Western Art Exam 2 (Notes)

SACRO-IDYLLIC LANDSCAPE

Often the center walls feature small vignettes which are rustic scenes of the countryside featuring livestock, shepherds, temples, shrines and rolling hills. refers to painting depicting as rustic or pastoral scene with focuses on the worship of Roman deities. This style of paintings introduced Egyptian themes and imagery, including of the Nile as well as Egyptian deities and motifs.

- ROMAN ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS

adapted all Greek orders (Doric, Ionic & Corinthian) developed two order of their own Renaissance -new Roman orders named and formalized as the Tuscan and Composite. also invented the superposed order- successive stories of a building have different orders. heaviest orders were at the bottom, while the lightest came at the top. TUSCAN similar in proportions to the Doric, a simplified version. unfluted shaft. looks the most solid. COMPOSITE combination the volutes of the Ionic with the leaves of the Corinthian order. Corinthian except for the capital, with no consistent differences to that above or below the capital.

- GREEK LANGUAGE

one of the oldest Indo-European languages has provided the basis of many modern languages. first to use a 'true' alphabet, that is , one representing both vowels and consonants. word 'alphabet' formed of the first two letters of the Greek alphabet: Alpha and Betha Greek on the Engliush language is indirect (through Latin), more than. 150,000 words in English are derived from Greek words. Words that start with 'ph-' are usually of Greek origin, for example: philosophy, phisical, photo, phrase, philanthropy, etc. Antique, idol, dialogue, geography, grammar, architect, economy, encyclopedia, telephone, microscope, among a thousand others derived from the Greek language.

- ROMAN PAINTING

paint is a less durable medium than stone or bronze, paintings from antiquity rarely survive. Pompeii, Roman wall painting. preserved paintings, sculptures and structures for thousands of years until their rediscovery. four painting styles observed by art historians that represent an interrupted sequence of two centuries of evidence. not unique to the city Pompeii and the surrounding cities buried cy Vesuvius contain the largest source of evidence.

ART CONNOISSEUR

person who has as great deal of knowledge about fine arts. When there is a lack of documentary evidence of provenance, art connoisseur play an essential role for the identification and attribution to individual artists, style, technique, and approximate date.

- GREEK TEMPLES

most recognizably Greek structure earliest shrines built to honor divinities from materials such as wood and mud brick (materials that typically don't survive very long). basic form-simple rectangular room with projecting walls that created a shallow porch, unchanged in its concept for centuries. 8th century BC, move from ephemeral materials (wood and mud brick) to permanent materials (stone). Archaic period-Doric order firmly established, wave of monumental temple building during the 6th and 5th centuries BC. city-states invested substantial resources in temple building. competed with each other in strategic and economic terms, and architecture. Athens enormous resources to Acropolis, surpassed anything that their rival states could offer. categorized in terms of their ground plan and the way in which the columns are arranged. Prostyle: columns only at the front. Amphiprostyle: columns at the front and rear Peripteral: Single line of columns all around Dipteral: double row of columns all around Tholos: circular ground (unusual) evolved from an unroofed outdoor altar, to an altar within a large house, to a special purpose building with a large number of wooden columns, to an all-stone structure. mature temple had heavy roof and triangular cornice, which it was supported internally by columns, but with an additional range of external columns, known as peristyle, placed outside to give further support. Greek mastery of stone sculpture, evolving at the same time, made possible the adornment of the outside of the temple on a monumental scale, and the peristyle handled this extra weight with ease. engineering device (the peristyle), gave Greek temple its significant form: elegant and majestic. so popular - used it for as long as it built temples Romans adopted it for half a millennium. employed all over the world banks to bureaucratic buildings. most successful and durable architectural form ever conceived. successfulness of the temple result of democratic origin. built by the community, evolved through trial and error, corrected by public discussion and voting, until it reached what all or most agreed was normative perfection. built bigger or smaller, in cheap or expensive stone, according to means. a dozen main areas and many minor ones, where designers, sculptors and painters could go to work. there are more temples in a reasonable state of preservation outside of Greece than within. did not reach canonical form in mainland Greece and then get exported to the colonies. Art development and colonization proceeded simultaneously. some of the finest Greek architecture is found outside Greece Temple of Segesta in Sicily- Doric temple, considered the most perfectly situated and design building in the whole Greek antiquity. practically intact. people who designed and built this masterpiece were not even Greeks. They were Elymi, people native of Sicily, refugees from the fall of Troy (1200 BC), . blending art with nature, and choosing dramatic, soulful, suitable or serene sites for their finest buildings.

CONTRAPPOSTO

("opposite in Italian) sculptural structure, originated by the ancient Greeks, standing figure weight rests on one leg (called the engaged leg), freeing the other leg, which is bent at the knee. With the weight shift, the hips, shoulders, and head tilt, suggesting relaxation with the subtle internal organic movement that denotes life

- DISCOBOLOUS OF MYRON

(discus thrower) original no longer exists. Originally sculpted in bronze by an Athenian sculptor Myron fame through bronze and marble copies by Romans. cited and described Greek writings. well known in ancient world. Hitler, using it visual propaganda for the 1936 Berlin Olympics (known as the Nazi Olympics), as well as for his supremacy believes.

- PONT DU GUARD

(literally bridge of the Gard) in South of France originally part of a 31 miles canal supplying fresh water to the Roman city of Nimes. without the use of mortar Some stones weigh up to 6 tons. From the Middle Ages to the 18th century, the ancient aqueduct was used as a conventional bridge to facilitate foot traffic across the river. Today, the Pont du Gard is one of France's top tourist attractions.

- ELGIN MARBLES

After Holy League's assault, the Parthenon sat in ruins and was at the mercy of looters. early 19th century, Lord Elgin (Thomas Bruce) removed the marble friezes and several other sculptures and shipped them to his mansion in London. Today remain on public display in the British museum. Time, weathering and cleaning- look white, once painted vivid colors such as red, blue, and green. unclear if Elgin had permission to remove sculptures . Greek government requested return. represent more than half of what now remains of the surviving sculptural decoration of the Parthenon. There are 21figures, 15 metope panels, and more than 200 feet of the Parthenon Frieze. Elgin's acquisitions also included from other buildings of the Acropolis: A Caryatid (column with the figure of a woman) from the Erechteum temple Four slabs from the parapet frieze of the Temple of Athena Nike And a number of other architectural fragments from the entire Acropolis.

ATLAS

An atlas or telamon is a male version of a caryatid.

KOUROS/KORE

Archaic period Visually, the period is known for large scale (more than 6 feet) marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures. Showing the influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture, the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently used as grave markers, these sculptural types displayed bold nudity, complicated hairstyles, and abstracted musculature.

- ACROPOLIS

Athens originated as a Neolithic acropolis or "part of the city on top of a hill" (akro means "high", and polis means "city"). flat-topped hill- original site of the city until Persian troops destroyed the Acropolis in 489 BC. vowed to keep it ruins as a memorial, until later Pericles convinced them to rebuild it. Pericles, dominated Athenian politics and culture from 462 until his death in 429 BC, led Athens to a period of great wealth and influence seen later as a Golden Age. He argued that his project honored the gods, especially Athena, who had helped the Greeks to defeat the Persians. Pericles hoped to create a visual expression of Athenian values. great patron of the arts, use wealth for the adornment, encouraging artists to promote a public image of peace, prosperity and power. Pericles said: "Future generations will marvel at us, as the present age marvels at us now" Large quantities of gold, ivory, and exotic woods had to be imported. Some 22,000 tons of marble had to be transported 10 miles from quarries to city workshops. Pericles was severely criticized by his political opponents for his extravagance, but never cost him popular support. working class Athenians such as laborers, carpenters, masons, sculptors, carpenters, merchants, etc. benefited from his expenditures. Work on the Acroplolis continued after Pericles death and was completed by the end of the 5th century BC. The Acropolis became center of civic and religious life. Some of the important buildings besides the Parthenon, are the Temple of Athena Nike, the Propylaia, the Erechteion and the Theater of Dionysus.

