Western Civilization Chapters 13-17

How did Enlightenment thinkers differ from those of the Middle Ages and Renaissance?

Enlightenment thinkers believed that thought had progressed far beyond that of antiquity, which demonstrated the possibility of human progress.

How did Europeans initially justify the enslavement of Africans?

Enslavement benefited the Africans by bringing Christianity to them.

The official Roman Catholic agency founded in 1542 to combat international doctrinal heresy.

Holy Office

French Calvinists.

Hugenots

A program of study designed by Italians that emphasized the critical study of Latin and Greek literature with the goal of understanding human nature.

Humanism

What was the consequence of Rákóczy's rebellion for Habsburg rule?

Hungary was never fully integrated into a centralized, absolute Habsburg state.

How did Luther benefit from his appearance before the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V at the Diet of Worms?

Luther gained a larger audience for his reform ideas, and others began to challenge the church's teachings and practices.

What were Lutheran and Calvinist attitudes toward secular rulers?

Lutherans taught respect for authority while Calvinists encouraged opposition to political authorities who were considered ungodly.

How did the closing of the monasteries and convents affect upper-class women?

Marriage became virtually the only occupation for upper-class women.

The clerical practice of holding more than one church benefice (or office) at the same time and enjoying the income from each

Pluralism

Why did a unified Italian state fail to develop in the fifteenth century?

Political loyalty and feeling centered on a passionate attachment to the individual city-state.

Moderates of both religious faiths who held that only a strong monarchy could save France from total collapse.

Politiques

A new religious order for women that emerged in the sixteenth century was the

Ursuline Order

According to its editor, the fundamental goal of the Encyclopedia was to

"change the general way of thinking."

How is the Renaissance idea of virtù best characterized?

The ability to shape the world around oneself according to one's will

How did Magellan's circumnavigation of the globe affect Spanish colonization?

The great distance of the Pacific convinced the Spanish to abandon efforts to trade in Asia and develop their American colonies instead

What was the primary cause of the emergence of inflation in Spain in the sixteenth century?

The inability of Spanish agriculture and manufacturing to meet the growing demand for goods

How did the Spanish monarchy seek to maintain its control over its colonies?

The monarchy established intendants with broad administrative and financial authority who were responsible directly to the monarchy.

What best characterizes the intersection of the hierarchies of wealth and order in the Renaissance?

The nobility retained its status by taking in and integrating the new social elite of wealth.

How did the Concordat of Bologna resolve the dispute between the French crown and the papacy over lay investiture?

The papacy received the right to the first year's income of new bishops and abbots, and the French king retained the right to select French bishops and abbots.

The merchants of Florence established dominance over what aspect of the papacy's activities?

The papal banking system

How did the Tudor kings, with the exception of Henry VIII, weaken aristocratic influence?

They avoided major wars that would require money from Parliament.

Why did most ordinary Poles oppose the Lutheran reform movement?

They held strong anti-German feelings.

How did the princes of Moscow seek to legitimize their authority as rulers of an independent state?

They modeled their rule on the Mongol khans

How did the English and French seek a route to East Asia?

They sought a northwest passage across North America.

In addition to reforming the church, what was the other goal of the Council of Trent?

To secure reconciliation with the Protestants

The 1494 agreement giving Spain everything to the west of an imaginary line drawn down the Atlantic and giving Portugal everything to the east.

Treaty of Tordesillas

The alliance of seven northern provinces (led by Holland) that declared its independence from Spain and formed the United Provinces of the Netherlands.

Union of Utrecht

In the Historical and Critical Dictionary, Pierre Bayle demonstrated that

all knowledge can be questioned and doubted.

European superiority increasingly was defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior.

an idealized space where individuals gathered to discuss social and political issues.

Luther's ideas about Roman exploitation of Germany

appealed to the national sentiment of German princes.

Luther believed that marriage

brought spiritual advantages and was the ideal state for nearly all human beings.

How did Charles VII of France NOT expand his authority?

by eliminating nobles' militias and troops

The Calvinist doctrine of predestination led to a

confidence among Calvinists in their own salvation.

