Why

Llamas

(disambiguation). Not to be confused with Lama. Llama Llama lying down.jpg Conservation status Domesticated Scientific classification e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Family: Camelidae Genus: Lama Species: L. glama Binomial name Lama glama (Linnaeus, 1758) Lama glama Vicugna pacos range.png Domestic llama and alpaca range[1] The llama (/ˈlɑːmə/; Spanish: [ˈʝama] locally [ˈʎama] or [ˈʒama]) (Lama glama) is a domesticated South American camelid, widely used as a meat and pack animal by Andean cultures since the Pre-Columbian era. The height of a full-grown, full-size llama is 1.7 to 1.8 m (5.6 to 5.9 ft) tall at the top of the head, and can weigh between 130 and 200 kg (290 and 440 lb). At birth, a baby llama (called a cria) can weigh between 9 and 14 kg (20 and 31 lb). Llamas typically live for 15 to 25 years, with some individuals surviving 30 years or more.[2][3][4] They are very social animals and live with other llamas as a herd. The wool produced by a llama is very soft and lanolin-free. Llamas are intelligent and can learn simple tasks after a few repetitions. When using a pack, they can carry about 25 to 30% of their body weight for 8 to 13 km (5-8 miles).[5] The name llama (in the past also spelled 'lama' or 'glama') was adopted by European settlers from native Peruvians.[6] Llamas appear to have originated from the central plains of North America about 40 million years ago. They migrated to South America about three million years ago during the Great American Interchange. By the end of the last ice age (10,000-12,000 years ago), camelids were extinct in North America.[5] As of 2007, there were over seven million llamas and alpacas in South America, and due to importation from South America in the late 20th century, there are now over 158,000 llamas and 100,000 alpacas in the United States and Canada.[7] Contents [hide] 1 Classification 2 Characteristics 3 Reproduction 3.1 Mating 3.2 Gestation 3.3 Crias 3.4 Breeding methods 3.5 Pregnancy 4 Nutrition 5 Behavior 5.1 Guard behavior 6 History 6.1 Pre-Incan cultures 6.2 Inca empire 6.3 Spanish empire 7 Fiber 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links Classification[edit] A traditionally dressed Quechua girl with a llama in Cusco, Peru Lamoids, or llamas (as they are more generally known as a group), consist of the vicuña (Vicugna vicugna, prev. Lama vicugna), guanaco (Lama guanicoe), Suri alpaca, and Huacaya alpaca (Vicugna pacos, prev. Lama guanicoe pacos), and the domestic llama (Lama glama). Guanacos and vicuñas live in the wild, while alpacas - as well as llamas - exist only as domesticated animals.[8] Although early writers compared llamas to sheep, their similarity to the camel was soon recognized. They were included in the genus Camelus along with alpaca in the Systema Naturae (1758) of Carl Linnaeus.[9] They were, however, separated by Georges Cuvier in 1800 under the name of lama along with the guanaco.[10] Alpacas and vicuñas are in genus Vicugna. The genera Lama and Vicugna are, with the two species of true camels, the sole existing representatives of a very distinct section of the Artiodactyla or even-toed ungulates, called Tylopoda, or "bump-footed", from the peculiar bumps on the soles of their feet. The Tylopoda consist of a single family, the Camelidae, and shares the order Artiodactyla with the Suina (pigs), the Tragulina (chevrotains), the Pecora (ruminants), and the Whippomorpha (hippos and cetaceans, which belong to Artiodactyla from a cladistic, if not traditional, standpoint). The Tylopoda have more or less affinity to each of the sister taxa, standing in some respects in a middle position between them, sharing some characteristics from each, but in others showing special modifications not found in any of the other taxa.[citation needed] A domestic llama The 19th-century discoveries of a vast and previously unexpected extinct Paleogene fauna of North America, as interpreted by paleontologists Joseph Leidy, Edward Drinker Cope, and Othniel Charles Marsh, aided understanding of the early history of this family.[citation needed] Llamas were not always confined to South America; abundant llama-like remains were found in Pleistocene deposits in the Rocky Mountains and in Central America. Some of the fossil llamas were much larger than current forms. Some species remained in North America during the last ice ages. North American llamas are categorized as a single extinct genus, Hemiauchenia. Llama-like animals would have been a common sight 25,000 years ago, in modern-day California, Texas, New Mexico, Utah, Missouri, and Florida.[11] The camelid lineage has a good fossil record. Camel-like animals have been traced from the thoroughly differentiated, modern species back through early Miocene forms. Their characteristics became more general, and they lost those that distinguished them as camelids; hence, they were classified as ancestral artiodactyls.[citation needed] No fossils of these earlier forms have been found in the Old World, indicating that North America was the original home of camelids, and that Old World camels crossed over via the Bering Land Bridge. The formation of the Isthmus of Panama three million years ago allowed camelids to spread to South America as part of the Great American Interchange, where they evolved further. Meanwhile, North American camelids died out at the end of the Pleistocene.[12] Characteristics[edit] The following characteristics apply especially to llamas. Dentition of adults:-incisors 1/3 canines 1/1, premolars 2/2, molars 3/2; total 32. In the upper jaw, a compressed, sharp, pointed laniariform incisor near the hinder edge of the premaxilla is followed in the male at least by a moderate-sized, pointed, curved true canine in the anterior part of the maxilla.[13] The isolated canine-like premolar that follows in the camels is not present. The teeth of the molar series, which are in contact with each other, consist of two very small premolars (the first almost rudimentary) and three broad molars, constructed generally like those of Camelus. In the lower jaw, the three incisors are long, spatulate, and procumbent; the outer ones are the smallest. Next to these is a curved, suberect canine, followed after an interval by an isolated minute and often deciduous simple conical premolar; then a contiguous series of one premolar and three molars, which differ from those of Camelus in having a small accessory column at the anterior outer edge. Names of llama body parts: 1 ears - 2 poll - 3 withers - 4 back - 5 hip - 6 croup - 7 base of tail - 8 tail - 9 buttock - 10 hock - 11 metatarsal gland - 12 heel - 13 cannon bone - 14 gaskin - 15 stifle joint - 16 flank - 17 barrel - 18 elbow - 19 pastern - 20 fetlock - 21 Knee - 22 Chest - 23 point of shoulder - 24 shoulder - 25 throat - 26 cheek or jowl - 27 muzzle The skull generally resembles that of Camelus, the larger brain-cavity and orbits and less-developed cranial ridges being due to its smaller size. The nasal bones are shorter and broader, and are joined by the premaxilla. Vertebrae: cervical 7, dorsal 12, lumbar 7, sacral 4, caudal 15 to 20. The ears are rather long and slightly curved inward, characteristically known as "banana" shaped. There is no dorsal hump. The feet are narrow, the toes being more separated than in the camels, each having a distinct plantar pad. The tail is short, and fibre is long, woolly and soft. In essential structural characteristics, as well as in general appearance and habits, all the animals of this genus very closely resemble each other, so whether they should be considered as belonging to one, two, or more species is a matter of controversy among naturalists. The question is complicated by the circumstance of the great majority of individuals that have come under observation being either in a completely or partially domesticated state. Many are also descended from ancestors that have previously been domesticated, a state that tends to produce a certain amount of variation from the original type. The four forms commonly distinguished by the inhabitants of South America are recognized as distinct species, though with difficulties in defining their distinctive characteristics. These are: the llama, Lama glama (Linnaeus); the alpaca, Vicugna pacos (Linnaeus); the guanaco (from the Quechua huanaco), Lama guanicoe (Müller); and the vicuña, Vicugna vicugna (Molina) The llama and alpaca are only known in the domestic state, and are variable in size and of many colors, being often white, brown, or piebald. Some are grey or black. The guanaco and vicuña are wild, the former being endangered, and of a nearly uniform light-brown color, passing into white below. They certainly differ from each other, the vicuña being smaller, more slender in its proportions, and having a shorter head than the guanaco. The vicuña lives in herds on the bleak and elevated parts of the mountain range bordering the region of perpetual snow, amidst rocks and precipices, occurring in various suitable localities throughout Peru, in the southern part of Ecuador, and as far south as the middle of Bolivia. Its manners very much resemble those of the chamois of the European Alps; it is as vigilant, wild, and timid. The fiber is extremely delicate and soft, and highly valued for the purposes of weaving, but the quantity that each animal produces is minimal. Alpacas are descended from wild vicuna ancestors, while domesticated llamas are descended from wild guanaco ancestors, though a considerable amount of hybridization between the two species has occurred. Differential characteristics between llamas and alpacas include the llama's larger size, longer head, and curved ears. Alpaca fiber is generally more expensive, but not always more valuable. Alpacas tend to have a more consistent color throughout the body. The most apparent visual difference between llamas and camels is that camels have a hump or humps and llamas do not. Reproduction[edit] Dam and her cria Llamas have an unusual reproductive cycle for a large animal. Female llamas are induced ovulators.[14] Through the act of mating, the female releases an egg and is often fertilized on the first attempt. Female llamas do not go into estrus ("heat").[15] Like humans, llama males and females mature sexually at different rates. Females reach puberty at about 12 months old; males do not become sexually mature until around three years of age.[16] Mating[edit] Llamas mate with the female in a kush (lying down) position, which is fairly unusual in a large animal. They mate for an extended time (20-45 minutes), also unusual in a large animal.