- GREEK CULTURE

Building on the discoveries and knowledge of civilizations in Egypt and Mesopotamia, among others, the Ancient Greeks developed a sophisticated philosophical and scientific culture. One of the key points of ancient Greek philosophy was the role of reason and inquiry. emphasized logic and idea of impartial, rational observation of the natural world. Plato, who turned the questioning style of Socrates into written form. Aristotle, Plato's student, wrote about topics as varied as biology and drama. major contributions to math and science. basic ideas about geometry and the concept of mathematical proofs Pythagoras, Euclid, and Archimedes. first astronomical models to describe planetary movement, the Earth's axis, and the heliocentric system (Sun as the center of the solar system) Hippocrates was the most famous physician in antiquity. established a medical school and wrote many medical treatises. He is considered the founder of modern medicine. Literature and theatre Greek theatre began in the 6th century BC in Athens with the performance of tragedy plays at religious festivals. inspired the comedy plays. spread around Mediterranean and influence Hellenistic and Roman theatre. playwrights like Sophocles and Aristophanes formed the foundation upon which all modern theatre is based. oral traditions were important, especially in early Greek history. 670 BC that Homer's epic poems, The Iliad and Odyssey, were compiled into text form.

AMPHORA

Greek vase type, two-handled pot with a neck that is considerable narrower than the body. used for the storage and transport of liquids (like wine and oil) and solids (such as grains, olives, and cereal). Shapes could vary, but the ones in outsize form were used for funerals and as a grave markers. Wide-mouthed, painted were used as pitchers and were given as prizes.

- LACOON AND HIS SONS

Hellenistic found during the Renaissance (1506) in Rome. Michelangelo called to the site of the unearthing of the statue immediately after its discovery. Pope Julius II acquired the sculpture and was placed in public view at the Vatican. In 1798 statue was taken to France, by Napoleon who founded the Louvre (which had a different name back then). After Napoleon's defeat many plundered artworks were returned by the French, and the Laocoon reached Rome in 1816

- BARBERINI FAUN

Hellenistic period. found without legs and left arm in the moat of the Castel Sant' Angelo (formerly Mausoleum of the Emperor Hadrian) in Rome during its renovation in 1620. Owned by the Barberini family, was later sold to Prince Ludwig of Bavaria in 1814. Italian officials tried to block the statue from leaving Italy, in 1820 the sculpture was moved to Germany and installed in the Glyptothek in Munich, where it remains today.

- SEGOVIA ACUEDUCT

Latin words aqua meaning water and ducere meaning to lead. artificial structure such as channel, tunnel, or ditch, used to transport water from a remote location to another. first constructed by Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. simply as open canals dug out between a river and a city. Romans constructed 11 that fueled their capital's water supply and many more throughout the empire. 50 AD one of the best-preserved monuments left by the Romans in Spain. 10 miles from the river to the city of Segovia for and was built of some 24,000 massive granite blocks without the use of mortar. heavy stones perfectly cut to fit perfectly together above ground portion is 2,388 feet long, 30 feet high, and 165 round arches. It is the foremost symbol of Segovia and still provided water to the city in the 20th century.

- ARCHITECTURAL INNOVATIONS

Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Etruscans-largely external. rely on building in a post-and-lintel system, two upright posts, like columns, with a horizontal block, lintel, laid flat across the top. interior spaces of buildings limited in size. Much of the interior space had to be devoted to supporting heavy loads. Roman architecture differed fundamentally from this tradition because of the discovery, experimentation and exploitation of concrete, arches and vaulting. 1st century CE, Romans were able to create interior spaces that had previously been unheard of. increasingly concerned with shaping interior space rather than filling it with structural supports. inside of Roman buildings were impressive as their exteriors. CONCRETE Roman concrete (opus caementicium), was developed early in the 2nd BCE. The use of mortar in masonry wasn't new in the ancient world. Mortar was a combination of sand, lime and water in proper proportions. the introduction of volcanic Italian sand (also known as "pozzolana"). mortar was incredibly strong and durable. It also had the ability to set underwater. Brick and tile were commonly plastered over concrete since it was not considered very pretty on its own, but concrete's structural possibilities were far more important. initiated architectural revolution, builders more creative designs. takes the shape of the mold or frame it is poured into, buildings more fluid and creative shapes. The two very positive outcomes of concrete use were: -didn't need to be used by master builders - could use molds. -cheaper than marble or expensive stones from quarry. ROUND ARCH first true arch used in western architecture. corbeled arch- stones are laid so that they move slightly in toward the center as they move higher up. wedge-shaped blocks, called voussoirs, with a key stone in the center holding them into place. weight is transferred from one voussoir down to the next, from the top of the arch to ground level, creating a sturdy building tool. span greater distances than a post-and lintel. concrete, combined with true arches allowed for vaults and domes to be built, creating expansive interior spaces. VAULT When the round arch (true arch) is extended, it becomes a barrel vault. outward pressure exerted by the curving sides of the barrel vault requires buttressing (added support from adjacent masonry support) within or outside the supporting walls. A groin vault is when two barrel-vaulted spaces intersect each other at the same level. Both the weight and outward thrust of the groin vault are concentrated on the four piers, so only the piers require buttressing. The hemispheric dome. rim of the dome is supported on a circular wall, which is called a drum when it is raised on top of a main structure. Sometimes a circular opening, called an oculus, is left at the top. The main example of a hemispheric dome structure is the Pantheon.

MEGALOPGRAPHIA

Pompeii's Villa of the Mysteries figures are examples of megalographia, a Greek term referring to life-size representations. The fact that the figures are the same size as viewers entering the room, as well as the way the painted figures sit in front of the columns dividing the space, are meant to suggest that the action taking place is surrounding the viewer.

VERISTIC

Portraiture represented the communal goals of the Republic. Hard work, age, wisdom, being a community leader and soldier. represented with balding heads, large noses, and extra wrinkles, demonstrating that they had spent their lives working for the Republic as model citizens, flaunting their acquired wisdom with each dentation of the brow. referring to the hyper-naturalistic features that emphasize every flaw, creating portraits of individuals with personality and essence.

Rome - GREEK INFLUENCE

Roman empire conquered Greece, adapted much of Greece's cultural and artistic heritage. appropriated work commissioned versions of famous Greek works from earlier centuries. did not believe a copy of an artwork was of any less value that to have the original. variations rather than direct copies, small changes made to them. humor, taking the serious and somber element of Greek art and turning it on its head. ability to adapt, convert, combine elements and add a touch of humor is probably what makes Roman art Roman. Because few Greek statues survived, Roman sculptures modeled on them provide the most visual evidence we have about the appearance of the originals. Roman copies of Greek originals fall into three main categories: replicate the original appropriate elements for use in a new compositional scheme adapt what they borrow for an entirely different purpose. Some Greek statues were quite large and made of cast bronze, so it took a great deal of skill and creative effort to translate them into stone, often on a reduced scale. Many of these were art collectors of the time.

FRESCO

Roman wall paintings in Pompeii meaning that pigment was applied to wet plaster, fixing the pigment to the wall. once exposed to light and air, can fade significantly, so the paintings discovered in Pompeii were a rare find indeed. The first two painting styles were popular during the Republican period (which ended in 37 BCE) and grew out of Greek artistic trends (Rome had recently conquered Greece). The second two styles became fashionable in the Imperial period. These categorizations by art historians focuses on how the artists divided up the wall and use paint, color, image and form either to embrace or counteract the flat surface of the wall.