In eastern Europe between 1500 and 1650, the growth of commercial agriculture was accompanied by the

consolidation of serfdom

Political power in the Dutch republic was

controlled by an oligarchy of wealthy merchants

The marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile

created a dynastic union but did not unify the separate kingdoms into a single state.

What did the Star Chamber do?

dealt with noble threats to royal power in England.

The Treaty of Tordesillas

divided the Atlantic Ocean with an imaginary line, giving Spain control of everything west of the line and Portugal everything east of the line

According to the Dutch humanist Erasmus, the key to reform was

education.

The scientific revolution drew on all of the following for its origins except

efforts to prevent a recurrence of the Black Death.

Francis Bacon formalized the research methods of Tycho Brahe and Galileo into a theory of reasoning known as

empiricism

The enlightened policies of Frederick II of Prussia included all of the following except

freeing the Prussian serfs.

The discipline of natural philosophy focused on

fundamental questions about the nature, purpose, and function of the universe.

The Edict of Nantes

granted French Huguenots the right to worship in 150 towns.

The most important factor in the emergence of the Italian Renaissance was the

great commercial revival in Italy.

In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John Locke claimed that

human development is determined by education and social institutions.

The primary purpose of Fontenelle's Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds (1686) was to

popularize the findings of the scientific revolution

Copernicus's theory of the universe

postulated a sun-centered view of the universe.

France supported the Protestant princes of Germany in order to

prevent Charles V from increasing his power.

Johannes Kepler believed that the elliptical orbit of planets

produced a musical harmony of heavenly bodies.

The dissolution of the English monasteries

resulted from Henry VIII's desire to confiscate their wealth.

Soft pastels, ornate interiors, and sentimental portraits are all characteristics of the style known as

rococo.

Women play all of the following roles in patronage systems except

serving on royal councils.

Which form did the Italian communes not take?

some cities were under authority of the papacy, which ruled them as personal lands of the pope.

In Hungary, Lutheranism was

spread by Hungarian students who had studied at the University of Wittenberg.

Why was women's work less valued and less compensated than men's work?

t was understood that a woman was either married or to be married and, therefore, not responsible for supporting a family.

The subjugation of the Italian peninsula by outside invaders was the result of

the Italians' failure to coordinate a common defense.

The final collapse of Spain as a great military power was symbolized by the defeat at the Battle of Rocroi and the resulting Treaty of

the Pyrenees.

Francesco Petrarch believed that

the recovery of classical texts would bring about a new golden age of intellectual achievement.

Luther believed that the church consisted of

the spiritual priesthood of all believers.

The most influential aspect of René Descartes's theories of nature was that

the universe functioned in a mechanistic fashion.

In which ways did William Shakespeare's genius NOT lay?

the use of clear and unadorned expressions.

Why did Rich individuals sponsored artists and works of art

to glorify themselves and their families

Martin Luther's first response to the Peasants' War was

to side with the peasants.

The guiding force behind Cardinal Richelieu's domestic policies was

to strengthen royal control.

In the seventeenth century, the Dutch East India Company

took over much of the East Indies from Portugal.

As consumer habits changed, an aristocrat's greatest expense was usually his

urban palace.

In religious affairs, Elizabeth I of England followed a policy that

was a middle course between Catholic and Protestant extremes.

In terms of gender relations, Renaissance humanists argued that

women's sphere of activity was private and domestic

View that monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch, and that, in turn, the state should use its resources and authority to increase the public good.

Cameralism

A small, maneuverable, three-mast sailing ship developed by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century that gave the Portuguese a distinct advantage in exploration and trade.

Caravel

Descartes's view that all of reality could ultimately be reduced to mind and matter.

Cartesian Dualism

The Baroque style flourished in the context of the

Catholic Reformation.

Why did the English government arrive at a crisis situation by 1640?

Charles I attempted to govern without Parliament and finance his government by emergency taxes.

Northern humanists who interpreted Italian ideas about and attitudes toward classical antiquity and humanism in terms of their own religious traditions.

