 1835
Multi-state Water Agencies
Created through agreement between states and the federal government On the one hand this creates excellent opportunities for improved water management activities; on the other hand it creates problems of jurisdiction, common goals and objectives, establishment of policies. Chesapeake Bay Commission: Regional government agency created to improve water quality in Chesapeake Bay -- overall goal is to improve water quality by reducing or preventing upstream pollution that could be transported to the Bay -- formed in 1980 to advise the legislatures of Virginia, Maryland and Pennsylvania Missouri River Basin Association: -- Formed in 1981 by the governors of Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Wyoming. One of the country's most engineered rivers with 6 large dams.
Saltwater
Desalination: removal of salts and other minerals from seawater Desalination usually costs $1000 per acre foot of water (325,850 gal.)- expensive • A company near Tampa, FL that was built in 2003, is doing it for $650. - Largest desalination plant in the U.S. • Abu Dhabi (capital of UAE) has a large ($1.7 billion) desalination plant. Reverse Osmosis: a membrane separation process that removes salts & other contaminants through filtration. Enormous amounts of energy are required to remove salts from sea or brackish water. Quite often, desalination plants are located near a power plant due to the availability of unused (waste) heat from the power plant One desalination plant in Kuwait City constructed in 1953 and two desalination plants constructed later near Doha makes Kuwait one of the world's leader in desalination.
Xeriscaping
Dry Mediterranean Creek beds Climate appropriate landscape
What prompted Florida to create five different water management districts?
During the 1960s, Florida experienced a severe drought which caused water shortages across the state
Tertiary Treatment
Effluent from secondary treatment contains only 5 to 20 percent of the original quantity of organic matter and is generally discharged safely into rivers and lakes. Nitrates and Phosphates still remain and require tertiary treatment • Flocculating chemicals • Denitrifying bacteria in sand filters • Chlorination or UV light treatment Nutrient Removal: Ammonia stripping Additional chlorination: very expensive and unreliable Most common method: natural nitrogen removal processes Disadvantages: • Requires - more tanks - more personnel • Other Expenses
Privatization of Water Treatment and Delivery
El Aguas Tango ● French giants Suez and Vivendi ○ Largest private water suppliers in world E'Town ● 7th largest in U.S. and located in New Jersey ● Recently acquired by Thames Water 1. Private water providers becoming a major player in water development, treatment, and distribution on a global level 2. Small scale water services have set up to help the community develop and operate and maintain their own public water systems
Ethics
Ethos = custom, usage, or character ● To have ethics is to demonstrate fairness and integrity when dealing with others, including relationships between countries or with our environment. ● An ethical person or country is one whose word is trusted, whose actions are respected and whose judgment is considered sound. ● Ethical choices are rarely black and white. Aldo Leopold ● Father of Wildlife Ecology stated that ethics must constrain the individual to act as a member of a community, which includes other people and the environment
Tigris and Euphrates Rivers
Euphrates Basin: The main utilizers of the water of these rivers and tributaries are Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq. Drought: Vegetation Anomaly within Tigris and Euphrates basins Turkey held control over the river and decided to share the water by transporting it through "peace pipelines:
To have ethics is to demonstrate...
Fairness and integrity
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Permit
Federal permit required to discharge wastewater into a navigable stream • Permit is required to discharge wastewater into a navigable stream from EPA. • The USEPA establishes water quality standards
Local Water Agencies
Freedom of choice and opportunity for land ownership is our right! We demand: • Safe and reliable supplies of water • Sanitary elimination of wastes • Protection from natural disasters such as floods • Water issue dichotomy - Don't want federal intervention but want federal assistance
The __________ __________ (water body) comprise the largest collective body of freshwater on the planet, containing roughly 18 percent of Earth's supply.
Great Lakes
Kansas Groundwater Management district (GMD)
Groundwater Management district (GMD): local government agency in Kansas that provides water management services to administer groundwater resources in the semiarid western half of the state Five districts were created west of the 100th meridian primary use of groundwater in this area is for irrigation, although municipal water supply is a growing issue -- growing concerns of irrigators in the region due to declining aquifer levels in southwest Kansas
Tragedy of the Commons
Human perspective that often leads to resource mismanagement and conflict -- competing demands on a resource, and the issue that personal gain often injures the common good For example, a public water supply system was often developed with little or no regard for downstream water users unless laws, agreements, compacts, or treaties were in place to provide such protection. Without these legal restrictions, there are no incentives to "protect" downstream water users. This lack of incentive is the tragedy of protecting the "public good" when using a "common" resource.