[17] Gestation[edit] The gestation period of a llama is 11.5 months (350 days). Dams (female llamas) do not lick off their babies, as they have an attached tongue that does not reach outside of the mouth more than half an inch (1.3 cm). Rather, they will nuzzle and hum to their newborns.[18] Crias[edit] A cria (from Spanish for "baby") is the name for a baby llama, alpaca, vicuña, or guanaco. Crias are typically born with all the females of the herd gathering around, in an attempt to protect against the male llamas and potential predators. Llamas give birth standing. Birth is usually quick and problem-free, over in less than 30 minutes. Most births take place between 8 am and noon, during the warmer daylight hours. This may increase cria survival by reducing fatalities due to hypothermia during cold Andean nights. This birthing pattern is speculated to be a continuation of the birthing patterns observed in the wild. Crias are up and standing, walking and attempting to suckle within the first hour after birth.[19][20][21] Crias are partially fed with llama milk that is lower in fat and salt and higher in phosphorus and calcium than cow or goat milk. A female llama will only produce about 60 ml (2.1 imp fl oz) of milk at a time when she gives milk, so the cria must suckle frequently to receive the nutrients it requires.[22] Breeding methods[edit] In harem mating, the male is left with females most of the year. For field mating, a female is turned out into a field with a male llama and left there for some period of time. This is the easiest method in terms of labor, but the least useful in terms of prediction of a likely birth date. An ultrasound test can be performed, and together with the exposure dates, a better idea of when the cria is expected can be determined. Hand mating is the most efficient method, but requires the most work on the part of the human involved. A male and female llama are put into the same pen and mating is monitored. They are then separated and remated every other day until one or the other refuses the mating. Usually, one can get in two matings using this method, though some stud males routinely refuse to mate a female more than once. The separation presumably helps to keep the sperm count high for each mating and also helps to keep the condition of the female llama's reproductive tract more sound. If the mating is not successful within two to three weeks, the female is mated again. Pregnancy[edit] Llamas at San Pedro de Atacama, Chile This section contains instructions, advice, or how-to content. The purpose of Wikipedia is to present facts, not to train. Please help improve this article either by rewriting the how-to content or by moving it to Wikiversity, Wikibooks or Wikivoyage. (December 2016) Llamas should be tested for pregnancy after mating at two to three, six and at least 12 weeks. For "spit" testing, bring the potentially pregnant dam to an intact male. If the stud attempts to mate with her and she lies down for him within a fairly short period of time, she is not pregnant. If she remains on her feet, spits, attacks him, or otherwise prevents his being able to mate, it is assumed she is probably pregnant. This test gets its name due to the dam spitting at the male if she is pregnant. For progesterone testing, a veterinarian can test a blood sample for progesterone. A high level can indicate a pregnancy. With palpation, the veterinarian or breeder manually feels inside the llama to detect a pregnancy. Some risks to the llama exist, but it can be an accurate method for pregnancy detection. Ultrasound is the most accurate method for an experienced veterinarian, who can do an exterior examination and detect a fetus as early as 45 days. Spit testing with an intact male is generally free and is usually accurate. However, some hormonal conditions in females can make them reject a male when they are in fact not pregnant, and, more rarely, accept a male when they are pregnant. Progesterone tests can give a high reading in some females with a hormonal problem that are in fact not pregnant. Neither of the previous methods, nor palpation, can give a reasonably accurate idea of the age of the fetus, while an ultrasound procedure can. In addition, an ultrasound procedure can distinguish between pregnancy and misleading physical conditions, or between a live and dead fetus. The disadvantages of an ultrasound procedure are cost, some training in the use of ultrasound equipment is required, and not all veterinarians have the equipment needed to perform the examination. Nutrition[edit] Options for feeding llamas are quite wide; a wide variety of commercial and farm-based feeds are available. The major determining factors include feed cost, availability, nutrient balance and energy density required. Young, actively growing llamas require a greater concentration of nutrients than mature animals because of their smaller digestive tract capacities.[23] Estimated daily requirements[clarification needed (what units?)] of bromgrass hay, alfalfa hay and corn silage on an as-fed and 100% dry matter basis for llamas from 22 to 550 pounds.[24] Body weight (lb) Bromgrass Alfalfa Corn silage (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) (as fed) (dry matter) 22 0.8 0.7 0.5 0.5 1.5 0.4 44 1.3 1.1 0.9 0.8 2.6 0.7 88 2.1 1.9 1.5 1.3 4.3 1.2 110 2.6 2.3 1.7 1.6 5.2 1.4 165 3.4 3.1 2.3 2.1 6.9 1.9 275 5.0 4.5 3.4 3.1 10.1 2.8 385 6.4 5.7 4.3 3.9 12.9 3.6 495 7.8 7.0 5.3 4.8 15.8 4.4 550 8.5 7.6 5.7 5.2 17.0 4.8 Behavior[edit] A pack llama in the Rocky Mountain National Park Llamas, which are well-socialized and trained to halter and lead after weaning, are very friendly and pleasant to be around. They are extremely curious and most will approach people easily. However, llamas that are bottle-fed or over-socialized and over-handled as youth will become extremely difficult to handle when mature, when they will begin to treat humans as they treat each other, which is characterized by bouts of spitting, kicking and neck wrestling.[citation needed] When correctly reared, llamas spitting at a human is a rare thing. Llamas are very social herd animals, however, and do sometimes spit at each other as a way of disciplining lower-ranked llamas in the herd. A llama's social rank in a herd is never static. They can always move up or down in the social ladder by picking small fights. This is usually done between males to see which will become dominant. Their fights are visually dramatic, with spitting, ramming each other with their chests, neck wrestling and kicking, mainly to knock the other off balance. The females are usually only seen spitting as a means of controlling other herd members. While the social structure might always be changing, they live as a family and they do take care of each other. If one notices a strange noise or feels threatened, a warning bray is sent out and all others become alert. They will often hum to each other as a form of communication. The sound of the llama making groaning noises or going "mwa" (/mwaʰ/) is often a sign of fear or anger. If a llama is agitated, it will lay its ears back. One may determine how agitated the llama is by the materials in the spit. The more irritated the llama is, the further back into each of the three stomach compartments it will try to draw materials from for its spit. An "orgle" is the mating sound of a llama or alpaca, made by the sexually aroused male. The sound is reminiscent of gargling, but with a more forceful, buzzing edge. Males begin the sound when they become aroused and continue throughout the act of procreation - from 15 minutes to more than an hour.[25][26] Guard behavior[edit] Main article: Guard llama Llama guarding sheep on the South Downs in West Sussex Using llamas as livestock guards in North America began in the early 1980s, and some sheep producers have used llamas successfully since then.[27][28] They are used most commonly in the western regions of the United States, where larger predators, such as coyotes and feral dogs, are prevalent. Typically, a single gelding (castrated male) is used. Research suggests the use of multiple guard llamas is not as effective as one. Multiple males tend to bond with one another, rather than with the livestock, and may ignore the flock. A gelded male of two years of age bonds closely with its new charges and is instinctively very effective in preventing predation. Some llamas appear to bond more quickly to sheep or goats if they are introduced just prior to lambing. Many sheep and goat producers indicate a special bond quickly develops between lambs and their guard llama and the llama is particularly protective of the lambs. Using llamas as guards has reduced the losses to predators for many producers. The value of the livestock saved each year more than exceeds the purchase cost and annual maintenance of a llama. Although not every llama is suited to the job, most are a viable, nonlethal alternative for reducing predation, requiring no training and little care.[29][better source needed] History[edit] Moche 100-300 AD at Lombards Museum This sculpture, originating from the Chancay Valley and adjacent Chillón Drainage region (Late Intermediate Period), captures the llama's natural inquisitiveness.[30] The Walters Art Museum. Pre-Incan cultures[edit] The Moche people frequently placed llamas and llama parts in the burials of important people, as offerings or provisions for the afterlife.[31] The Moche culture of pre-Columbian Peru depicted llamas quite realistically in their ceramics. Inca empire[edit] In the Inca empire, llamas were the only beasts of burden, and many of the people dominated by the Inca had long traditions of llama herding. For the Inca nobility, the llama was of symbolic significance, and llama figures were often buried with the dead.[32] In South America, llamas are still used as beasts of burden, as well as for the production of fiber and meat.[33] The Inca deity Urcuchillay was depicted in the form of a multicolored llama.[34] Scholar Alex Chepstow-Lusty has argued that the switch from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to widespread agriculture was only possible because of the use of llama dung as fertilizer.[35] Spanish empire[edit] The first image of llamas in Europa, 1553 One of the main uses for llamas at the time of the Spanish conquest was to bring down ore from the mines in the mountains.[36] Gregory de Bolivar estimated that in his day, as many as 300,000 were employed in the transport of produce from the Potosí mines alone, but since the introduction of horses, mules, and donkeys, the importance of the llama as a beast of burden has greatly diminished.