- ARCH OF TITUS

TRIUMPHAL MONUMENTS won a spectacular victory, there was a notorious rituals celebrated throughout the city of Rome. commemorate Republican period celebratory monuments developed like triumphal arches. continued in the imperial period with triumphal monuments being erected at Rome and in the provinces. narrative friezes in order to tell the story to the citizens. oldest surviving Roman Triumphal Arch located at the highest point of the Via Sacra (Sacred Way) that served as its main processional street in the Forum Romanum. Emperor Dominitian, Titus' brother and successor, commissioned the construction of the Arch of Titus in 81AD to honor his late brother and top commemorate the victory in the Jewish War. In 71 CE the Roman emperor Vespasian and his oldest son, Titus, had subdued a dangerous revolt in the roman province of Judea and returned to Rome to celebrate this major accomplishment. The spectacle of the celebrations rivaled anything that Rome had ever seen before: spoils, prisoners, pictorial narratives in abundance. All this was meant to awe the spectators and to transport the viewers to the battlefields of the war in the east. festivities and the amazing ritual of the triumph was ephemeral. collective memory of the city, but on the urban landscape which have lasted almost 2,000 years. The arch stands at a key point that connects the valley of the Flavian amphitheater (or the Colosseum) to the valley of the Forum Romanum. triumphal parades passed along this route for many centuries before, thus the choice of the location was very deliberate. Another arch dedicated to Titus was located in the valley of Circus Maximus, scattered sculptural fragments. The inscription: The senate and the Roman people (dedicated this) to the deified Titus Vespasian Augustus, son of the deified Vespasian. The inscription makes the dedication a public decision, therefore perhaps Dominitian (who was making the transition to power), the youngest brother and too young to take part in the military glory enjoyed by his father and brother, he sought to gain the generally favorable opinion Two panel reliefs flank the passageway of the arch, and a third adorns the vault. The subject reflects the triumphal episodes following the fall of Jerusalem. In one scene Romans carry spoils from the temple in Jersualem, including a Menorah, sacred trumpets and the showbread table. The opposite panel depicts Titus in a triumphal four-horse chariot (quadriga) followed closely by the goddess of Victory (Victoria) preceded by official attendants and accompanied by symbolic representations of the senate and the Roman people. triumphal parade passed through the arch, collective memories shared 11century, the arch was incorporated into a fortress, resulting in damage to the panel reliefs that is still visible today. In 1821 it had a major restoration and the western side of the attic received a new inscription. Canaletto's famous painting of the arch grants a view of the monument's condition prior to its restoration. The arch of Titus has long provided a source of artistic inspiration. Leon Battista Alberti was inspired by its form as he designed the façade of the basilica of Sant'Andrea in Mantua, Italy after 1472. It has also inspired many modern commemorative arches around the world: Arc de Triomphe, Paris (1806) Stanford' White's Arch in New York (1892) The United States National Memorial Arch, Pennsilvania (1917) And Edward Lutyens' India Gate in New Delhi (1921)

- ERECHTHEION

Temple on site of mythical contest between Poseidon and Athena for patronage over Athens. enclosed sacred rock, bearing the marks of the trident, in the Erechtheion's north porch. north porch =most perfect interpretation of the Ionic order. The Porch of the Maidens on the south side six draped female figures (caryatids) as supporting columns. vertical fall of the drapery resembles fluting of a column shaft and the impression of relaxed grace effortless support. The hair of each caryatid falls in a loose but massive knot behind its neck, strengthens the weakest point in the sculpture while appearing entirely natural. caryatid- sculpted female figure serving as an architectural support taking the place of a column supporting an entablature on her head. nowadays are replicas. Five originals exhibited at the Acropolis Museum, allows visitors to view them from all sides. The last original taken by Lord Elgin and shown at the British museum. same height and build, and similarly attired, each of them mare unique (faces, stance, draping, and hair are carved differently)

- THEATER

The THEATRE of DIONYSUS foot of the Acropolis, is considered the world's first theatre. Dedicated to Dionysus, the god of plays and wine seats 17,000 people with excellent acoustics. first theatre ever built, cut into the southern cliff, is supposed to be the birthplace of Greek tragedy. remains of a restored and redesigned Roman version can still be seen at the site today. large, open-air structure used for dramatic performance. took advantage of hillsides and naturally sloping terrain and utilized the panoramic landscape as the backdrop to the stage itself. composed of the seating area (theatron), a circular space for the chorus to perform (orchestra), and the stage (skene). performances often linked to sacred festivals, common to find theaters associated directly with sanctuaries. inspired the Roman version Romans converted pre-existing Greek theaters to conform to their own architectural ideals.

- GREEK INFLUENCE

Via the Roman Empire, Greek culture came to be foundational to Western culture in general. During the Renaissance, the rebirth of classical culture, focused the strong roots of classical Greek and Roman traditions in philosophy, science, arts, etc. The Byzantine Empire inherited classical Greek culture directly, preservation of Classical Greek learning in medieval Byzantine tradition exerted strong influence on the Slavs and later on the Islamic Golden Age. modern revival of Classical Greek in Neoclassicism movement during 18th & 19th century in Europe, and America fraternities are traditionally represented by two or three letters from the Greek alphabet. 1776, first fraternity was formed, (Phi Beta Kappa) at the College of William & Mary in Virginia. dedicated to the pursuit of intellectual fellowship and education. They chose the Greek letters Phi Beta Kappa because those letters represented their secret motto: "Philosophy is the guide to life" Greek letters became the standard.

OLYMPICS

War heroes inspired creation of Olympics which celebrated physical competition. The first Olympian Games, had strong religious aspect. The athletes gathered on sacred ground (near Olympia, in present day Greece) to pay tribute to the supreme god, Zeus. The first day's ceremonies were religious rituals, and the awards were crowns of wild olive leaves from the Sacred Grove of the gods. The winners' deeds celebrated by poets long after victories greatest athletes idealized for centuries in Greek sculpture, such as the Discus Thrower (Diskobolos). hero Herakles believed to be the founder of Olympian Games. According to ancients, Herakles drew up the rules and decided the size of the stadium. so highly regarded that city-states suspended all political activities while the Games were in progress. my have been begun in the 9th century BC held every four years banned in 393 CE by the Christians Roman emperor Theodosius I. Theodosius I established Christianity as the official state religion in which he stopped all pagan practices, including the Olympic Games. The first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens in 1896. MARATHON messenger Pheidippides ran from battlefield in marathon all the way to Athens to announce the defeat of the Persians in 490 BC. distance was 25 miles as soon as he had delivered the message Pheidippides dies of exhaustion. The original footrace was called a marathon in honor of the legend and as a result it also covered 25 miles

ALTAR

blood sacrifice was a key component of Greek ritual practice did not necessarily need to be architecturalized, they could be and, in some cases, they assumed a monumental scale. Some of them reported to be capable of hosting the simultaneously sacrifice of 450 bulls. Many open air, approached by stairs to allow not only for the blood sacrifice itself, but also for the burning of the thigh bones and fat as an offering to the gods.

STOA

covered walkway or colonnade that was usually designed for public use. Early examples were usually composed of a single level. Later examples came to be two-story freestanding structures which allowed interior spaces for shops and other rooms. Greek city planners came to prefer the stoa as a device for framing the agora (public market place) Many cities, particularly Athens and Corinth, came to have elaborate and famous stoas. Besides being used as agoras, stoas were used in some cases as a place for exhibitions, civic space, and philosophy schools among other things.