Historical Perspective on Drinking-Water Treatment
In ancient times, the greatest concern was water's taste, temperature, and appearance Ancient Egyptians used alum (a white mineral salt) KAl(SO4 )2 ·12H2O • First chemical process used for water treatment • Being used still today • Hippocrates (460-377 B.C.) promoted 'healthy' drinking water. • Roman military leaders were aware of providing clean drinking water to the soldiers. • They observed 'marshes and swamps' could cause disease. • Romans used sand filters.
Historical Perspective on Wastewater Treatment
In early civilizations, people were disposing wastewater into the same water systems that later used as sources of drinking water. • Cholera, Typhoid and other water-borne diseases were common. • Sewage (wastewater or effluent) is composed of: - 99.9% water - 0.1% solid or dissolved wastes • Early sanitation laws were passed as early as 200 B.C. in Babylonia - Waste not to be thrown into wells or cisterns - No cemetery, furnace, tannery or animal slaughter house within 80 ft of GW well • Greeks had awareness for sanitation and clean drinking water • Hippocrates wrote that spring water or rainwater is cleaner than stagnant water • In Middle Ages sanitation needs were forgotten, which was the reason for widespread pandemics. • Sewage was routinely dumped into the streets
Sustainable Groundwater Management Act (SGMA)
In order to balance levels of groundwater pumping and recharge, California passed the SGMA ● Signed into law by Governor Edmund G. Brown, Jr. in September of 2014, the law requires groundwater-dependent regions to halt overdraft and develop plans to bring basins into balanced levels of pumping and recharge through local planning efforts. ● SGMA tasked DWR to implement the law and provide ongoing support to local agencies around the state.
As population ______ , the quality of fresh water will ______ .
Increases; decreases
Primary Treatment
Initial treatment of wastewater that includes screening, chemical treatment, grit removal and settling -- Raw sewage that arrives at treatment plants contains floating materials (wood, paper, grit, oils, and so on) that must be removed early in the treatment process both to protect mechanical equipment such as pumps and aerators, and to prevent blockage of pipes. Screening: Removal of floating materials (wood, paper, grit, oils etc.) • to protect mechanical equipment such as pumps and aerators • to prevent blockage of pipes Extracted with mechanical rakes or resolving screens These contaminants are then disposed of by incineration or are transported by truck to a landfill site Grit Removal: Water moves to a grit chamber so that cinders, sand and small stones could settle to the bottom Primary Settling: Water moves to a second chamber for the suspended solid to settle chemicals can be added to accelerate this process
Canada
International Boundary Waters Treaty Act: ● Prohibit bulk removal of water ● Minimizes spreading of pollutants, pathogens, invasive species Great Lakes: Largest collective body of freshwater Suburban Housing: Too often the goal of a housing developer is to see how many homes can be crammed into a limited amount of space-- a tragedy of the commons if you live nearby
Precipitation in Mexico
Irregularity in rainfall is not only spatial, but also temporal Rainfall is concentrated in the rainy season (June - September) Average annual water availability per capita Latin America: 10 million gallons North America: 4 million gallons Europe: 2 million gallons Africa: 2 million gallons Mexico: 1 million gallons (Mexico is a low-water-availability country) Mexico's relative runoff availability -- 28% runoff occurs where 77% population lives & 84% of gross domestic product is generated • National level: total water withdrawal has increased to about 161,000 million cubic meters per year, 34% of country's renewable water while consumption represents only 9 percent of total renewable water • Hydropower generation accounts for the largest volume withdrawn
Middle East: Religious Background
Jerusalem is seen by many to be a place of great religious value ● Jews - Origin of their nation ● Christians - Birthplace of Christ ● Muslims - The "Holy" Religious wars in the Middle East between Arabs and Jews have smoldered and erupted time and again for decades
Which president said, "Anyone who solves the problem of water deserves not one Nobel Prize but two - one for science and the other for peace."