Christian Humanists

The exchange of animals, plants, and diseases between the Old and the New Worlds.

Columbian Exchange

Sworn associations of free men in Italian cities led by merchant guilds that sought political and economic independence from local nobles.

Communes

Spanish for "conqueror"; Spanish soldier-explorers, such as Hernando Cortés and Francisco Pizarro, who sought to conquer the New World for the Spanish crown.

Conquistador

A form of government in which power is limited by law and balanced between the authority and power of the government on the one hand, and the rights and liberties of the subject or citizen on the other hand; could include constitutional monarchies or republics.

Constitutionalism

The idea that the sun, not the earth is the center of the universe.

Copernican Hypothesis

What became Cortés's crucial advantage in his conquest of the Mexica Empire?

Cortés was able to exploit internal dissention within the Mexica Empire.

Free groups and outlaw armies originally comprising runaway peasants living on the borders of Russian territory from the fourteenth century onward. By the end of the sixteenth century they had formed an alliance with the Russian state.

Cossacks

Magnificent households and palaces where the signori and the most powerful merchant oligarchs required political business to be conducted

Courts

Debate among writers and thinkers in the Renaissance about women's qualities and proper role in society.

Debate About Women

A document issued by Henry IV of France in 1598, granting liberty of conscience and of public worship to Calvinists, which helped restore peace in France.

Edict of Nantes

A theory of inductive reasoning that calls for acquiring evidence through observation and experimentation rather than reason and speculation.

Empiricism

A system whereby the Spanish crown granted the conquerors the right to forcibly employ groups of Indians; it was a disguised form of slavery.

Encomienda System

In return for financial support, what did Charles II of England secretly promise Louis XIV of France?

English laws against Catholics would be eased and England gradually re-Catholicized.

How did English colonies differ from other major European colonies in their treatment of African women?

English masters rarely freed the children that they fathered with female slaves.

Term coined by historians to describe the rule of eighteenth century monarchs who, without renouncing their own absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress and tolerance.

Enlightened Absolutism

How is the role of Europe in the world trading system prior to the voyage of Columbus best characterized?

Europe was a minor outpost that produced few products desired by other civilizations.

How did the idea of "race" transform Europeans' idea of their superiority over other peoples?

European superiority increasingly was defined as biologically superior as well as culturally superior.

The idea that the proper way to explore the workings of the universe was through repeatable experiments rather than speculation.

Experimental Method

The Enlightenment reached its highest development in France for all of the following reasons except

France had the highest literacy rates in Europe

A series of violent uprisings during the early reign of Louis XIV triggered by growing royal control and oppressive taxation.

Fronde

The vast and sophisticated Peruvian empire centered at the capital city of Cuzco that was at its peak from 1438 until 1532.

Inca Empire

Why did the printing press find substantial success?

Increasing literacy and the opening of more schools and universities had created an expanding market for reading material

How did the printing press provide a framework to challenge provincial sentiments?

Individuals widely separated by geography could read the same material and form a common identity that competed with local loyalties.

A document issued by the Catholic Church lessening penance or time in purgatory, widely believed to bring forgiveness of all sins.

Indulgence

The core of the sultan's army, composed of slave conscripts from non-Muslim parts of the empire; after 1683 it became a volunteer force.

Janissary Corps

Members of the Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyola, whose goal was the spread of the Roman Catholic faith.

Jesuits

The Spanish conversos

Jewish Christians, some of whom held prominent positions in the state, church, and business.

The nobility of Brandenburg and Prussia, they were reluctant allies of Frederick William in his consolidation of the Prussian state.

Junkers

This states that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object.

Law of Inertia

This says that all objects are attracted to one another and that the force of attraction is proportional to the object's quantity of matter and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Law of Universal Gravitation

Why did Elizabeth I have her cousin and heir Mary, Queen of Scots, executed?

Mary became implicated in a plot to assassinate Elizabeth

A system of economic regulations aimed at increasing the power of the state based on the belief that a nation's international power was based on its wealth, specifically its supply of gold and silver.