Greek - SYNOPSYS

between 6th and 4th centuries BC studying ever detail of their surroundings, from the structures of leaves to the folds of their own clothing. builders evolved standardized temple plans. experimented with the arrangement, proportions, and appearance of their temples until they perfected three distinct designs Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. 5th century, the Athenians built the Parthenon, temple to the goddess Athena- established a Classical ideal. sculptors combined realistic attributes (realistic human appearance) with those most desirable-ideal of perfection. political and ideological themes and ideas. artists traveled long distances in the name of work. Art as a career gained recognition. formal education in art also came to be recognized, several art school were established. Pottery, sculpture and architecture were the most successful foundation for many modern art practices. From the representation of the human figure, to the techniques used in pottery and painting. The history of Greek art contrast dramatically with that of Egyptian art. Egyptians- permanence and continuity, similar artistic conventions for nearly 3,000 yearsexplored a succession of , communicate Greek- work in every medium (from mosaics to architecture) in "only" 800 years (900 to 100 BC), realistic interpretations traditionally divided in three stages that reflect their different stylistic progression

- TYPES OF PAINTING

center walls feature small vignettes, such as sacro-idyllic landscapes, which are rustic scenes of the countryside featuring livestock, shepherds, temples, shrines and rolling hills. Sacral Idyllic Scene refers to painting depicting as rustic or pastoral scene with focuses on the worship of Roman deities. introduced Egyptian themes and imagery, including of the Nile as well as Egyptian deities and motifs. true frescoes, meaning that pigment was applied to wet plaster, fixing the pigment to the wall. once exposed to light and air, can fade significantly The first two painting styles were popular during the Republican period (which ended in 37 BCE) and grew out of Greek artistic trends (Rome had recently conquered Greece). The second two styles became fashionable in the Imperial period. These categorizations by art historians focuses on how the artists divided up the wall and use paint, color, image and form either to embrace or counteract the flat surface of the wall. 1. INCRUSTATION STYLE colorful, patchwork walls of brightly painted faux-marble. rectangle of painted "marble" connected by stucco moldings that added a three-dimensional effect. Ordinary Romans could not afford expense, so they decorated their homes with painted imitations of the luxurious yellow, purple and pink marbles. imitating marble. Great examples can be found in the House of the Faun and the House of Sallust, both of which can still be visited in Pompeii. 2. ARCHITECTURAL STYLE incorporated elements out of the first one, such as faux marble blocks along the base of walls. first style embraced the flatness of the wall, the architectural style attempted to trick the viewer into believing that they were looking through a window by painting illusionistic images. filled with columns, buildings and stoas. examples of this architectural style is the P. Fammius Synistor's bedroom, which is now reconstructed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art. multiple vanishing points shifting the perspective throughout the room, from balconies to fountains and along colonnades into the far distance. viewer's eye to move continuously throughout the room in order to almost forget he/she remained contained within a small room. Pompeii's Villa of the Mysteries are also included in this style because of their illusionistic aspects. figures are examples of megalographia, a Greek term referring to life-size representations. figures are the same size as viewers entering the room, sit in front of the columns dividing the space, are meant to suggest that the action taking place is surrounding the viewer. 3. ORNATE STYLE early in the 1st century CE and was popular until about 50CE. embraced the flat surface of the wall through the use of broad monochromatic (use of one color) planes of color, such as black or dark, red, punctuated by minute, intricate details. Even though this was still architectural, it incorporated fantastic and stylized columns and pediments that could only exist in the imagined space of a painted wall. architect Vitruvius criticized it for representing monstrosities rather than real things. Often the center walls feature vignettes, such as sacro-idyllic landscapes, which are rustic scenes of the countryside featuring livestock, shepherds, temples, shrines and rolling hills. Sacral Idyllic Scene refers to painting depicting as rustic or pastoral scene with focuses on the worship of Roman deities. This style of paintings introduced Egyptian themes and imagery, including of the Nile as well as Egyptian deities and motifs. 4. INTRICATE STYLE mid-first century CE and it can be best described as a combination of the three styles that came before. Faux marble blocks along the base of the walls, frame the naturalistic architectural scenes and combined with large flat planes of color. incorporates central panel pictures, although on a much larger scale and a much wider range of themes (mythological, genre, landscape and still life images). Some of the best examples come from the House of the Vettii which can also be visited in Pompeii today.

BOULEUTERION

civic building in a Greek city, as it was the meeting place of the boule (citizen council) of the city. select representatives (approximately 500 members) assembled to handle public affairs and represent the citizenry of the polis. generally was covered, rectilinear building with stepped seating surrounding a central speaker's well in which an altar was placed.

Greek- HISTORICAL CONTEXT

collection of over 1500 sovereign nations called city states. independent , deciding its own form of government, economical support, and managing its own domestic and foreign affairs. power depended on manufacturing and commercial skills and military might. own rulers fought each other (Spartans and Athenians fought each other during the Peloponnesian war.) 7thc century BC, adopted two sophisticated new tools: - Coinage from Asia - Alphabetic writing from the Phoenicians 6th century, Athens commercial and cultural preeminence. end of 6th century Athens implemented the first large scale democracy. In the world. Every community in Athens had its own assembly and magistrates. All* citizens participated in assembly and had equal right to won private property, to exercise freedom of speech, to vote and hold public office, and to serve in the army or navy. *Citizenship remained an elite male prerogative. The census of 309 BC in Athens listed: 21,000 citizens 10,000 foreign residents 400,000 others (women, children and slaves) idea of citizens with rights and responsibility was an important new concept

CARYATID

column with the figure of a woman from the Erechteum temple

- TRAJAN COLUMN

completed in 113 CE victory of the Roman military over the Dacia (modern Romania) under the command of Trajan. carrara marble and stands almost 100 feet. 19 drums, with a helical 625 feet long sculptural frieze wrapping around the column 23 times. A total of 2,662 figures appear in the 155 scenes of the frieze, with Trajan himself featured in 58 scenes. A spiral staircase, inside the column, leads to the viewing platform atop the column. The statue of Trajan that originally crowned the column was replaced by bronze statue of Saint Peter commissioned by Pope Sixtus V in 1588 Emperor Trajan, who reigned from 98-117 CE, fought a series of campaigns known as the Dacian wars. Dacia (modern Romania) became part of the Roman empire in 106 after a substantial victory. As a result emperor Trajan declared over 100 days of official celebrations. Dacia was rich in natural resources, including gold. The lower half of the column corresponds to the first Dacian War (101-102 CE), while the top half depicts the second Dacia War (105-106 CE). The first narrative event shows Roman soldiers marching off to Dacia, while the final sequence of events portrays the suicide of the enemy leader. level of detail achieved is astonishing. settings for the scenes and sometime they portrayed multiple perspectives within a single scene. example of successful Roman propaganda. The Romans appear orderly, uniform, clean shaven, while the Dacians are depicted shaggy and much rougher. trajan are the most prominent. Other figures in the scenes are focused on the emperor's figure, which guides the viewer to understand the narrative correctly. The base of the column eventually served as tomb for Trajan's ashes. He dies while returning from foreign campaigns in 117 CE and was granted this unusual honor optimus princeps (the best first citizen).

- GREEK RELIGION

creation of the world- a battle between the earth gods, called Titans, and the sky gods. victors were sky gods, whose home = atop Mount Olympus in the northeast corner of the Greek mainland (highest point in Greece). gods as immortal and endowed with supernatural powers, visualized them in human form and attributed to them human weakness and emotions. Some of the most important deities are: ZEUS (Jupiter): Supreme deity - mature bearded man holding scepter or lighting bolt. HERA (Juno): Goddess of marriage (sister/wife of Zeus) - mature woman. POSEIDON (Neptune): God of the sea - Holds a three-pronged spear HADES (Pluto): God of the underworld, the dead, and wealth. APOLLO (Phoebus): God of sun, light, truth, etc. ATHENA (Minerva): Goddess of wisdom, war, victory and the city. APHRODITE (Venus): Goddess of love. EROS (Cupid): God of love. Shown as an infant or young boy. NIKE (Victory): Goddess of victory. Often shown winged and flying. Jeff Johnson suggested Nike as a company name to his boss, Phil Knight, who reluctantly agreed (luckily choosing Nike over Bengal or Dimension Six). In 1971, Portland State University Art student, Carolyn Davidson, encountered assistant professor Phil Knight who offered her 2$ per hour to design a logo for his new startup. paid $35 for her work on the Swoosh. In 1983, gifted her a golden Swoosh ring with and embedded diamond + 500 stocks in Nike, which are estimated today at $1 million. sanctuaries, were thought to be sacred to one or more gods. Local people enclosed the sanctuaries and designated them as sacred ground. The earliest sanctuaries had one or more outdoor altar or shrine and a sacred element (tree, rock, or spring). might become a palatial home for the gods with one or more temples. store valuable offerings, various monuments and statues, hosing for priests and visitors, and outdoor dance floor or theater, and a stadium for athletic events.