[37] According to Juan Ignacio Molina, the Dutch captain Joris van Spilbergen observed the use of chilihueques (possibly a llama type) by native Mapuches of Mocha Island as plow animals in 1614.[38] Fiber[edit] Llamas have a fine undercoat, which can be used for handicrafts and garments. The coarser outer guard hair is used for rugs, wall-hangings and lead ropes. The fiber comes in many different colors ranging from white or grey to reddish-brown, brown, dark brown and black. Handspun llama yarn from Patagonia Average diameter of some of the finest, natural fibers[39] Animal Fiber diameter (micrometres) Vicuña 6-10 Alpaca (Suri) 10-15 Muskox (Qiviut) 11-13 Merino 12-20 Angora Rabbit 13 Cashmere 15-19 Yak Down 15-19 Camel Down 16-25 Guanaco 16-18 Llama (Tapada) 20-30 Chinchilla 21 Mohair 25-45 Alpaca (Huacaya) 27.7 Llama (Ccara) 30-40 See also[edit] Alpaca Cama, a crossbreed between a llama and a camel Grass Mud Horse, a parody originating from Mainland China of 2009 that features the alpaca and llama Guard llama, llamas used as livestock guardians Lamoid Llama hiking Notes[edit] Jump up ^ Daniel W. Gade, Nature and culture in the Andes, Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1999, p. 104 Jump up ^ "Llama Characteristics". Nose-n-Toes. 25 June 2007. Jump up ^ "Llama Facts 1". Llamas of Atlanta. 25 June 2007. Jump up ^ "Llama FAQ". Twin Creeks Llamas. 25 June 2007. ^ Jump up to: a b "Llama". Oklahoma State University. 25 June 2007. Jump up ^ Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd edition, "llama" Jump up ^ South Central Llama Association (22 January 2009). "Llama Facts 2". Jump up ^ Perry, Roger (1977). Wonders of Llamas. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 7. ISBN 0-396-07460-X. Jump up ^ Murray E. Fowler (1998). Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 1. ISBN 0-8138-0397-7. Jump up ^ "Lama". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. Retrieved 5 January 2013. Jump up ^ Kurtén, Björn; Anderson, Elaine (1980). Pleistocene Mammals of North America. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 307. ISBN 0231037333. Jump up ^ Grayson, Donald K. (1991). "Late Pleistocene mammalian extinctions in North America: Taxonomy, chronology, and explanations". Journal of World Prehistory. Springer Netherlands. 5 (3): 193-231. doi:10.1007/BF00974990. Jump up ^ Colorado State University, Hypertexts for Biomedical Science: Dental Anatomy of Ruminants Jump up ^ Chen, B.X., Yuen, Z.X. and Pan, G.W. (1985). "Semen-induced ovulation in the bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus).". J. Reprod. Fert. 74 (2): 335-339. Jump up ^ Greta Stamberg & Derek Wilson (12 April 2007). "Induced Ovulation". Llamapaedia. Archived from the original on 12 April 2007. Jump up ^ L. W. Johnson (17 April 2007). "Llama reproduction". College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health. Jump up ^ Chris Cebra; David E. Anderson; Ahmed Tibary; Robert J. Van Saun; LaRue Willard Johnson (15 February 2014). Llama and Alpaca Care: Medicine, Surgery, Reproduction, Nutrition, and Herd Health. Elsevier Health Sciences. ISBN 978-0-323-24291-2. Jump up ^ "The llama reproductive cycle". LlamaWeb. 17 April 2007. Archived from the original on 3 March 2007. Jump up ^ The Department of Veterninary Clinical Sciences at Ohio State University (2002). Camelid Medicine, Surgery, and Reproduction for Veterinarians. Part II. Jump up ^ Long, Patrick O. (1996). Llama & Alpaca Neonatal Care. p. 112. ISBN 0-9646618-3-7. Jump up ^ Birutta, Gale (1997). A Guide to Raising Llamas. p. 327. ISBN 0-88266-954-0. Jump up ^ Linda March. "Llamas: A Different Kind of Pet". University of Illinois, College of Veterinary Medicine. Retrieved 15 May 2009.[dead link] Jump up ^ Randy Sell (17 April 2007). "Llama". Department of Agricultural Economics, North Dakota State University. Jump up ^ Murray E. Fowler, DVM (1989). "Medicine and Surgery of South American Camelids; Llama, Alpaca, Vicuña, Guanaco". Iowa State University Press. Jump up ^ Greta Stamberg & Derek Wilson (2 September 1997). "Behavior: Sounds". Llamapedia. Archived from the original on 15 October 2006. Jump up ^ Brian and Jane Pinkerton (17 May 2008). "Llama Sounds". Humm Page. Archived from the original on 9 May 2008. Jump up ^ International Llama Association. (1995). "Guard Llamas." ILA Educational Brochure #2. Jump up ^ Walker, Cameron. "Guard Llamas Keep Sheep Safe From Coyotes." National Geographic, 10 June 2003. Jump up ^ "Guard Llamas: An Alternative for Effective Predator Management". Jump up ^ "Llama Effigy". The Walters Art Museum. Jump up ^ Berrin, Katherine & Larco Museum. The Spirit of Ancient Peru:Treasures from the Museo Arqueológico Rafael Larco Herrera. New York: Thames & Hudson, 1997 ISBN 0-500-01802-2. Jump up ^ "Little Llamas". Inca culture. 10 October 2006. Jump up ^ Jean Larson, Judith Ho (25 June 2007). "Information Resources on the South American Camelids: Llamas, Alpacas, Guanacos, and Vicunas 1943-2006". Archived from the original on 2 May 2014. Jump up ^ D'Altroy, Terence N. (2002). "The Inca Pantheon". The Incas. The People of America. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 149. ISBN 978-0-631-17677-0. Jump up ^ Anning, Caroline. (2011-05-22) BBC News - Inca success in Peruvian Andes 'thanks to llama dung'. BBC.co.uk. Retrieved on 2011-08-21. Jump up ^ Jared Diamond (12 April 2007). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The Show: Episode Two". PBS. Jump up ^ Jared Diamond (12 April 2007). "Guns, Germs & Steel. The story of ... Llamas". PBS. Jump up ^ Juan Bautista Ignacio Molina (1808). The geographical, natural and civil history of Chili, tr. by an American gentleman. II. pp. 15-16. Retrieved 22 August 2011. Jump up ^ Beula Williams (17 April 2007). "Llama Fiber". International Llama Association. References[edit] Public Domain This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Llama". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. External links[edit] Wikispecies has information related to: Lama glama Wikimedia Commons has media related to Llama. "Llamapaedia Orgle Sound". Archived from the original (AIFF) on 30 October 2007. Llamas Close Up - slideshow by Life magazine Wikisource-logo.svg "Llama". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920. 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dog

Dog From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the domestic dog. For related species known as "dogs", see Canidae. For other uses, see Dog (disambiguation). "Doggie" redirects here. For the Danish artist, see Doggie (artist). Domestic dog Temporal range: Late Pleistocene - Present (14,700-0 years BP) Collage of Nine Dogs.jpg Selection of the different breeds of dog Conservation status Domesticated Scientific classification e Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Suborder: Caniformia Family: Canidae Genus: Canis Species: C. lupus Subspecies: C. l. familiaris[1] Trinomial name Canis lupus familiaris[1] Synonyms Canis familiaris (Linnaeus,1758)[2][3] Montage showing the morphological variation of the dog. The domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris or Canis familiaris)[4] is a member of genus Canis (canines) that forms part of the wolf-like canids,[5] and is the most widely abundant carnivore.[6][7][8] The dog and the extant gray wolf are sister taxa,[9][10][11] with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated,[10][11] which implies that the direct ancestor of the dog is extinct.[12] The dog was the first domesticated species[11][13] and has been selectively bred over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.[14] New research seems to show that the dog's high sociability may be affected by "the same genes as in humans."[15][16] Their long association with humans has led dogs to be uniquely attuned to human behavior[17] and they are able to thrive on a starch-rich diet that would be inadequate for other canid species.[18] Dogs vary widely in shape, size and colours.[19] Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals and therapeutic roles. This influence on human society has given them the sobriquet "man's best friend". Contents [hide] 1 Etymology 2 Terminology 3 Taxonomy 4 Origin 5 Biology 5.1 Anatomy 5.1.1 Size and weight 5.1.2 Senses 5.1.3 Coat 5.1.4 Tail 5.2 Health 5.2.1 Lifespan 5.3 Reproduction 5.3.1 Neutering 5.4 Inbreeding depression 6 Intelligence, behavior and communication 6.1 Intelligence 6.2 Behavior 6.3 Communication 7 Comparison with wolves 7.1 Physical characteristics 7.2 Behavioral differences 8 Ecology 8.1 Population and habitat 8.2 Competitors 8.3 Diet 9 Breeds 10 Roles with humans 10.1 Early roles 10.2 As pets 10.3 Work 10.4 Sports and shows 10.5 As food 10.6 Health risks to humans 10.7 Health benefits for humans 10.8 Medical detection dogs 10.9 Shelters 11 Cultural depictions 11.1 Mythology 11.2 Literature 11.3 Religion 11.4 Art 12 See also 13 Notes 14 References 15 Bibliography 16 Further reading 17 External links Etymology The term "domestic dog" is generally used for both domesticated and feral varieties. The English word dog comes from Middle English dogge, from Old English docga, a "powerful dog breed".[20] The term may possibly derive from Proto-Germanic *dukkōn, represented in Old English finger-docce ("finger-muscle").[21] The word also shows the familiar petname diminutive -ga also seen in frogga "frog", picga "pig", stagga "stag", wicga "beetle, worm", among others.[22] Piotr Gąsiorowski has suggested that Old English *docga is actually derived from Old English colour adjective dox.[23] In 14th-century England, hound (from Old English: hund) was the general word for all domestic canines, and dog referred to a subtype of hound, a group including the mastiff. It is believed this "dog" type was so common, it eventually became the prototype of the category "hound".[24] By the 16th century, dog had become the general word, and hound had begun to refer only to types used for hunting.[25] The word "hound" is ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European word *kwon-, "dog".[26] This semantic shift may be compared with in German, where the corresponding words Dogge and Hund kept their original meanings. The term *ḱwon- may ultimately derive from the earliest layer of Proto-Indo-European vocabulary.[27] A male canine is referred to as a "dog", while a female is traditionally called a "bitch" (derived from Middle English bicche, from Old English bicce, ultimately from Old Norse bikkja. Since the word "bitch" has taken on derogatory connotations, nowadays it is less commonly used to refer to dogs).