John F. Kennedy
Levee districts and Flood-Control districts
Levee districts: local agency that constructs levees along flood-prone waterways Flood-control districts: local agency that constructs flood protection projects Levee Districts: Following Louisiana purchase in 1803 agriculture began in MS delta ● Levee Boards were created ○ Conflicts between levee boards (powerful groups of landowners to construct large earthen levees (dikes) along the banks of Mississippi River) -- detrimental to landownerwho had property on the opposite side of river bc levees forced floodwater to other side of river -- people could destroy levees to hurt a community ● President James A. Garfield: Control of the Mississippi River was too great an effort for any one state to handle and would be a tremendous feat for a federal government to accomplish ● Great Mississippi River Flood of 1927: Breached at 226 locations ● Flood Control Act of 1928- gave the federal government the duty to handle flood protection ○ Flood Control Districts: Although flood control has become largely a federal responsibility in the U.S., many regions of the country continue to support local flood-control districts ■ e.g.Wyoming, Washington State, California, Arizona
What is the name of the permit that is required to discharge wastewater into a navigable stream?
National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System or NPDES
In 1986, the Mexican Institute of Water Technology was created as a federal institution to develop, adapt, and transfer technology and to train qualified personnel for management, conservation and remediation of water. Six years later the _______________ ____________ _________ was created to provide modern regulatory framework for water management and creation of River Basin Councils.
National Water Law
Nebraska Natural Resources Districts
Natural Resources Districts (NRDs): local government agency in Nebraska that provides water and soil management services • Before 1969, Nebraska had over 500 special purpose districts - Irrigation districts formed in 1895 - Drainage districts formed in 1905 - Soil conservation districts formed in 1937 - Rural water districts formed in 1967 and other sanitary, watershed and reclamation districts 1969- the Nebraska Legislature took a radical approach to water resources management with passage of a law creating the natural resources districts Twenty-four NRDs were created (today there are 23 due to a merger), with boundaries that follow Nebraska's watersheds. Large watersheds, such as the Platte River, which flows across the entire state from west to east, are divided into several natural resources districts. The duties of hundreds of special districts have now been transferred to the NRDs
Texas (Water Problems- chp.14)
Overpumping of groundwater is a big issues ● SB-1: Senate Bill 1 was a statewide water-planning law to determine the best use of water in the state, including the Ogallala Aquifer-- new law established regional planning groups (a paradigm shift from statewide to regional planning efforts) to develop long-range plans that were reviewed extensively by the public ● TNRCC: Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission to develop computerized water availability models (WAMs) for the six major river basins in the state ● WAMs: Water Availability Models that estimate the amount of water available in a stream or lake under a defined set of conditions-- include physical characteristics of the streams and reservoirs, documented surface water rights and current water system outflows and inflows -- adds in the various known watershed development impacts -- and performs basic mass balance analysis in monthly time steps to determine how much unappropriated water is available at defined points along a stream for a given set of climatic conditions ● TWDB: Texas Water Development Board-- charged with the ongoing mission of planning for and developing sufficient water supplies to prevent future water shortages To accomplish that goal: - began its work gathering data on the state's population - water uses -demands and supplies - developing strategies to satisfy the state's water needs - providing loans to public entities for the conservation and development of water supplies
List three future global water management issues that the world (you) will face.
Population growth Lack of wastewater treatment environmental degradation (also stormwater mismanagement)
Reasons for Water Use Conflicts
Population growth, climate change and shifts toward more meat-based diets will be root causes of water conflict in the future ● Population growth is root cause of water conflicts ● Demand for freshwater predicted to increase 900% in 21st century ● Exploding urban growth ○ China ○ India
South Carolina
Population: 120,000 Capacity of 2 treatment plants: 126 million gallons/day Employees: 200 Length of waterlines: 2300 miles (4 to 54" diameter)
Drinking-Water Treatment Processes
Protection of Water Quality FIRST STEP: in acquiring safe drinking water is to protect raw water at its source · Groundwater sources are protected by Wellhead Protection Programs · Watersheds used for municipal sources often have... o RESTRICTED: § land uses § recreational activities § development controls o LIMITED: § Erosion of sediments § Body contact sports (swimming, water skiing) § Waste disposal
What is the root cause of nearly all water use conflicts?