- GREEK ARCHITECTURAL ORDERS

describes a style of building. made up of a system of interdependent parts whose proportions are based on mathematical ratios. No element could be changed without producing a corresponding change in other elements. column serves as useful index of the style itself, therefore identifying the order of the column will then situate the order employed in the structure as a whole. The classical orders (Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian) are index to the architectural and aesthetic development of Greek architecture itself. The basic components of the Greek orders are the column and the entablature, which function as post and lintel. All types of columns have have a shaft and a capital Ionic and Corinthian also have a base. If the shafts are not made of a single slab, each section is called drum, which are joined inside by metal pegs. In Greek temple architecture, columns stand on the stylobate, the floor of the temple. The frieze is the long narrow band of sculpture that runs along the architrave (beam between top of the columns and the roof). The triangular roof is called pediment. The flutes are the carved lines of the shafts. 1. The Doric Order earliest represents important moment in the Mediterranean architecture when monumental construction made transition from impermanent materials (wood) to permanent materials (stone). plain, unadorned column capital and a column that rests directly on the stylobate of the temple without a base. columns fluted and are of sturdy, if not stocky proportions (The height of the column ranges from 5 ½ to 7 times the diameter of the base). entablature includes a frieze composed of triglyphs (vertical plaques with three divisions) and metopes (square spaces for either painted of sculpted decoration). Parthenon (447-432 BC) in the Acropolis in Athens. 2. The Ionic Order originated in Ionia Volutes, scroll-like ornaments the column has a base. graceful proportions, produce a more slender and elegant profile elongated (its height being about 9 times the diameter of the column at its base) a running frieze of continuous sculptural relief (as opposed to the triglyphs and metopes of the Doric frieze). The north porch of the Erechtheion temple in the Acropolis in Athens 3. The Corinthian Order latest and the most elaborate origins city state of Corinth. elaborate, carved capital, more vegetal elements than the Ionic order. The stylized, carved leaves of an acanthus plant grow around the capital. has a base and originally was used for interiors. Romans favored the Corinthian order

- VENUS DE MILO

discovered in 1820 on the Aegean island of Melos (also called Milos), represent Aphrodite (goddess of love and beauty known Venus for the Romans) Hellenistic period. Olivier Voutier, French naval officer, kill time one day by searching for antiquities. local farmer found top half of a statue of a woman. With the farmer's help, Voutier acquired for a relatively modest sum. arrived in France in 1821, presented to Louis XVIII, who donated it to the Louvre Museum, where it remains today

- COLOSSEUM

ellipsoid arena built in the 1st century CE. host public entertainment events such as gladiator fights, wild animal hunts and public executions. Flavian Amphitheatre nickname reference to colossal bronze statue of Nero which was converted to resemble the sun-god and which stood outside the theatre. biggest building of its kind and it dominated the city. Four stories (150 feet high) and capacity for 50,000 spectators. open arcades on each of the first three floors presenting statue-filled arches. The first floor carried Tuscan columns, the second Ionic, and the third level Corinthian. 80 entrances. Two entrances were used for gladiators, one of which was known as the Porta Libitina (the Roman goddess of death) and was the door through which the dead were removed from the arena. other door was the Porta Sanivivaria through which victors and those allowed to survive the contest left the arena. The final two doors were reserved exclusively for the Emperor's use. seating order following the hierarchy of society. The closest seats for the rich citizens, followed by middle-class citizens, then slaves and foreigners, and then at the very top the space was reserved for the women and the poor. On top of this roof platforms sailors were employed to manage the large awning (velarium) which protected the spectators from rain or provided shade on hot days. The scene of all the action, the arena, landscaped with rocks and trees to resemble exotic locations during the staging of wild animal hunts. Under the arena floor was a maze of small compartment rooms, corridors and animal pens. mechanisms sudden introduction of wild animals into the proceedings. to entertain, demonstrated the wealth and generosity of Emperor and provided an opportunity for ordinary people to see their ruler in person. Blood sports and death were the subject of the entertainment and an entire profession arose to meet the massive entertainment requirements of the populace. Dramas were also held in the Colosseum with bloodthirsty realism such as using real condemned prisoners for executions. During lunch-time (when the majority of spectators went for lunch), the Colosseum was the scene of many executions, especially Christian martyrs. In 404 CE, with the changing times and tastes, the games of the Colosseum were abolished, although condemned criminals were still made to fight wild animals for a further century. building damaged by at least two earthquakes and was repaired throughout centuries. become a fortress and later a quarry. vast source of building material. Renaissance, renewed interest in Roman architecture and ruins. prohibited any further removal of masonry. Unlike the Greeks that used the landscape to fit their needs, Romans simply shaped the city landscape. The Romans dried up a lake, poured concrete foundation and built the biggest amphitheater ever created.

- IMPERIAL ART

emperor became the focus of the empire and its people. Although, in theory, Augustus (as Octavian became known) was only the first citizen and ruled by consent of the Senate, he was in fact the empire's supreme authority. could pass his powers to the heir he decreed and was a king in all but name. network of cities boomed, and goods, people and ideas moved freely by land and sea. masterpieces associated with Roman art, such as the mosaics and wall paintings of Pompeii, gold and silver tableware, and glass, were created in this period. Augustus's rise to power signaled the end of the Roman republic and the formation of Imperial rule. Roman art now put to the service of aggrandizing the ruler and his family. also meant to indicate shifts in leadership. The major periods in Imperial Rome art are name after individual rulers or major dynasties: Augustan (27 B.C.E.-14 C.E.) Julio-Claudian (14-68 C.E.)Flavian (69-98 C.E.)Trajanic (98-117 C.E.)Hadrianic (117-138 C.E.)Antonine (138-193 C.E.)Severan (193-235 C.E.)Soldier Emperor (235-284 C.E.)Tetrarchic (284-312 C.E.) Constantinian (307-337 C.E.) Imperial art often referred back to the Classical art of the past. "Classical" or "Classicizing", when used om reference to Roman art refers broadly to the influences of Greek art from Classical and Hellenistic periods. Classicizing elements include the smooth lines, elegant drapery, idealized nude bodies, highly naturalistic forms and balanced proportions Augustus and Julio-Claudian dynasty were particularly fond of adapting Classical elements into their art. The Augustus of Primaporta was made at the end of Augustus' life, yet he is represented as youthful, idealized and strikingly handsome like a young athlete; all hallmarks of Classical art. Hadrian was known as a philhellene, or lover of all things Greek. Greek "philosopher's beard" in his official portraiture, unheard of before this time. Décor at his Villa at Tivoli included mosaic copies of famous Greek paintings, such as Battle of the Centaurs and Wild Beasts by the legendary ancient Greek painter Zeuxis. Later Imperial art moved away from earlier Classical influences, and Severan art signals the shift to art of Late Antiquity. The characteristics of Late Antiquity art include frontality, stiffness of pose and drapery, deeply drilled lines, less naturalism, squat proportions and lack of individualism. Important figures are often slightly larger or rare placed above the rest of the crowd to denote importance. In relief panels from the Arch of Septimius Severus from Lepcis Magna, the repeating figures are uniform and wearing the same stylized a d flat looking drapery. There is little variation or individualism in the figures and they are all stiff and carved with deep, full lines. Constantinian art continued to integrate the elements of Late Antiquity that had been introduced in the Severan period, but they are now developed even further. For example, in the relief panels on the Arch of Constantine, the figures are even more squat, frontally oriented, similar to one another, and there is a clear lack naturalism. Financial pressures, urban decline, underpaid troops and consequently overstretched frontiers - all of these finally caused the collapse of the western empire under waves of barbarian incursions in the early 5th century CE. The last western emperor, Romulus Augustus, was deposed in 476 CE, though the empire in the east, centered on Byzantium (Constantinople), continued until the 15th century.