[citation needed] The father of a litter is called the sire, and the mother is called the dam. The process of birth is "whelping", from the Old English word hwelp; the modern English word "whelp" is an alternative term for puppy.[28] A litter refers to the multiple offspring at one birth which are called puppies or pups from the French poupée, "doll", which has mostly replaced the older term "whelp".[29] Terminology The term dog typically is applied both to the species (or subspecies) as a whole, and any adult male member of the same. An adult female is a bitch. An adult male capable of reproduction is a stud. An adult female capable of reproduction is a brood bitch, or brood mother. Immature males or females (that is, animals that are incapable of reproduction) are pups or puppies. A group of pups from the same gestation period is a litter. The father of a litter is a sire. It is possible for one litter to have multiple sires. The mother of a litter is a dam. A group of any three or more adults is a pack. Taxonomy In 1758, the taxonomist Linnaeus published in his Systema Naturae the classification of species. Canis is a Latin word meaning dog,[30] and under this genus he listed the dog-like carnivores including domestic dogs, wolves, and jackals. He classified the domestic dog as Canis familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758) and on the next page as a separate species he classified the wolf as Canis lupus (Linnaeus, 1758).[2] In 1926, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) ruled in Opinion 91 that the domestic dog Canis familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758) be placed on its official list.[3] In 1957, the ICZN ruled in Opinion 451 that Canis dingo (Meyer, 1793) was the name to be used for the dingo and that this be placed on its official list.[31] These are the scientific names for the dog and dingo that appear on the Official Lists and Indexes of Names in Zoology of the ICZN.[32] In 1978, a review to reduce the number species listed under genus Canis proposed that "Canis dingo is now generally regarded as a distinctive feral domestic dog. Canis familiaris is used for domestic dogs, although taxonomically it should probably be synonymous with Canis lupus."[33] In 1982, the first edition of Mammal Species of the World included a note under Canis lupus with the comment: "Probably ancestor of and conspecific with the domestic dog, familiaris. Canis familiaris has page priority over Canis lupus, but both were published simultaneously in Linnaeus (1758), and Canis lupus has been universally used for this species".[34] In the same year, an application was made to the ICZN to reclassify the dingo to Canis lupus dingo because it was proposed that the wolf (Canis lupus) was the ancestor of dogs and dingoes, however the application was rejected.[35] In 2003, the ICZN ruled in its Opinion 2027 that the "name of a wild species...is not invalid by virtue of being predated by the name based on a domestic form." Additionally, the ICZN placed the taxon Canis lupus as a conserved name on the official list under this opinion.[36] In the third edition of Mammal Species of the World published in 2005, the mammalogist W. Christopher Wozencraft listed under the wolf Canis lupus what he proposed to be two subspecies: "familiaris Linneaus, 1758 [domestic dog]" and "dingo Meyer, 1793 [domestic dog]",[a] with the comment "Includes the domestic dog as a subspecies, with the dingo provisionally separate - artificial variants created by domestication and selective breeding. Although this may stretch the subspecies concept, it retains the correct allocation of synonyms."[1] Although the earliest use of the name "dingo" was Canis familiaris dingo (Blumenbach, 1780),[37] Wozencraft attributed it to Meyer from 1793 without comment.[38] This classification by Wozencraft is hotly debated by zoologists.[35] Mathew Crowther, Stephen Jackson and Colin Groves disagree with Wozencraft and argue that based on ICZN Opinion 2027, the implication is that a domestic animal cannot be a subspecies.[39][40] Crowther, Juliet Clutton-Brock and others argue that because the dingo differs from wolves by behavior, morphology, and that the dingo and dog do not fall genetically within any extant wolf clade, that the dingo should be considered the distinct taxon Canis dingo.[41][35][40] Jackson and Groves regard the dog Canis familiaris as a taxonomic synonym for the wolf Canis lupus with them both equally ranked at the species level. They also disagree with Crowther, based on the overlap between dogs and dingoes in their morphology, in their ability to easily hybridize with each other, and that they show the signs of domestication by both having a cranium of smaller capacity than their progenitor, the wolf. Given that Canis familiaris (Linnaeus, 1758) has date priority over Canis dingo (Meyer, 1793), they regard the dingo as a junior taxonomic synonym for the dog Canis familiaris.[39] Gheorghe Benga and others support the dingo as a subspecies of the dog from the earlier Canis familiaris dingo (Blumenbach, 1780).[42][43][44] Xiaoming Wang and Richard H. Tedford proposed that the dog should be classified as Canis lupus familiaris under the Biological Species Concept and Canis familiaris under the Evolutionary Species Concept.[4] Origin Main article: Origin of the domestic dog The origin of the domestic dog is not clear. It is known that the dog was the first domesticated species.[11][13] The domestic dog is a member of genus Canis (canines) that forms part of the wolf-like canids.[5][6][7][8] The closest living relative of the dog is the gray wolf and there is no evidence of any other canine contributing to its genetic lineage.[6][7][45][9] The dog and the extant gray wolf form two sister clades,[9][10][11] with modern wolves not closely related to the wolves that were first domesticated.[10][11] The archaeological record shows the first undisputed dog remains buried beside humans 14,700 years ago,[46] with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago.[47] These dates imply that the earliest dogs arose in the time of human hunter-gatherers and not agriculturists.[7][10] Where the genetic divergence of dog and wolf took place remains controversial, with the most plausible proposals spanning Western Europe,[48][7] Central Asia,[48][49] and East Asia.[48][50] This has been made more complicated by the most recent proposal that fits the available evidence, which is that an initial wolf population split into East and West Eurasian wolves, these were then domesticated independently before going extinct into two distinct dog populations between 14,000-6,400 years ago, and then the Western Eurasian dog population was partially and gradually replaced by East Asian dogs that were brought by humans at least 6,400 years ago.[48][51][52] Biology Lateral view of skeleton. "Five different types of dogs," c. 1547. Anatomy Main article: Dog anatomy Domestic dogs have been selectively bred for millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.[14] Modern dog breeds show more variation in size, appearance, and behavior than any other domestic animal.[14] Dogs are predators and scavengers, and like many other predatory mammals, the dog has powerful muscles, fused wrist bones, a cardiovascular system that supports both sprinting and endurance, and teeth for catching and tearing. Size and weight Dogs are highly variable in height and weight. The smallest known adult dog was a Yorkshire Terrier, that stood only 6.3 cm (2.5 in) at the shoulder, 9.5 cm (3.7 in) in length along the head-and-body, and weighed only 113 grams (4.0 oz). The largest known dog was an English Mastiff which weighed 155.6 kg (343 lb) and was 250 cm (98 in) from the snout to the tail.[53] The tallest dog is a Great Dane that stands 106.7 cm (42.0 in) at the shoulder.[54] Senses The dog's senses include vision, hearing, sense of smell, sense of taste, touch and sensitivity to the earth's magnetic field. Another study suggested that dogs can see the earth's magnetic field.[55][56] See further: Dog anatomy-senses Coat Main article: Coat (dog) Montage showing the coat variation of the dog. A Golden Retriever with a golden shade of coat. Shades of coat colors can vary within breeds of dogs. For example, some Golden Retrievers have light, almost cream colored coats, and others may have dark, brownish shades of coat. [57] The coats of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being common with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse guard hair and a soft down hair, or "single", with the topcoat only. Domestic dogs often display the remnants of countershading, a common natural camouflage pattern. A countershaded animal will have dark coloring on its upper surfaces and light coloring below,[58] which reduces its general visibility. Thus, many breeds will have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.[59] Tail See also: Docking There are many different shapes for dog tails: straight, straight up, sickle, curled, or cork-screw. As with many canids, one of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state, which can be important in getting along with others. In some hunting dogs, however, the tail is traditionally docked to avoid injuries.[60] In some breeds, such as the Braque du Bourbonnais, puppies can be born with a short tail or no tail at all.[61] Health Main article: Dog health There are many household plants that are poisonous to dogs including begonia, Poinsettia and aloe vera.[62] Some breeds of dogs are prone to certain genetic ailments such as elbow and hip dysplasia, blindness, deafness, pulmonic stenosis, cleft palate, and trick knees. Two serious medical conditions particularly affecting dogs are pyometra, affecting unspayed females of all types and ages, and gastric dilatation volvulus (bloat), which affects the larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions, and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as fleas, ticks, and mites, as well as hookworms, tapeworms, roundworms, and heartworms. A number of common human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including chocolate solids (theobromine poisoning), onion and garlic (thiosulphate, sulfoxide or disulfide poisoning),[63] grapes and raisins, macadamia nuts, xylitol,[64] as well as various plants and other potentially ingested materials.[65][66] The nicotine in tobacco can also be dangerous. Dogs can be exposed to the substance by scavenging garbage or ashtrays; eating cigars and cigarettes. Signs can be vomiting of large amounts (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or diarrhea. Some other signs are abdominal pain, loss of coordination, collapse, or death.