Rapid population growth
Dry Creek Beds
Recharge stormwater back into groundwater system using permeable soils with gravel
What is the first step in the primary treatment of wastewater?
Removal of floating material
Define Groundwater recharge in your own words
Replenishment of groundwater aquifers through the percolation of surface water. This helps to extend water supplies and if we can impound water, it has an opportunity to percolate into the subsurface
Intakes for Raw Water
SECOND STEP: intakes of raw water Intakes: pipes used to withdraw adequate quantities of water from a river or reservoir • Divert it from river, reservoir, or groundwater • Intakes are permanent connecting structures: pipes, concrete structures that capture raw water and transport it to the treatment facility - Zebra mussels are a new problem for water treatment facilities as they attach to hard surfaces and clog water intakes as well as increase corrosion problems
The first water filtration system used was made of _______ .
Sand
Secondary Treatment
Second step of wastewater treatment, which involves aerobic oxidation of nutrients Two types of secondary treatment: trickling filter and activated sludge systems Trickling filters: Removes organic matter from wastewater • Circular beds filled with coarse media of rock and gravel with diameters 2-4 inches. • Wastewater is sprayed on the surface • Microbial films develop on the surface of the rocks --- Disadvantages: Requires substantial land area, fly and odor nuisance, and the ability to only remove 80 percent of organic matter Activated Sludge: Removes organic matter that requires dissolved oxygen from wastewater • Effluent is constantly agitated and aerated to assist in bacterial activity. • Sludge contains large numbers of aerobic organisms that digest organic material • Plant operator closely monitors the pH, temperature, flow rates and DO levels. • Bacteria grow best with pH 6.5 - 7.5
Septic Tanks and Leach Fields
Septic Tanks: includes a buried tank that captures sewage directly from a home, settling out solids and breaking them down by bacteria Leach Fields: burying perforated pipes from the septic system and allowing sewage seepage through a gravel bed and into the soil-- soil filters bacteria and some viruses, binds phosphates for vegetation uptake and decomposes organic materials -- must be carefully located so that drainage will not percolate and contaminate groundwater sources of a drinking-water well • Commonly used to dispose sewages from homes not connected to municipal wastewater systems • Low maintenance and low cost
State Water Agencies
State water agencies: agencies of state government that provide water management services 'Administer • Water quality programs • Flood protection • Drought planning • Water allocation and conservation
Pretreatment of Drinking Water
THIRD STEP: pretreatment of drinking water · Once raw water is delivered to a drinking-water treatment plant through an intake pipe, pretreatment usually occurs in large tanks or small reservoirs, where a variety of water treatment steps begin · Screens are first used to remove large floating items Water is allowed to stand in tanks or reservoirs to promote sedimentation whereby larger silts, fines and clay particles settle out of suspension THEN Flocculation/coagulation: Adding chemicals for settling fine sediments and can also remove 90-99% of viruses • alum • activated silica • clay • soda ash Filtration: The process of passing water through layers of sand and gravel to eliminate turbidity, odor, and color.
The Power of the Individual
There are a number of easy practical measures every family can take to ensure they're not wasting water in and around the home 1. Use a low-flow shower head 2. Install a low-flow toilet 3. Ensure all leaky faucets are repaired 4. Use a front-load washer 5. Collect rainwater for use in the lawn and garden 6. Fix all leaky hoses
Weaponization of Water
Those who have control of water have the power. The dependence of Turkey, Syria and Iraq on transboundary water resources.
U.S EPA
To ensure proper testing of drinking water, the EPA has established testing schedules for various constituents: • Bacteria - Monthly or quarterly (depending on the size of the system) • Nitrates - Yearly • VOCs - Twice every 3 years in large systems - Once every 3 years in small systems • Metals - Once every 3 years both for groundwater and surface water • Lead and Copper - Annually • Radionuclides - Once every four years
Provide one example from the Middle East and explain how water is being used as a weapon.
Turkey and their control over Euphrates River and its flow for downstream users like Syria and Iraq. The weaponization of water has shaped military conflicts in Iraq and Syria, and struggles over water resources and infrastructure have played a key role in both the 2003 Iraq war and the recent conflicts with ISIS in Iraq and Syria. Water stress has played a key role in a number of recent conflicts, including the war in Darfur and fighting in the Lake Chad Basin, where the Boko Haram insurgency has taken place.