- DAMNATIO MEMORIAE

emperors were often raised to the status of gods after their deaths. just as many officially erased from memory. term used to describe government condemned memory of a person seen as a tyrant, traitor, or other sort of enemy to the state. images of condemned figures destroyed, their names erased from inscriptions, and emperor or other government official's laws could be rescinded. Coins would be recalled of cancelled. residences could be razed or destroyed. At least 26 emperors condemned after deaths. not unique to the Roman world. Egyptians pharaohs also had many of their images, monuments, and inscriptions destroyed by political opponents or religious purists. full body sculptures, detached and replaced heads with the portrait of the new emperor. through the 4th century CE. Christianity made official in the Roman world, vandalism of imperial portraits continued, but with more of a religious bent than political. portraits were removed, damage, or destroyed because of dramatic changes in the subjects' reputations is unmistakable evidence that such images are more than "pictures".

Rome - HISTORICAL CONTEXT

empire lead economic and social revolution that changed the face of the Roman world: service to the empire and the emperor, not just birth and social status, became the key to advancement. The emperors ruled for five hundred years. They expanded Rome's territory and by about 200 CE, their vast empire stretched from Syria to Spain and from Britain to Egypt. network of roads, shared Greco-Roman culture linked people, goods and ideas. empire divided into eastern and western halves and then into more easily administrative units. later emperors such as Constantine ruled the whole empire, the division between east and west became more marked as time passed.

- RE-DISC OVERY OF POMPEII

eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE destroyed and largely buried the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum and other sites in southern Italy under ash and rock. ash and volcanic material completely sealed off these locations from human intervention, undisturbed and hidden from centuries. Archaeological and geological evidence indicates that there were rescue operations soon after the eruption and that some parts of these cities remained visible for some time. Renaissance scholars must have been aware of Pompeii and its destruction through various ancient written sources, the first archaeologist in the area was apparently unimpressed with the discoveries. Around 1600 an Italian architect accidentally excavated a number of wall paintings, inscriptions, and architectural blocks while digging a canal. No one undertook follow-up explorations for nearly a century and a half, despite the general interest in antiquity and rudimentary archaeology at the time. Significant excavations started in 1700s commissioned by king Charles VII, King of Spain, Naples and Sicily The field of art history was emerging concurrently one of the factors that influence the beginning of Neoclassicism in Europe. Since then the excavation site has been changing supervising methods until today. A terrible moment for Pompeii occurred in 1943 when the site was bombed. At least one bomb fell on-site museum, destroying some of the more interesting artifacts discovered by that time. POMPEII TODAY After more than 250 years of the unearthing, today the site of Pompeii is open for tourists from all over the world. Major projects in survey, excavations, and preservation are supervised by Italian and American universities as well as ones from Britain, Sweden, and Japan. major concern conservation. deterioration of buildings to a sometimes dangerous state, and shrinking funding for archaeological and art historical monuments.

- WINGED VICTORY OF SAMOTHRACE

excavated in 1863 on the Greek island of Samothrace by the French vice-consul and archaeologist Charles Champoiseau. ancient sanctuary dedicated to the Great Gods. During the Hellenistic period the sanctuary underwent intensive renovations. The statue of Nike was placed in a hewn-rock niche. Nike was house in a small building with a roof. found in pieces between the ruins of the sanctuary.

- ARA PACIS

festivities of the Roman state religion were immersed in tradition and ritual symbolism. Sacred offerings to the gods, consultations with priests and diviners, ritual formulae, and communal feasting, social cohesion and communication n authority. (the Altar of Augustan Peace) represents at a small scale the practices of the state religion in a way that is simultaneously elegant and pragmatic. open-air altar for blood sacrifice was built 9 BCE next to other power, legitimacy, and suitability of their emperor Augustus. Some of those key Agustan monuments were a giant sundial and the Mausoleum of Augustus. This complex of Augustan monuments made a clear statement about Augustus' physical transformation of Rome's urban landscape. The altar enclosure is a square while the altar itself sits atop a raised podium that is accessible via a narrow stairway. Processional scenes occupy the north and south flanks of the altar screen. The figures are proceeding in the direction of the altar itself, ready to participate in the ritual. depicted celebration of the peace (Pax) that Augustus had restored to the Roman empire. The north processional frieze, made up of priests and members of the Imperial household, is comprised of 46 figures. dressed in ceremonial attire for the sacrifice. Accompanying the processional friezes are four mythological panels that adorn the altar screen on its shorter sides. Each of these panels depicts a distinct scene, like a man making sacrifice, a seated goddess among the fertility, the personification of Rome as a seated goddess, etc. The choice to celebrate peace and the attendant prosperity in some ways breaks with the tradition of explicitly triumphal monuments that advertise success in war. By championing peace, Augustus promoted a powerful and effective campaign of political message making. The first fragments of the Ara Pacis emerged in 1568 near the basilica of San Lorenzo in Lucina. These initial fragments came to be disperse among various museums, including the Villa Medici, the Vatican Museums, the Louvre and the Uffizi. It was not until 1859 that further fragments (a total of 53) of the Ara Pacis emerged. But it wasn't until 1881 that art historians realized that those fragments were part of the actual Ara Pacis. A good deal of modern restoration has been undertaken on some parts of the structure. Now exacavated, restores and reesembled in a sleek modern pavilion design by architect Richard Meier (2006), the Ara Pacis continues to inspire and challenge us as we think about ancient Rome

- REPUBLIC ART

founded in 753 BCE by Romulus, first king. In 509 BCE Rome became a republic ruled by the Senate (wealthy landowners and elders) and the Roman people. During the 450 years of the republic Rome conquered the rest of Italy and expanded into France, Spain, Turkey, North Africa and Greece. became very Greek influenced or "Hellenized," generals and senators fought over this Greekwealth. Republic collapsed in civil war and the Roman empire begun. During the Republican period, governed by annually elected magistrates, the two consuls being the most important among them, and the Senate, which was ruling body of the state. Eventually the system broke down and civil wars ensued between 100 and 42 BCE. The wars brought to an end when Octavian (later called Augustus) defeated Mark Antony in 31 BCE and became first emperor. In the Republican period, art was produced in the service of the state, depicting public sacrifices or celebrating victorious military campaigns. Portraiture represented the communal goals of the Republic. Hard work, age, wisdom, being a community leader and soldier. Patrons chose to have themselves represented with balding heads, large noses, and extra wrinkles, demonstrating that they had spent their lives working for the Republic as model citizens, flaunting their acquired wisdom with each dentation of the brow. We now call this portrait style veristic, referring to the hyper-naturalistic features that emphasize every flaw, creating portraits of individuals with personality and essence.