[67] Dogs are highly susceptible to theobromine poisoning, typically from ingestion of chocolate. Theobromine is toxic to dogs because, although the dog's metabolism is capable of breaking down the chemical, the process is so slow that even small amounts of chocolate can be fatal, especially dark chocolate. Dogs are also vulnerable to some of the same health conditions as humans, including diabetes, dental and heart disease, epilepsy, cancer, hypothyroidism, and arthritis.[68] Lifespan A mixed-breed terrier. Mixed-breed dogs have been found to run faster and live longer than their pure-bred parents (See heterosis) In 2013, a study found that mixed breeds live on average 1.2 years longer than pure breeds, and that increasing body-weight was negatively correlated with longevity (i.e. the heavier the dog the shorter its lifespan).[69] The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but for most the median longevity, the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive, ranges from 10 to 13 years.[70][71][72][73] Individual dogs may live well beyond the median of their breed. The breed with the shortest lifespan (among breeds for which there is a questionnaire survey with a reasonable sample size) is the Dogue de Bordeaux, with a median longevity of about 5.2 years, but several breeds, including Miniature Bull Terriers, Bloodhounds, and Irish Wolfhounds are nearly as short-lived, with median longevities of 6 to 7 years.[73] The longest-lived breeds, including Toy Poodles, Japanese Spitz, Border Terriers, and Tibetan Spaniels, have median longevities of 14 to 15 years.[73] The median longevity of mixed-breed dogs, taken as an average of all sizes, is one or more years longer than that of purebred dogs when all breeds are averaged.[71][72][73][74] The dog widely reported to be the longest-lived is "Bluey", who died in 1939 and was claimed to be 29.5 years old at the time of his death. On 5 December 2011, Pusuke, the world's oldest living dog recognized by Guinness Book of World Records, died aged 26 years and 9 months.[75] Further information: Aging in dogs Reproduction Main article: Canine reproduction Dog nursing newborn puppies In domestic dogs, sexual maturity begins to happen around age six to twelve months for both males and females,[14][76] although this can be delayed until up to two years old for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first estrous cycle. They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for pregnancy. At the peak of the cycle, females will come into estrus, being mentally and physically receptive to copulation.[14] Because the ova survive and are capable of being fertilized for a week after ovulation, it is possible for a female to mate with more than one male.[14] Fertilization typically occurs 2-5 days after ovulation; 14-16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the uterus, and after 7-8 more days the heart beat is detectable.[77][78] Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after fertilization,[14][79] with an average of 63 days, although the length of gestation can vary. An average litter consists of about six puppies,[80] though this number may vary widely based on the breed of dog. In general, toy dogs produce from one to four puppies in each litter, while much larger breeds may average as many as twelve. Some dog breeds have acquired traits through selective breeding that interfere with reproduction. Male French Bulldogs, for instance, are incapable of mounting the female. For many dogs of this breed, the female must be artificially inseminated in order to reproduce.[81] Neutering A feral dog from Sri Lanka nursing her four puppies Neutering refers to the sterilization of animals, usually by removal of the male's testicles or the female's ovaries and uterus, in order to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce sex drive. Because of the overpopulation of dogs in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may have to later be euthanized.[82] According to the Humane Society of the United States, 3-4 million dogs and cats are put down each year in the United States and many more are confined to cages in shelters because there are many more animals than there are homes. Spaying or castrating dogs helps keep overpopulation down.[83] Local humane societies, SPCAs, and other animal protection organizations urge people to neuter their pets and to adopt animals from shelters instead of purchasing them. Neutering reduces problems caused by hypersexuality, especially in male dogs.[84] Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop some forms of cancer, affecting mammary glands, ovaries, and other reproductive organs.[85] However, neutering increases the risk of urinary incontinence in female dogs,[86] and prostate cancer in males,[87] as well as osteosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma, cruciate ligament rupture, obesity, and diabetes mellitus in either sex.[88] Inbreeding depression A common breeding practice for pet dogs is mating between close relatives (e.g. between half- and full siblings).[89] In a study of seven different French breeds of dogs (Bernese mountain dog, basset hound, Cairn terrier, Epagneul Breton, German Shepherd dog, Leonberger, and West Highland white terrier) it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.[90] Another analysis of data on 42,855 dachshund litters, found that as the inbreeding coefficient increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.[91] About 22% of boxer puppies die before reaching 7 weeks of age.[92] Stillbirth is the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection was found to increase significantly with increases in inbreeding.[92] Inbreeding depression is considered to be due largely to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.[93] Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.[94] Intelligence, behavior and communication Intelligence Main article: Dog intelligence Dog intelligence is the ability of the dog to perceive information and retain it as knowledge for applying to solve problems. Dogs have been shown to learn by inference. A study with Rico showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel items by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those novel items immediately and also 4 weeks after the initial exposure. Dogs have advanced memory skills. A study documented the learning and memory capabilities of a border collie, "Chaser", who had learned the names and could associate by verbal command over 1,000 words. Dogs are able to read and react appropriately to human body language such as gesturing and pointing, and to understand human voice commands. Dogs demonstrate a theory of mind by engaging in deception. An experimental study showed compelling evidence that Australian dingos can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.[95] Another study indicated that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs that are faced with an insoluble version of the same problem look at the human, while socialized wolves do not.[96] Modern domestic dogs use humans to solve their problems for them.[97][98] Behavior Main article: Dog behavior Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to internal and/or external stimuli.[99] As the oldest domesticated species, with estimates ranging from 9,000-30,000 years BCE, the minds of dogs inevitably have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. As a result of this physical and social evolution, dogs, more than any other species, have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans, and they are uniquely attuned to human behaviors.[17] Behavioral scientists have uncovered a surprising set of social-cognitive abilities in the domestic dog. These abilities are not possessed by the dog's closest canine relatives nor by other highly intelligent mammals such as great apes but rather parallel some of the social-cognitive skills of human children.[100] Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to Williams-Beuren syndrome in humans, which cause hypersociability at the expense of problem solving ability.[101] Communication Main article: Dog communication Dog communication is about how dogs "speak" to each other, how they understand messages that humans send to them, and how humans can translate the ideas that dogs are trying to transmit.[102]:xii These communication behaviors include eye gaze, facial expression, vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs) and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones and taste). Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals and body posture. Comparison with wolves The Saarloos wolfdog carries more gray wolf DNA than any other dog breed[103] Physical characteristics Despite their close genetic relationship and the ability to inter-breed, there are a number of diagnostic features to distinguish the gray wolves from domestic dogs. Domesticated dogs are clearly distinguishable from wolves by starch gel electrophoresis of red blood cell acid phosphatase.[104] The tympanic bullae are large, convex and almost spherical in gray wolves, while the bullae of dogs are smaller, compressed and slightly crumpled.[105] Compared with equally sized wolves, dogs tend to have 20% smaller skulls and 30% smaller brains.[106]:35 The teeth of gray wolves are also proportionately larger than those of dogs.[107] Dogs have a more domed forehead and a distinctive "stop" between forehead and nose.[108] The temporalis muscle that closes the jaws is more robust in wolves.[4]:p158 Wolves do not have dewclaws on their back legs, unless there has been admixture with dogs that had them.[109] Most dogs lack a functioning pre-caudal gland and enter estrus twice yearly, unlike gray wolves which only do so once a year.[110] So-called primitive dogs such as Dingoes and Basenjis retain the yearly estrus cycle.[111] Dogs generally have brown eyes and wolves almost always have amber or light colored eyes.[112] The skin of domestic dogs tends to be thicker than that of wolves, with some Inuit tribes favoring the former for use as clothing due to its greater resistance to wear and tear in harsh weather.[113] The paws of a dog are half the size of those of a wolf, and their tails tend to curl upwards, another trait not found in wolves[114] The dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.[115] For example, height measured to the withers ranges from a 6 inches (150 mm) in the Chihuahua to 3.3 feet (1.0 m) in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.