Which country has control over the Euphrates River and why?
Turkey has control of the Euphrates river because this important freshwater source begins with its headwaters located within Turkey.
Alabama and Florida Versus Georgia
Unusual drought, and expanding irrigated lands in Georgia are creating heavy demands for water-- Chattahoochee River and five others that have headwaters in Georgia and flow into Alabama and Florida Two major watersheds are in dispute: ACF Basin and the ACT Basin ACT and ACF Compacts: Interstate compacts between Florida, Alabama, and Georgia on the Alabama, Coosa, and Tallapoosa rivers (ACT) and the Apala-chicola, Chattahoochee, and Flint rivers (ACF) Mission: ● Promote interstate comity ● Remove causes of present and future controversies ● Equitable apportioning of surface waters ● Engage in planning, developing, sharing common data Georgia compact commissioners argued two primary issues: - First, adequate water supplied must be available to support the long-term growth of the state's major city, Atlanta, as well as for the rest of Georgia's population in the ACT and ACF Basins - Second, irrigated agriculture must be allowed to prosper in the southwestern regions of the state Alabama commissioners insisted that 1. adequate water supplies must flow out of Georgia to support the long term growth of the state's hydropower industry and 2. adequate flows must be maintained in Alabama for navigation needs Florida compact commissions were 1. concerned with maintaining adequate river flows out of Georgia for the Apalachicola Bay area, since this estuary serves as a nursery for significant marine life, including oyster reefs
Wastewater Treatment Process
Wastewater treatment facilities are generally located at a geographic low point in the topography of a city Why? Drinking water treatment facilities are generally located at the highest topographic location in a city to allow the use of gravity to assist in distribution. Why? Complete sewage treatment consists of three steps: • Primary: Little more than removing suspended solid materials • Secondary: Removes all suspended solids and organic matter • Tertiary: More elaborate systems include a third cleansing step
Florida Water Management Districts
Water Management districts: local government agency in Florida that provides water management services During 1960s, a severe drought in south FL caused water shortages.-- low water levels cause vegetation to dry out, which made fuel for fires in the Everglades • In 1972, FL passed Water Resources Act and created 5 WMDs. Florida's water management districts administer flood protection programs and perform technical investigations into water resources.provide regional control rather than state regulation of Florida's water resources issues.
Water Resources in the Middle East
West Bank Mountain Aquifer: ● recharged by rainfall in Palestine ● provides ⅓ of water for Israel ● Groundwater table slopes towards Israel ● Israel has used military force to protect recharge of aquifer Jordan River: Jordan river serves as a boundary between Jordan and West Bank ● Upper reaches of the river are in 4 countries ● River is 200 miles long and flows through the Jordan rift valley ● It is major source of water for Israel, Jordan, Syria, and Lebanon ● Major source of conflict since average annual precipitation is less than 8 inches with evaporation exceeding that rate in most places ● Conflict continues over scarce water supplies Six-Day War of 1967 when Arab countries developed plans to delivery almost half of the water anticipated to be used by Israel from the Nation Water Carrier and Israel responded to this threat by bombing water facility construction sites in Syria
Wetlands and Water treatment
Wetlands, swamps, bogs, marshes, bayous... • provide a natural way for small scale sewage treatment as well as storm water retention and treatment. • Floods, high groundwater tables and drainage ways are regulated by impoundment (water control, reservoir) in wetlands • Natural water storage helps regulate flow into surface water and groundwater percolation • Incubators by providing time needed for natural and biological reactions to occur • Immobilize heavy metals • Promotes sedimentation
Water is most important natural resource
Without water • No agriculture • No industry • No life Water shortages • Suffering • Desolation Excessive and uncontrolled water • Destruction
Municipal water departments
are local agencies, operated within a town or city government, which provide drinking water to residents. Operated by the town or city Revenue: Water bills or local taxes City/Towns: The surface or groundwater source The water treatment plant(s) Delivery systems Annual Budget: $250,000 - millions of $$
Water and Sewer Districts
are very similar to municipal water departments except that they also handle sewage (wastewater) disposal. - water and sewer districts often provide services outside of town or city boundaries and may involve interagency agreements to service adjacent communities if excess capacity is available.