- AUGUSTUS OF PRIMAPORTA

intertwined with politics and propaganda. Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire. power of imagery to communicate his ideology. Augustus not only as an orator and general, but as a great military victor and a staunch supporter of Roman religion. contrapposto pose while addressing his troops. We (the viewers) sense the emperor's power as the leader of the army and a military conqueror. foretells the 200 year period of peace that Augustus initiated, called the Pax Romanas. resembles a Classical Greek sculpture of the 5th century BCE, Polykleito's Doryphoros. similar contrapposto stance and both are idealized. portrayed as youthful and flawless individuals: they are perfect. depicting himself with the perfect body of a Greek athlete despite he was middle-aged at the time of the sculpture's commission. connecting with the Golden Age of the previous civilization. right leg there is a cupid riding dolphin. symbol of Augustus' great naval victory over Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, a conquest that made him the sole ruler of the Empire. The cupid signifies descended from the Gods. Cupid is the son of Venus, the Roman goddess of love. Julius Caesar, the adoptive father of Augustus, claimed to be descended from Venus. Therefore Augustus also shared this connection to the gods. cuirass, or breastplate, that is covered with figures, he has the gods on his side, he is an international military victor, and he is the bringer of the Pax Romana few in the empire would see the emperor in the flesh, statues were reminders of his power and presence. It is thought that the statue is a marble copy of bronze statues which were used to spread the emperor's likeness and attributes throughout the empire. not simply a portrait of the emperor, it expresses Augustus' connection to the past, his role as a military victor, his connection to the gods, and his role as the bringer of Roman peace.

- PROPYLAIA

monumental gatehouse without sculptural decoration. north wing was originally a dinning hall and later became the earliest known museum (meaning "home of the Muses"), which became a gallery built specifically to house a collections of paintings for public view.

- PARTHENON

most important remaining structure of ancient Greek general Pericles in 450 BC - result of advertisement campaign to win the favor of populace. temple dedicated to Athena, largest scale possible (101 x 228 feet). dominate Acropolis itself, and entire Athens skyline expensive fine white marble from the quarries northeast of the city. 13,400 stones 470 silver talents (roughly $7 million US dollars today). cited as the perfect expression of Doric temple form, variations from the norm. 8 columns at each end instead of the normative 6, and 17 on the sides instead of 13. extraordinary statue of Athena, known as Athena Parthenos. 40 feet high no longer exists. wood and covered in ivory and gold. know what statue looked like thanks to surviving Roman reproductions. unclear if Parthenon served solely as a home for Athena or also as a treasury. Ancient spectators not allowed inside the structure but viewed from outside. After the Greek empire was defeated, the Parthenon became a church for centuries. Later it became a mosque, and a shelter and ammunitions depot during the Ottoman War. cannonballs and its ammunition stores exploded causing hundreds of deaths and massive structural damage. Throughout the centuries, withstood earthquakes, fire, wars, explosions and looting yet remains, although battered, a powerful symbol of Ancient Greece and Athenian culture.

- PANTHEON

most remarkable ancient building surviving Completed in 125 CE Emperor Hadrian's reign and temple to all the gods. From the Greek, pan = all, theos = gods But scholars now argue that these details are wrong Originally stood on a podium and stairs from a colonnade square. dirt and street construction hide its podium and stairs Today, a fountain dominates the square in front of building. Built during the Renaissance (1578), supports an Egyptian obelisk placed in 1711. entrance portico guarded by monolithic Corinthian columns of Egyptian granite, resembles the façade of a typical Greek-Roman style temple. Behind this porch is a giant rotunda with 20-foot-thick walls that rise nearly 75 feet. bowl-shaped dome that is 143 feet in diameter and 143 feet from the floor at its summit, where there is a central opening called oculus. 29-foot-wide oculus, sun pours through on clear days, rain falls on wet ones, then drains off as planned by the original engineer, and the occasional bird flies in. spherical hollow of the building to commune with the gods. place where the emperor could make public appearances, reminded onlookers of his divine status, Hadrian convened the Senate here Two other earlier pantheon buildings on this location. first one destroyed by fire, and the second one struck by lighting and again burned down. The inscription on the porch façade reads: M. AGRIPPA L.F. COS TERTIUM FECIT, which means Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, three-time consul, made this. Hadrian dedicated to Agrippa, the commissioner of the first pantheon at this location. dome made out of concrete, thick at the base and it got thinner as it went up towards the oculus. outside of dome originally covered in sheets of bronze, but these were removed later on in 663 CE. may well be the first building from Classical architecture where interior is deliberately made to outshine the exterior. survived remarkably well, probably because relatively early in its history it was converted into the church of St. Mary of the Martyrs in 608 CE. In 1270 CE a bell tower was added to the porch roof and later removed. preserve the tombs of the Italian monarchy from 1870-1946 and the Italian Renaissance master painter Raphael (1483-1520).

POLYCHROME

practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, pottery, etc. in a variety of colors. refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors. 3 or more mineral colors slips are used to decorate as hand built ceramic.

- POTTERY TECHNIQUES

produce red and black colors found on vases, Greek artists used liquid clay as paint (termed "slip") and perfected a complicated three-stage firing process. pots have to be stacked in the kiln in a specific manner, conditions inside had to be very precise. First, temperature 800 centigrade and vents allowed for an oxidizing environment. vase turned red in color. Next, sealing the vents and increasing temperature to 950 centigrade, everything turned black and the areas painted with the slip vitrified (transformed into a glassy substance). last stage, vents reopened and oxidizing conditions returned inside the kiln. unpainted zones of the vessel became red again while the vitrified slip (the painted areas) retained a glossy black hue. Through the introduction and removal of oxygen in the kiln and, simultaneously, the increase and decrease in temperature, the slip transformed into a glossy black color. Geometric and Orientalizing periods, compasses to trace perfect circles and used silhouette and outline methods to delineate shapes and figures. Athens adopted the black-figure technique (dark colored figures on a light background with incised detail) during the Archaic period. Black figure uses the silhouette manner in conjunction with added color and incision. Incision involves the removal of slip with a sharp instrument, found on an amphora by Exekias. more realistically defined figures, black-figure painters took care to differentiate gender with color: women were painted with added white, men remained black. The red-figure technique invented in Athens around end of the Archaic period and is the inverse of black-figure. In this technique colored figures are set against a dark background. Using added color and a brush to paint in details, red-figure painters watered down (or dilute glaze) was used for hair, fur, and anatomy. When thickened, slip was used to form "relief lines" or lines raised prominently from the surface, to outline forms. white-ground technique similar to the red-figure technique in application, however quite different with its polychrome* figures on a white-washed background. White ground technique - paint in the details of forms just like red-figure, rather than incise them. Polychrome- practice of decorating architectural elements, sculpture, pottery, etc. in a variety of colors. refer to certain styles of architecture, pottery or sculpture in multiple colors. Polychrome pottery is created when 3 or more mineral color slips are used to decorate as hand built ceramic.

- GREEK SCULPTURE

profound effect for art throughout the ages. reproduced and copied by finest artists of different generations (a great example of this is the Renaissance master Michelangelo). Frequent subjects were battles, mythology, athletes, and rulers. often made in marble and bronze. originally brightly painted, after thousands of years the paints have worn away.