Mercantilism

Also known as the Aztec Empire, a large and complex Native American civilization in modern Mexico and Central America that possessed advanced mathematical, astronomical, and engineering technology.

Mexica Empire

A system used by the Ottomans whereby subjects were divided into religious communities with each millet (nation) enjoying autonomous self-government under its religious leaders.

Millet System

How did Michel de Montaigne offer a counterpoint to Europe's growing imperial activities?

Montaigne rejected the notion that one culture is superior to another

Who resisted the efforts of the Portuguese to establish themselves in the Indian Ocean trade?

Muslim-controlled port cities

An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned.

Natural Philosophy

A term applied to Jews and Muslims who accepted Christianity; in many cases they included Christians whose families had converted centuries earlier.

New Christians

How did the nature of armed forces change in the latter half of the seventeenth century

New techniques for training and deploying soldiers led to a rise in the professional standards of the army.

How did Isaac Newton's law of gravity bring the Scientific Revolution to maturity?

Newton synthesized mathematics with physics and astronomy to demonstrate that the entire universe was unified into one coherent system.

Financial support of writers and artists by cities, groups, and individuals, often to produce specific works or in specific styles.

Patronage

A series of treaties, from 1713 to 1715, that ended the War of the Spanish Succession, ended French expansion in Europe, and marked the rise of the British Empire.

Peace of Utrecht

The name of a series of treaties that concluded the Thirty Years' War in 1648 and marked the end of large-scale religious violence in Europe.

Peace of Westphalia

In the fifteenth century, two rival Islamic empires dominated the Middle East, the Turkish Ottomans and the

Persian Safavids.

A group of French intellectuals who proclaimed they were bringing the light of knowledge to others.

Philosophes

Disenfranchised common people in Italian cities who resented their exclusion from power.

Popolo

After losing access to slave trading from the Black Sea, who did the Genoese NOT obtain as slaves?

Portuguese peasants

The teaching that God has determined the salvation or damnation of individuals based on his will and purpose, not on their merit or works.

Predestination

Portugal's participation in European expansion was given critical support by

Prince Henry.

The English military dictatorship established by Oliver Cromwell following the execution of Charles I (1653-1658).

Protectorate

The name originally given to Lutherans, which came to mean all non-Catholic Western Christian groups.

Protestant

Which powers participated in the partitioning of Poland in the late eighteenth century?

Prussia, Russia, and Austria

How did the introduction of Ptolemy's Geography mislead European cartographers?

Ptolemy asserted that the world was much smaller than it actually is, indicating that Asia was not far removed from Europe to the west.

A second century C.E. work that synthesized the classical knowledge of geography and introduced the concepts of longitude and latitude. Reintroduced to Europeans in 1410 by Arab scholars, its ideas allowed cartographers to create more accurate maps.

Ptolemy's Geography

An idealized intellectual space that emerged in Europe during the Enlightenment, where the public came together to discuss important issues relating to society, economics and politics.

Public Sphere

Members of a sixteenth- and seventeenth-century reform movement within the Church of England that advocated purifying it of Roman Catholic elements, such as bishops, elaborate ceremonials, and wedding rings.

Puritans

A secular, critical way of thinking in which nothing was to be accepted on faith, and everything was to be submitted to reason.

Rationalism

The transition in Europe from a society where literacy consisted of patriarchal and communal reading of religious texts to a society where literacy was commonplace and reading material was broad and diverse.

Reading Revolution

A French word meaning "rebirth," first used by art historian and critic Giorgio Vasari to refer to the rebirth of the culture of classical antiquity.

Renaissance

A form of government in which there is no monarch and power rests in the hands of the people as exercised through elected representatives.

Republicanism

A popular style in Europe in the eighteenth century, known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and starry-eyed lovers protected by hovering cupids.

Rococo

Regular social gatherings held by talented and rich Parisian women in their homes, where philosophes and their followers met to discuss literature, science, and philosophy.

Salons

Which of the following best describes Martin Luther's doctrine of salvation?

Salvation came through faith alone as a free gift of God's grace.