[116] It is common for most breeds to shed their coat. Behavioral differences See also: Dog behavior § Behavior compared with other canids Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.[117][118] In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the catecholamine synthesis pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the fight-or-flight response[118][119] (i.e. selection for tameness), and emotional processing.[118] Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves.[118][120] Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.[118] Ecology Population and habitat The global dog population is estimated at 900 million and rising.[121][122] Although it is said that the "dog is man's best friend"[123] regarding 17-24% of dogs in developed countries, in the developing world they are feral, village or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.[113] These live their lives as scavengers and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing their most common response when approached by strangers was to run away (52%) or respond with aggression (11%).[124] We know little about these dogs, nor about the dogs that live in developed countries that are feral, stray or are in shelters, as the great majority of modern research on dog cognition has focused on pet dogs living in human homes.[125] Competitors Being the most abundant carnivore, feral and free-ranging dogs have the greatest potential to compete with wolves. A review of the studies in the competitive effects of dogs on sympatric carnivores did not mention any research on competition between dogs and wolves.[122][126] Competition would favor the wolf that is known to kill dogs, however wolves tend to live in pairs or in small packs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage facing large dog groups.[122][127] Wolves kill dogs wherever the two canids occur.[128] One survey claims that in Wisconsin in 1999 more compensation had been paid for dog losses than livestock, however in Wisconsin wolves will often kill hunting dogs, perhaps because they are in the wolf's territory.[128] Some wolf pairs have been reported to prey on dogs by having one wolf lure the dog out into heavy brush where the second animal waits in ambush.[129] In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.[130] Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs. In many cultures, there are strong social and emotional bonds between humans and their dogs that can be seen as family members or working team members. The loss of a dog can lead to strong emotional responses with demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations.[122] Coyotes and big cats have also been known to attack dogs. Leopards in particular are known to have a predilection for dogs, and have been recorded to kill and consume them regardless of the dog's size or ferocity.[131] Tigers in Manchuria, Indochina, Indonesia, and Malaysia are reputed to kill dogs with the same vigor as leopards.[132] Striped hyenas are major predators of village dogs in Turkmenistan, India, and the Caucasus.[133] The spiked collar common on working and pet dogs is no mere ornament: it originated as a protection of the vulnerable neck of a dog from wolves, but also protects dogs from attacks by other dogs.[134][better source needed] Diet See also: Dog food Golden Retriever gnawing a pig's foot Despite their descent from wolves and classification as Carnivora, dogs are variously described in scholarly and other writings as carnivores[135][136] or omnivores.[14][137][138][139] Unlike obligate carnivores, dogs can adapt to a wide-ranging diet, and are not dependent on meat-specific protein nor a very high level of protein in order to fulfill their basic dietary requirements. Dogs will healthily digest a variety of foods, including vegetables and grains, and can consume a large proportion of these in their diet, however all-meat diets are not recommended for dogs due to their lack of calcium and iron.[14] Comparing dogs and wolves, dogs have adaptations in genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet.[18] Breeds Main article: Dog breed Further information: Dog type Cavalier King Charles Spaniels demonstrate different colored coats within the one breed Most breeds of dog are at most a few hundred years old, having been artificially selected for particular morphologies and behaviors by people for specific functional roles. Through this selective breeding, the dog has developed into hundreds of varied breeds, and shows more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal.[115] For example, height measured to the withers ranges from 15.2 centimetres (6.0 in) in the Chihuahua to about 76 cm (30 in) in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called "blue") to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark ("red" or "chocolate") in a wide variation of patterns; coats can be short or long, coarse-haired to wool-like, straight, curly, or smooth.[116] It is common for most breeds to shed this coat. While all dogs are genetically very similar,[140] natural selection and selective breeding have reinforced certain characteristics in certain populations of dogs, giving rise to dog types and dog breeds. Dog types are broad categories based on function, genetics, or characteristics.[141] Dog breeds are groups of animals that possess a set of inherited characteristics that distinguishes them from other animals within the same species.[vague][citation needed] Modern dog breeds are non-scientific classifications of dogs kept by modern kennel clubs. Purebred dogs of one breed are genetically distinguishable from purebred dogs of other breeds,[142] but the means by which kennel clubs classify dogs is unsystematic. DNA microsatellite analyses of 85 dog breeds showed they fell into four major types of dogs that were statistically distinct.[142] These include the "old world dogs" (e.g., Malamute and Shar Pei), "Mastiff"-type (e.g., English Mastiff), "herding"-type (e.g., Border Collie), and "all others" (also called "modern"- or "hunting"-type).[142][143] Roles with humans Gunnar Kaasen and Balto, the lead dog on the last relay team of the 1925 serum run to Nome. Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as bite inhibition, from their wolf ancestors, which would have been pack hunters with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness, and ability to fit into human households and social situations, and these attributes have given dogs a relationship with humans that has enabled them to become one of the most successful species on the planet today.[144]:pages95-136 The dogs' value to early human hunter-gatherers led to them quickly becoming ubiquitous across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "man's best friend" in the Western world. In some cultures, however, dogs are also a source of meat.[145][146] Early roles Wolves, and their dog descendants, would have derived significant benefits from living in human camps—more safety, more reliable food, lesser caloric needs, and more chance to breed.[147] They would have benefited from humans' upright gait that gives them larger range over which to see potential predators and prey, as well as better color vision that, at least by day, gives humans better visual discrimination.[147] Camp dogs would also have benefited from human tool use, as in bringing down larger prey and controlling fire for a range of purposes.[147] The dogs of Thibet are twice the size of those seen in India, with large heads and hairy bodies. They are powerful animals, and are said to be able to kill a tiger. During the day they are kept chained up, and are let loose at night to guard their masters' house.[148] Humans would also have derived enormous benefit from the dogs associated with their camps.[149] For instance, dogs would have improved sanitation by cleaning up food scraps.[149] Dogs may have provided warmth, as referred to in the Australian Aboriginal expression "three dog night" (an exceptionally cold night), and they would have alerted the camp to the presence of predators or strangers, using their acute hearing to provide an early warning.[149] Anthropologists believe the most significant benefit would have been the use of dogs' robust sense of smell to assist with the hunt.[149] The relationship between the presence of a dog and success in the hunt is often mentioned as a primary reason for the domestication of the wolf, and a 2004 study of hunter groups with and without a dog gives quantitative support to the hypothesis that the benefits of cooperative hunting was an important factor in wolf domestication.[150] The cohabitation of dogs and humans would have greatly improved the chances of survival for early human groups, and the domestication of dogs may have been one of the key forces that led to human success.[151] Emigrants from Siberia that walked across the Bering land bridge into North America may have had dogs in their company, and one writer[152] suggests that the use of sled dogs may have been critical to the success of the waves that entered North America roughly 12,000 years ago,[152] although the earliest archaeological evidence of dog-like canids in North America dates from about 9,400 years ago.[144]:104[153] Dogs were an important part of life for the Athabascan population in North America, and were their only domesticated animal. Dogs also carried much of the load in the migration of the Apache and Navajo tribes 1,400 years ago. Use of dogs as pack animals in these cultures often persisted after the introduction of the horse to North America.[154] As pets Siberian Husky—pack animal Couple sitting on the lawn with a pet British Bulldog A British Bulldog shares a day at the park. Green velvet dog collar, dates from 1670 to 1690. It is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as feral, village, or community dogs, with pet dogs uncommon.[113] "The most widespread form of interspecies bonding occurs between humans and dogs"[149] and the keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.[155] (As a possible example, at the Natufian culture site of Ain Mallaha in Israel, dated to 12,000 BC, the remains of an elderly human and a four-to-five-month-old puppy were found buried together).[156] However, pet dog populations grew significantly after World War II as suburbanization increased.