- GREEK ART PERIODS

progression throughout approximately 800 years. GEOMETRIC PERIOD (900-600 BCE) repetitive geometric shapes (diamonds, linear motifs, spirals, etc.), simple and abstracted interpretation of the figure, and cross-hatching. abstract forms used to represent human figures were triangles for torsos, more triangles for heads in profile, long thin rectangles for arms, tiny waists, and long legs with building thigh and calf muscles. Figures are shown in either full-frontal or full-profile views that emphasize flat patterns and outline shapes. no attempt to create the illusion of 3 dimensionality. complex form of decoration in all art forms, especially in pottery Large funerary vases used as grave markers. decorated vases provided record of funerary rituals, including the new Greek practice of cremation used for an important person. focused on the emotional reactions of the survivors. deceased entered a place of mystery and obscurity that living humans could not define precisely. figurines of wood, ivory, clay, and cast bronze. small statues of humans and animals are similar to those painted on pots. Towards the end of Geometric period, influenced by Egyptian artistic style and the Near East. Many vase painters moved away from the dense linear decoration of the Geometric style. started to depict large motifs that included real and imaginary animals, abstract plants, and human figures. This stylized years are also called the Orientalizing Period. ARCHAIC PERIOD (600-480 BCE) individual crafts, storytelling ability, and more realistic portrayals of human figures growing prosperity of the city-states competing for lucrative commissions from city councils and wealthy individuals, who sponsored the building of temples, shrines, government buildings, monumental sculpture, and fine ceramic wares. large scale (more than 6 feet) marble kouros (male youth) and kore (female youth) sculptures. influence of ancient Egyptian sculpture, the kouros stands rigidly with both arms extended at the side and one leg advanced. Frequently used as grave markers, bold nudity, complicated hairstyles, and abstracted musculature. The kore, never nude. draped in layers of fabric, ornamented with jewelry and adorned with a crown. vast majority were found on the Acropolis in Athens. debate, originally intended as ritual offerings to the goddess Athena. In Architecture, the Ionic and Doric sculptural elevations were developed during this era. CLASSICAL PERIOD (480-323 BCE) experimentation in realistic movement began before the end of the Archaic Period, two- and three-dimensional forms achieved proportions and postures that were naturalistic. The Early Classical Period, transition when some sculptural work displayed archaizing holdovers alongside the so-called "severe style". As can be seen in the Kritian Boy, the "Severe Style" features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids. For painters, the development of perspective and multiple ground lines enriched compositions, as can be seen on the Niobid Krater vase in the Louvre. During the High Classical Period, innovative structures on the Acropolis to Polykleitos' visual and cerebral manifestation of idealization in his sculpture of a young man holding a spear, the Doryphoros or "Canon". Concurrently, however, Athens, Sparta, and their mutual allies were embroiled in the Peloponnesian War, a bitter conflict that lasted for several decades and ended in 404 BC. Despite continued military artistic production and development continued intact. Contrapposto longer torsos and limbs, and smaller heads as seen for example in the Apoxymomenos. first female nude was produced. Known as Aphrodite of Knidos, the sculpture pivots at the shoulders and hips into an S-curve and stands with her right hand over her genitals in a modest pose. Exhibited in a circular temple and visible from all sides, HELLENISTIC PERIOD (323-31 BCE) Following the death of Alexander the Great in 323 (one of the most successful conquerors in history-his empire stretched from Greece and Egypt to the Indus valley and Afghanistan), influence stretched as far east as modern India. some pieces intentionally mimicked the Classical style others more interested in capturing motion and emotion. For example, on the Great Altar of Zeus from Pergamon expressions of agony and a confused mass of limbs convey newfound interest in drama. Even though the Romans successfully attacked the ancient Greeks in 146 BC, the Romans loved the Greek culture. As long as the ancient Greeks agreed to considered Rome in charge, the Greeks were free to mostly manage themselves. Alexander spread the Greek culture around the Mediterranean, and the Romans spread the Greek culture into Europe.

Rome - SYNOPSIS

spanning almost 1,000 years and three continents, from Europe into Africa and Asia. first Roman art -509 BCE, with founding of the Roman Republic, and lasted until 330 CE. broad spectrum of media including marble, painting, mosaic, gems, silver and bronze work, and terracotta just to name a few. Rome- melting pot, no problem adapting artistic influences from the other Mediterranean cultures that surrounded and preceded them. common to see Greek, Etruscan and Egyptian influences throughout Roman art. challenges for specialists is to define what is "Roman" about Roman art. WHO MADE ROMAN ART? We don't know much Artists existed in antiquity lack of documentary evidence such as contracts or letters. pays little attention to contemporary artists and focuses more on the Greek artists of the past. scholars do not refer to specifics artists but consider them generally, as largely, anonymous group. WHAT DID THEY MAKE? private art made for Roman homes as well as art in the public sphere. elite Roman -owner to display his wealth, taste and education to his visitors, dependents and clients. decoration was of the utmost importance. Wall paintings, mosaics, and sculptural displays were all incorporated seamlessly with small luxury items such as bronze figurines and silver bowls subject matter-busts of important ancestors to mythological and historical scenes, still-lifes, and landscapes, all to create the idea of an erudite patron steeped in culture. When Romans died, they left behind imagery that identified them as individuals. Funerary imagery emphasized unique physical traits or trade, partners or favored deities. funerary arts pans several media and all periods and regions. included portrait busts, wall reliefs set into working-class group tombs, and elite decorated tombs. painted portraits placed on mummies and sarcophagi death touched all levels of society (men and women, emperors, elites, and freedmen), recorded diverse experiences public sphere filled with works commissioned by the emperors such as portraits of the imperial family or bath houses decorated with copies of important classical statues. commemorative works-triumphal arches and columns that served a didactic as well as celebratory function. The arches and columns, marked victories, depicted war, and described military life, revealed foreign lands and enemies of the state. depict an emperor's successes in domestic and foreign policy rather than in war. Religious art is also included in this category, such as the cult statues placed in Roman temples that stood in for the deities they represented, like Venus or Jupiter. Gods and religious from parts of the empire also made their way to Rome's capital including the Egyptian goddess Isis, the Persian god Mithras and ultimately Christianity. Each religion brought its own unique sets of imagery to inform proper worship and instruct their sect's followers.

Greek - MILITARY POWER

strong reputation empire spread across west up to the Iberian peninsula (Spain), and East all the way to India. political, military, and cultural achievements resonate after empire fell established colonies overseas- protected Greece from foreign invaders city states will unify to protect homeland. immense pride in the military, especially in Sparta, who treated their soldiers as heroes. Their heroism was often turned into legend based on literally works like Iliad.

ACUEDUCT

the Latin words aqua meaning water and ducere meaning to lead. artificial structure such as channel, tunnel, or ditch, that is used to transport water from a remote location to another. very first in Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt. open canals dug out between a river and a city. Romans constructed 11 that fueled their capital's water supply and built many more throughout the empire.

- FORUM

the bustling religious, administrative, legal and commercial heart of the city from the 7th century BCE onwards. Made increasingly grandiose and ceremonial in function by the Imperial Period monumental symbol in stone and marble of Roman power and vanity with temples of deified emperors, dedicatory columns and massive triumphal arches celebrating military victories from far corners of the empire. wrecked by earthquake, weathering, pollution, and centuries of architects robbing it of its stones and columns, the Forum Romanum, nevertheless, remains one of the impressive sites surviving from antiquity.

HYDRIA

used for collecting, carrying and pouring water. rounded body, a pinched spout, and three handles (two at the sides for holding and one stretched along the back for tilting and pouring).

KRATER

used to mix water and wine during a Greek symposion (an all male drinking party). It allows an individual to pour liquids into its wide opening, stir the contents and access the mixture with a small jug.

- GREEK POTTERY

vases with terracotta (fired clay) in many different SHAPES for different purposes. krater was used to mix water and wine during a Greek symposion (an all male drinking party). allows individual to pour liquids into its wide opening, stir the contents and access the mixture with a small jug. hydria, used for collecting, carrying and pouring water. rounded body, a pinched spout, and three handles (two at the sides for holding and one stretched along the back for tilting and pouring). amphora, two-handled pot with a neck that is considerable narrower than the body. used for the storage and transport of liquids (like wine and oil) and solids (such as grains, olives, and cereal). Shapes could vary, but the ones in outsize form were used for funerals and as a grave markers. Wide-mouthed, painted amphorae were used as pitchers and were given as prizes. PARTS of the body. opening of the pot = mouth. stem = neck. slope from neck to the body = shoulder. base=foot. PAINTED COMPOSITIONS reflect the style of a certain period: -Geometric Period: geometric patterns. -Orientalizing Period: animal processions and Near Eastern motifs. -Archaic & Classical Periods: Human and mythological activities. These figural scenes (from the Archaic and Classical periods) can vary widely, like fetching water at the fountain house, heroic deeds and tales, theatrical performances, athletic competition as well as different representations of the world of the gods. should not be thought of as photographs that document reality, can still aid in reconstructing the lives and beliefs of the ancient Greeks. LEGACY highly coveted collector's items during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. their decoration was the obsession of connoisseurs* gifted with the ability to recognize and attribute the hands of individual painters.