Conservancy districts
governmental agencies are political subdivisions of the state formed by local landowners to solve local water management problems. Conservancy districts are generally created to develop flood control or water supply projects, and often serve as a local sponsor for projects of the Bureau of Reclamation or U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Arizona Department of water resources
is responsible for administering all laws except water quality • ADWR investigates methods to increase water supplies • oversees the use of surface and groundwater • manages floodplain development • regulates non-federal dams • develops policies for conservation and equitable use of water • represents Arizona in the Colorado River Compact
Irrigation districts
local government agency that provides irrigation water to irrigators -- Irrigation districts were typically authorized to encourage economic expansion and develop irrigated tracts of land too large for individuals or mutual ditch companies to develop and manage.
Mutual ditch and irrigation companies
private company that constructs and operates irrigation systems
Major disputes over the U.S. and Canada's border water resulted in creation of Boundary Waters Treaty. The Treaty provided joint studies, established rules for approval of water uses and prohibited transboundary ________ _________ .
water pollution
Water Management in Canada
• British North America Act of 1867 (now the Constitution Act) allocated fisheries and navigation to the federal govt. • Canadian provinces managed property, civil rights and local works. • Boundary Waters Treaty was signed in 1909 - Provided joint studies, established rules for approval of works and uses and prohibited transboundary pollution
Historical Perspective on Wastewater Treatment pt. 2
• By the mid-19th century, awareness on sanitation improved • In 1860s (during Napoleon III's reign) underground sewers were constructed • During U.S. Civil War, wastewater disposal was not well understood • Union and Confederate soldiers often disposed wastes into the river while drinking water from the downstream sources • In 1867, an English civil Engineer gave a lecture on "Sewage Difficulty" - One solution devised was to apply sewage onto farms - Thus municipal sewage was piped to farms around London, Berlin, Paris & later in the U.S. • In 1928, Fessenden, North Dakota started a concept: "sewage lagoons" - Bacteria, oxygen, and sunlight decomposed the sewage - Wind stimulated oxygen reactions - Appropriate for small communities - Disadvantage: Can only treat a certain amount of sewage - Too much effluent will overload the system and result in inadequate treatment
Rhode Island Water Agencies
• Dept. of Environmental Management (DEM) contains - Bureau of Environmental Protection - Bureau of Natural Resources - Division of Fish and Wildlife - Office of Water Resources - Forest Environment Program • Dept. of Health is responsible for safe drinking water supplies in the state
Federal Protection of Drinking Water in the United States
• In 1914, the U.S. Dept. of Treasury set the nation's first bacteriological standard of 2 coliforms per 100 mL for drinking water. - To meet the new standards, large cities were required to add filtration & chlorination in their water treatment facilities. - As a result, by 1930s most waterborne diseases such as Typhoid and Cholera were widely reduced. • 1930s: Potomac River Compact- protect water quality in the Potomac watershed which had been polluted for centuries and the compact was one of the first attempts in the US to improve water quality through the implementation of an interstate agreement • 1942: U.S. Public Health Service set the first comprehensive drinking water standard in the country • 1948: Federal pollution control act was passed to reduce pollutants entering rivers and lakes - -- These laws had no enforcement mechanisms and often ignored until the passage of Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) in 1974 SDWA: landmark federal legislation to protect public drinking-water supplies water systems that provided water to at least 15 service connections or to at least 25 individuals must comply with the national standards -- to enforce the SDWA standards, the USEPA set up mandatory, enforceable maximum contaminant levels (MCLs). These levels were set as close as possible to recommended health goals that would not pose significant health risks over a human lifetime
Mexico's Hydrometeorlogical Events
• Mexico is subject to extreme hydrometeorological events • Hurricanes and severe floods result in loss of life and cause economic loss • Increased deforestation and urbanization is leading to water pollution issues which reduces the beneficial use of some water bodies • Droughts in the northern and northeastern Mexico is frequent.