Government by one-man rule in Italian cities such as Milan.

Signori

Why did Ivan IV of Russia bind urban merchants and artisans to their towns?

So that he could tax them more heavily

The fleet sent by Philip II of Spain in 1588 against England as a religious crusade against Protestantism. Weather and the English fleet defeated it.

Spanish Armada

The executive officer in each of the United Provinces of the Netherlands, a position often held by the princes of Orange.

Stadholder

What new type of anti-Semitism emerged in fifteenth-century Spain?

Status as a Jew was defined as inherent in the blood, so Jews could never be true Christians.

The ruler of the Ottoman Empire; he owned all the agricultural land of the empire and was served by an army and bureaucracy composed of highly trained slaves.

Sultan

Galileo's invention with which he obtained the empirical evidence that proved the Copernican system.

Telescope

Legislation passed by the English parliament in 1673 to secure the position of the Anglican Church by stripping Puritans, Catholics, and other dissenters of the right to vote, preach, assemble, hold public office, and attend or teach at the universities.

Test Act

How widespread was the influence of the Inquisition?

The Inquisition effectively destroyed heresy within the Papal States but had little influence elsewhere.

Calvin's formulation of Christian doctrine, which became a systematic theology for Protestantism.

The Institutes of the Christian Religion

In chronological order, what were the three successive commercial empires established by Europeans in the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries?

The Portuguese, the Spanish, and the Dutch

The Renaissance courts of northern Europe particularly sought to include black servants among their staff

The Renaissance courts of northern Europe particularly sought to include black servants among their staff

One of the central components of the Italian Renaissance was

adulation of the artist.

Who was Prester John?

A mythical Christian king in Africa

How are the immigration patterns (forced and unforced) of Europeans and Africans to the Americas between 1500 and 1800 best characterized?

About four times as many Africans migrated to America as did Europeans.

Opposition to the clergy.

Anticlericalism

How did justifications for slavery change from the fifteenth to eighteenth century?

Arguments supporting slavery began to focus more on science and nature and less on religion

In the seventeenth century, why did rulers hesitate to crush rebellions?

Armies were expensive to deploy, and rulers feared creating martyrs.

The highest-ranking members of the Russian nobility.

Boyars

The Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis ended the conflict known as the

Habsburg-Valois Wars.

In general, what was Voltaire's attitude toward government?

He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for

How did Frederick William, the Great Elector of Prussia, persuade the Junker nobility to accept taxation without consent in order to fund the army?

He confirmed the Junkers' privileges, including their authority over the serfs

When Vasco da Gama arrived in the Indian Ocean, how did he navigate these unknown waters?

He hired an Indian guide.

How did Frederick William I, king of Prussia, sustain agricultural production while dramatically expanding the size of his army?

He ordered all Prussian men to undergo military training, after which they could return home and serve as army reservists.

How did Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud create conflict in Britain in the 1630s?

He sought to impose the Anglican Book of Common Prayer on Presbyterian Scotland

According to his agreement with the Spanish Crown, what rewards would Columbus receive if he found a water route to Asia?

He would be named viceroy over any territories he discovered and receive one-tenth of the material rewards of the journey

The name for the four administrative units of Spanish possessions in the Americas: New Spain, Peru, New Granada, and La Plata.

Viceroyalties

The quality of being able to shape the world according to one's own will.

Virtu

How did Peter the Great's westernizing reforms affect the process of marriage?

Young noble men and women were required to attend parties together and could freely choose their own spouses.

The Consistory was

a body of laymen and pastors who led Geneva

The primary cause of the English Glorious Revolution was

a fear of the establishment of Catholic absolutism by James II.

The Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre led to

a lengthy civil war

The group of people who benefited the most from large price increases in the sixteenth century was the

middle class.

Oliver Cromwell's Protectorate is best described as a

military dictatorship.

Settlers from the Massachusetts colony dispersed into new communities such as Connecticut and Rhode Island because

of religious disputes among the colonists.

At the time of his death, Columbus believed the islands he found were

off the coast of Asia