Water Management in Mexico
• Mexico surface area: 2 million sq. km. (772,000 sq. mi.) • Population: 100 million • Mean annual rainfall: 77 cm. (30 in.), about 27% turns into runoff • Rainfall distribution is very irregular 20% of the total rainfall occurs in 40% of the total area 40% of the total rainfall occurs in 20% of the total area
Historical Overview (mutual ditch and irrigation companies)
• Privately owned companies to deliver irrigation water • Found only west of the Mississippi River • 1847: Settlement in the west started by Mormons led by Brigham Young -- Mormon settlers came to the Salt Lake Valley of Utah and immediately developed irrigation ditches and reservoirs to grow food in the desert valley. • 1870: Their methods were followed by the Union Colony in Greeley, Colorado • A community ditch was constructed by settlers • Owner of shares of the stock of these ditches created a Mutual Ditch Company • Profit was the ultimate motive of these companies, unlike the Mormons that just shared these ditches • The right to divert water is allocated based on shares of ownership
Sewerage and Water Board, New Orleans
• Raw water is purified and treated with ferric sulfate to promote coagulation combined with lime to adjust pH • Chloramine is added for disinfection • Flows through 44 rapid sand filters Laboratory tests are done for water quality • pH, • alkalinity, • hardness, • fluoride, • microorganisms, • VOCs, • herbicides
Regional Water Agencies
• Serve multiple counties • Administer Large irrigation projects • Watershed flood protection programs • Consolidate water management issues • Common goals to minimize overlapping government authorities • Reduce government administrative costs • Increase efficiency • Irrigation Districts • Conservancy/Conservation Districts Governmental agencies were created to develop flood-control or water supply projects and often serve as a local sponsor of USBR and Army Corp's projects.
Water Desalination in the Middle East
• Six Arabian Gulf countries- Oman, UAE, Bahrain, Qatar, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia have similar physiographic, social and economic characteristics. • Kuwait was the first to adopt seawater desalination and Saudi Arabia is world's largest producer of desalinated water • Water scarcity is a growing worldwide phenomena • Amount of renewable water resources per capita has declined dramatically over a single generation and in little more than 30 years will reach dangerously low levels. Of the world's 7,500 desalination plants, two-thirds are in Middle East Desalination Problems: • High cost • Requires enormous amount of energy • Extremely saline waste products
Case Study: Sewerage and Water Board, New Orleans
• The French settled in the Swampy area in 1718 • Two major fires in 1788 & 1794 due to lack of an adequate municipal water supply system for fire protection • In 1899, the Sewerage and Water Board was created. • Carrollton Water Purification Plant-- one of two such plants that serve the City of New Orleans. - Produces 115 million gallons of water per day. - Removes 20,000 tons of solid materials/yr
Distribution System (FINAL STEP)
• Treated water is stored in covered concrete or steel reservoirs. • Delivered to consumers through a water delivery system connected in a grid pattern. · Storage tanks are usually located at topographic high points of an area to allow treated water to be delivered to customers by gravity, can also be stored in water towers
Overview (Water Management in Mexico and Canada)
• Water resources management in Canada & Mexico is very different from the U.S. Canada - Federal govt. of Canada manages navigation and fisheries but - Provinces hold most regulatory power over water allocation and use - possessing proprietary rights means that provinces have the constitutional right to make laws and to regulate flows, water us e and development, pollution control, and thermal and hydropower development Mexico - Water has been declared a national asset in Mexico and is managed by federal govt. - Local, state, and federal water agencies can use water only through authorization from the Mexican govt.
Water Conflict Issues
● 47% of all land globally lies within river basins that encompass multiple countries ● 2 billion people dependent on international cooperation to share water supplies ● Conflict styles ○ Personal confrontation ○ Litigation ○ Legislation ○ International hostility
The Human Factor
● Communities throughout human history ○ Live together with rules, laws, or consequences for any action that was detrimental to the group ○ Diverse personalities do not coexist without some sort of conflict ● Cooperation is at center for solving water conflicts ● Human nature causes us to distrust anyone with opposing perspective ● Whether its an individual or an entire country ○ Lack of understanding or knowledge of intentions lead to suspicion, fear, skepticism, and sometimes confrontation How can government or individuals stop the cycle of conflict and mistrust?
Historical Perspective on Drinking-Water Treatment pt.2
● During the Middle Ages, cleanliness and healthful drinking water were ignored. ○ Increased incidence of plague and other epidemics. ● Britain's Sir Francis Bacon (1561-1626): Conducted experiments on water percolation, boiling, distillation, and coagulation. ● Dutch scientist Anthony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723) built a microscope to view and document different bacteria in water. ● In 1703 sand filter installation was encouraged in Paris. ● In 1746, Frenchman Joseph Amy was granted the first patent for a water filter. 1804: Paisley, Scotland became the first town to provide treated drinking water to an entire town. 1834: First slow sand filter system was developed in U.S. (Richmond, VA) 1870: First municipal filtration plant was constructed in Poughkeepsie, NY. 1970: EPA was formed. Drinking water sources vary greatly around the world. United States: > 50% population relies on GW FL, ID, MS, NE, & NM relies > 90% on GW Desalination: CA, FL, TX, Saudi Arabia & UAE. To bring down the salinity from 35000 ppm to 500 ppm
Northern and Southern California
● Expansive population growth in a dry, desert location ● Aqueducts ● Groundwater mining ● Agriculture
Water Conflict Solutions
● Increase in water efficiency ● Improvement upon and widespread adoption of recycled water ● Shifts in energy technologies What about the impoverished population?
Stormwater mismanagement
● Infrastructure flooding ○ Expansion of urban areas and burial of wetlands, marshes, and swamps ○ Impervious surface cover and channelization of natural waterways leads to an increase in downstream flooding ○ Concrete and asphalt reduce ability for groundwater recharge ○ Poor water quality
Environmental Degradation
● Loss of species and habitat continue due to... ○ Expansion of urban into rural areas ○ Rapid population growth ● It usually starts with conversion of forested land into agricultural then leads to... ○ Conversion of agricultural lands and open space to industrial, commercial, and residential use ● Challenge to the preservation of diverse ecosystems ○ Conflict will continue over protection of wetlands, riparian zones, and surface and groundwater quality ○ Pressure to provide housing, greater quantities of food and sites for expansion outweigh need for preservation
Water Conservation
● Low or dual flush toilets ● Restrictive shower heads ● Waterless urinals ● Water efficient household appliances ○ dish, laundry, etc ● 1992 Congress passed National Energy Policy Act ○ mandated all new residential toilets sold in U.S. had to be a low flush model ■ 1.6 gallons per flush or less
Population
● Projections estimate that world's population will increase by 3 billion people between 2000 to 2050, yet world's freshwater supply will remain roughly constant ● 1800s population hit 1.7 billion ● 1999 UN celebrated "A Day of 6 billion" humans on the planet ● Reduction in birth rates will result in slower growth rate for future ● World's population is expected to reach... ○ 2025 → 8 billion people ○ 2050 → 9.2 billion ○ 35% increase over 50 years (2000-2050)
Water Education
● Promote the wise use of water resources ● Innovative and unbiased ● Non profit
Lack of Wastewater Treatment
● Quality of freshwater will decrease as population increases ● 3 billion people live without basic household sanitation ○ sewage, septic tanks, latrines ● 5 million die every year from waterborne illness ● In Africa, 400 million residents have no proper wastewater sanitation systems ○ 3 million Africans die/year as result of waterborne illness
Groundwater Recharge
● Replenishment of groundwater aquifers help extend water supplies ● If we can impound water, it has opportunity to percolate into the subsurface ● Recharge sites ○ permeable soils with gravel and other porous material subsurface ● Relatively inexpensive
Groundwater Recharge in Texas
● SB-2: Senate Bill 2 established GAMs to improve groundwater availability estimations for the state's nine major and 21 minor aquifers ● GAMs: Groundwater Availability Modeling-- determine how much groundwater is available at a given place and time with 20 plus years of historical data available ● "Rule of Capture": unrestricted landowner pumping-- switching to the growing use of permitted pumpage
California Water Shortages
● Water shortages in California are a growing concern ○ ongoing drought, ○ earlier spring snowmelt, ○ projected future climate warming, and ○ currently mandated water use restrictions ● Increases in population and land use in coming decades will place additional pressure on already limited available water supplies ● First modeling effort of its kind to examine regional land-use related water demand incorporating historical trends of both developed and agricultural land uses