[155] In the 1950s and 1960s, dogs were kept outside more often than they tend to be today[157] (using the expression "in the doghouse" to describe exclusion from the group signifies the distance between the doghouse and the home) and were still primarily functional, acting as a guard, children's playmate, or walking companion. From the 1980s, there have been changes in the role of the pet dog, such as the increased role of dogs in the emotional support of their human guardians.[158] People and dogs have become increasingly integrated and implicated in each other's lives,[159] to the point where pet dogs actively shape the way a family and home are experienced.[160] There have been two major trends in the changing status of pet dogs. The first has been the 'commodification' of the dog, shaping it to conform to human expectations of personality and behaviour.[160] The second has been the broadening of the concept of the family and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices.[160] There are a vast range of commodity forms available to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.[161] The list of goods, services and places available is enormous: from dog perfumes, couture, furniture and housing, to dog groomers, therapists, trainers and caretakers, dog cafes, spas, parks and beaches, and dog hotels, airlines and cemeteries.[161] While dog training as an organized activity can be traced back to the 18th century, in the last decades of the 20th century it became a high-profile issue as many normal dog behaviors such as barking, jumping up, digging, rolling in dung, fighting, and urine marking (which dogs do to establish territory through scent), became increasingly incompatible with the new role of a pet dog.[162] Dog training books, classes and television programs proliferated as the process of commodifying the pet dog continued.[163] The majority of contemporary people with dogs describe their pet as part of the family,[160] although some ambivalence about the relationship is evident in the popular reconceptualization of the dog-human family as a pack.[160] A dominance model of dog-human relationships has been promoted by some dog trainers, such as on the television program Dog Whisperer. However it has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.[164] Pet dogs play an active role in family life; for example, a study of conversations in dog-human families showed how family members use the dog as a resource, talking to the dog, or talking through the dog, to mediate their interactions with each other.[165] Increasingly, human family members are engaging in activities centered on the perceived needs and interests of the dog, or in which the dog is an integral partner, such as dog dancing and dog yoga.[161] According to statistics published by the American Pet Products Manufacturers Association in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009-2010, it is estimated there are 77.5 million people with pet dogs in the United States.[166] The same survey shows nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% two dogs and nearly 9% more than two dogs. There does not seem to be any gender preference among dogs as pets, as the statistical data reveal an equal number of female and male dog pets. Yet, although several programs are ongoing to promote pet adoption, less than a fifth of the owned dogs come from a shelter. The latest study using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) comparing humans and dogs showed that dogs have same response to voices and use the same parts of the brain as humans do. This gives dogs the ability to recognize emotional human sounds, making them friendly social pets to humans.[167] Work Dogs have lived and worked with humans in so many roles that they have earned the unique nickname, "man's best friend",[168] a phrase used in other languages as well. They have been bred for herding livestock,[169] hunting (e.g. pointers and hounds),[106] rodent control,[14] guarding, helping fishermen with nets, detection dogs, and pulling loads, in addition to their roles as companions.[14] In 1957, a husky-terrier mix named Laika became the first animal to orbit the Earth.[170][171] Service dogs such as guide dogs, utility dogs, assistance dogs, hearing dogs, and psychological therapy dogs provide assistance to individuals with physical or mental disabilities.[172][173] Some dogs owned by epileptics have been shown to alert their handler when the handler shows signs of an impending seizure, sometimes well in advance of onset, allowing the guardian to seek safety, medication, or medical care.[174] Dogs included in human activities in terms of helping out humans are usually called working dogs. Sports and shows See also: Conformation show Dogs come in a range of sizes. People often enter their dogs in competitions[175] such as breed-conformation shows or sports, including racing, sledding and agility competitions. In conformation shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the breed standard. As the breed standard only deals with the externally observable qualities of the dog (such as appearance, movement, and temperament), separately tested qualities (such as ability or health) are not part of the judging in conformation shows. As food Main article: Dog meat Gaegogi (dog meat) stew being served in a Korean restaurant Dog meat is consumed in some East Asian countries, including Korea, China[145] and Vietnam,[146] a practice that dates back to antiquity.[176] It is estimated that 13-16 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year.[177] Other cultures, such as Polynesia and pre-Columbian Mexico, also consumed dog meat in their history. However, Western, South Asian, African, and Middle Eastern cultures, in general, regard consumption of dog meat as taboo. In some places, however, such as in rural areas of Poland, dog fat is believed to have medicinal properties—being good for the lungs for instance.[178] Dog meat is also consumed in some parts of Switzerland.[179] Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is western hypocrisy, and that there is no difference with eating the meat of different animals.[180][181][182][183] In Korea, the primary dog breed raised for meat, the nureongi (누렁이), differs from those breeds raised for pets that Koreans may keep in their homes.[184] The most popular Korean dog dish is gaejang-guk (also called bosintang), a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months; followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's gi, or vital energy of the body. A 19th century version of gaejang-guk explains that the dish is prepared by boiling dog meat with scallions and chili powder. Variations of the dish contain chicken and bamboo shoots. While the dishes are still popular in Korea with a segment of the population, dog is not as widely consumed as beef, chicken, and pork.[184] Health risks to humans Further information: Dog attack and Canine vector-borne disease Further information: Dog bite prevention In 2005, the WHO reported that 55,000 people died in Asia and Africa from rabies, a disease for which dogs are the most important vector.[185] Citing a 2008 study, the U.S. Center for Disease Control estimated in 2015 that 4.5 million people in the USA are bitten by dogs each year.[186] A 2015 study estimated that 1.8% of the U.S. population is bitten each year.[187] In the 1980s and 1990s the US averaged 17 fatalities per year, while in the 2000s this has increased to 26.[188] 77% of dog bites are from the pet of family or friends, and 50% of attacks occur on the property of the dog's legal owner.[188] A Colorado study found bites in children were less severe than bites in adults.[189] The incidence of dog bites in the US is 12.9 per 10,000 inhabitants, but for boys aged 5 to 9, the incidence rate is 60.7 per 10,000. Moreover, children have a much higher chance to be bitten in the face or neck.[190] Sharp claws with powerful muscles behind them can lacerate flesh in a scratch that can lead to serious infections.[191] In the UK between 2003 and 2004, there were 5,868 dog attacks on humans, resulting in 5,770 working days lost in sick leave.[192] In the United States, cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.[193] It has been estimated around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in UK hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study found that while dog involvement in road traffic accidents was difficult to quantify, dog-associated road accidents involving injury more commonly involved two-wheeled vehicles.[194] Toxocara canis (dog roundworm) eggs in dog feces can cause toxocariasis. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of Toxocara infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.[195] In Great Britain, 24% of soil samples taken from public parks contained T. canis eggs.[196][not in citation given] Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.[196] Dog feces can also contain hookworms that cause cutaneous larva migrans in humans.[197][198][199][200] Health benefits for humans Small dog laying between the hands A human cuddles a Doberman puppy. The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether companionship of a dog can enhance human physical health and psychological wellbeing.[201] Studies suggesting that there are benefits to physical health and psychological wellbeing[202] have been criticised for being poorly controlled,[203] and finding that "[t]he health of elderly people is related to their health habits and social supports but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that people who keep pet dogs or cats exhibit better mental and physical health than those who do not, making fewer visits to the doctor and being less likely to be on medication than non-guardians.[204] A 2005 paper states "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of cardiovascular disease, a reduced use of general practitioner services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets."[201] In one study, new guardians reported a highly significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, and this effect was sustained in those with dogs through to the end of the study.[205] In addition, people with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets. The results provide evidence that keeping pets may have positive effects on human health and behaviour, and that for guardians of dogs these effects are relatively long-term.[205] Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased coronary artery disease survival, with human guardians being significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute myocardial infarction than those who did not own dogs.[206] The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, and not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in the presence of a pet dog, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety.[207] Other health benefits are gained from exposure to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which, according to the hygiene hypothesis, can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases. The benefits of contact with a dog also include social support, as dogs are able to not only provide companionship and social support themselves, but also to act as facilitators of social interactions between humans.[208] One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when they are accompanied by a dog than when they are not.[209] In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.[210] The practice of using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with mental disorders.[211] Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase social behaviors, such as smiling and laughing, among people with Alzheimer's disease.[212] One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and conduct disorders who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, increased knowledge and skill objectives, and decreased antisocial and violent behavior compared with those who were not in an animal-assisted program.[213] Medical detection dogs Medical detection dogs are capable of detecting diseases by sniffing a person directly or samples of urine or other specimens. Dogs can detect odour in one part per trillion, as their brain's olfactory cortex is (relative to total brain size) 40 times larger than humans. Dogs may have as many as 300 million odour receptors in their nose, while humans may have only 5 million. Each dog is trained specifically for the detection of single disease from the blood glucose level indicative to diabetes to cancer. The process of training a cancer dog requires six months. A Labrador Retriever called Daisy has detected 551 cancer patients with an accuracy of 93 percent and received the Blue Cross (for pets) Medal for her life-saving skills.[214][215] Shelters Main article: Animal shelter Every year, between 6 and 8 million dogs and cats enter US animal shelters.[216] The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) estimates that approximately 3 to 4 million of those dogs and cats are euthanized yearly in the United States.[217] However, the percentage of dogs in US animal shelters that are eventually adopted and removed from the shelters by their new legal owners has increased since the mid-1990s from around 25% to a 2012 average of 40% among reporting shelters[218] (with many shelters reporting 60-75%).[219] Cultural depictions Spread of Seuso, dogs at Lake Balaton Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs Dogs have been viewed and represented in different manners by different cultures and religions, over the course of history. Mythology See also: Category:Mythological dogs In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.[220] In Greek mythology, Cerberus is a three-headed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades.[220] In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim.[220] In Persian mythology, two four-eyed dogs guard the Chinvat Bridge.[220] In Philippine mythology, Kimat who is the pet of Tadaklan, god of thunder, is responsible for lightning. In Welsh mythology, Annwn is guarded by Cŵn Annwn.[220] In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death owns two watch dogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka.[221] Hunter god Muthappan from North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines.[222] The role of the dog in Chinese mythology includes a position as one of the twelve animals which cyclically represent years (the zodiacal dog). Literature In Homer's epic poem the Odyssey, when the disguised Odysseus returns home after 20 years he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos, who has been waiting for his return. Religion In Islam, dogs are viewed as unclean because they are viewed as scavengers.[220] Jewish law does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets.[223] Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves, and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.[223] In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness.[220] In China, Korea, and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors.[220] Art Main article: Cultural depictions of dogs in Western art Wikimedia Commons has media related to Dogs in art. Cultural depictions of dogs in art extend back thousands of years to when dogs were portrayed on the walls of caves. Representations of dogs became more elaborate as individual breeds evolved and the relationships between human and canine developed. Hunting scenes were popular in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Dogs were depicted to symbolize guidance, protection, loyalty, fidelity, faithfulness, watchfulness, and love.[224] Ancient Greek rhyton in the shape of a dog's head, made by Brygos, early 5th century BC. Jérôme Carcopino Museum, Department of Archaeology, Aleria Decameron hunting scene, Davide Ghirlandaio, c.1485 Brooklyn Museum Figure of a Recumbent Dog, China, 4th century, Brooklyn Museum See also icon Dogs portal icon Mammals portal Book icon Book: Dog Aging in dogs Toy Group Animal track Argos (dog) Dog in Chinese mythology Dogs in art Dog odor Dognapping Ethnocynology Hachikō-a notable example of dog loyalty Lost pet services Mountain dog Wolfdog Lists List of fictional dogs List of individual dogs Notes Jump up ^ The addition of [domestic dog] against dingo and familiaris is inferred to mean that these two taxons form the "domestic dog clade" within Canis lupus, as opposed to its wild "wolf clade". References ^ Jump up to: a b Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). "Order Carnivora". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 575-577. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. 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cat

types of cat-specific body language.[7] Cats have a high breeding rate.[8] Under controlled breeding, they can be bred and shown as registered pedigree pets, a hobby known as cat fancy. Failure to control the breeding of pet cats by neutering, as well as the abandonment of former household pets, has resulted in large numbers of feral cats worldwide, requiring population control.[9] In certain areas outside cats' native range, this has contributed, along with habitat destruction and other factors, to the extinction of many bird species. Cats have been known to extirpate a bird species within specific regions and may have contributed to the extinction of isolated island populations.[10] Cats are thought to be primarily responsible for the extinction of 33 species of birds, and the presence of feral and free-ranging cats makes some otherwise suitable locations unsuitable for attempted species reintroduction.[11] Since cats were venerated in ancient Egypt, they were commonly believed to have been domesticated there,[12] but there may have been instances of domestication as early as the Neolithic from around 9,500 years ago (7,500 BC).[13] A genetic study in 2007[14] concluded that all domestic cats are descended from Near Eastern wildcats, having diverged around 8,000 BC in the Middle East.[12][15] A 2016 study found that leopard cats were undergoing domestication independently in China around 5,500 BC, though this line of partially domesticated cats leaves no trace in the domesticated populations of today.[16][17] A 2017 study confirmed that domestic cats are descendants of those first domesticated by farmers in the Near East around 9,000 years ago.[18][19] As of a 2007 study, cats are the second most popular pet in the US by number of pets owned, behind freshwater fish.[20] In a 2010 study they were ranked the third most popular pet in the UK, after fish and dogs, with around 8 million being owned.[21] Contents [hide] 1 Taxonomy and evolution 2 Nomenclature and etymology 3 Biology 3.1 Anatomy 3.2 Physiology 3.3 Senses 3.4 Health 3.4.1 Diseases 3.4.2 Poisoning 3.5 Genetics 4 Behavior 4.1 Sociability 4.2 Communication 4.3 Grooming 4.4 Fighting 4.5 Hunting and feeding 4.6 Play 4.7 Reproduction 5 Ecology 5.1 Habitats 5.2 Feral cats 5.3 Impact on prey species 5.4 Impact on birds 6 Interaction with humans 6.1 Cat bites and scratches 6.2 Infections transmitted from cats to humans 6.3 History and mythology 6.3.1 Superstitions and cat burning 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Taxonomy and evolution Main article: Cat evolution The domestic cat is believed to have evolved from the Near Eastern wildcat, whose range covers vast portions of the Middle East westward to the Atlantic coast of Africa.[22][23] Between 70,000 and 100,000 years ago the animal gave rise to the genetic lineage that eventually produced all domesticated cats,[24] having diverged from the Near Eastern wildcat around 8,000 BC in the Middle East.[12][15] The felids are a rapidly evolving family of mammals that share a common ancestor only 10-15 million years ago[25] and include lions, tigers, cougars and many others. Within this family, domestic cats (Felis catus) are part of the genus Felis, which is a group of small cats containing about seven species (depending upon classification scheme).[1][26] Members of the genus are found worldwide and include the jungle cat (Felis chaus) of southeast Asia, European wildcat (F. silvestris silvestris), African wildcat (F. s. lybica), the Chinese mountain cat (F. bieti), and the Arabian sand cat (F. margarita), among others.[27] The domestic cat was first classified as Felis catus by Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae published in 1758.[1][2] Because of modern phylogenetics, domestic cats are usually regarded as another subspecies of the wildcat, F. silvestris.[1][28][29] This has resulted in mixed usage of the terms, as the domestic cat can be called by its subspecies name, Felis silvestris catus.[1][28][29] Wildcats have also been referred to as various subspecies of F. catus,[29] but in 2003, the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature fixed the name for wildcats as F. silvestris.[30] The most common name in use for the domestic cat remains F. catus. Sometimes, the domestic cat has been called Felis domesticus[31] as proposed by German naturalist J.C.P. Erxleben in 1777,[32] but these are not valid taxonomic names and have been used only rarely in scientific literature.[33] A population of Transcaucasian black feral cats was once classified as Felis daemon (Satunin 1904) but now this population is considered to be a part of domestic cat.[34] All the cats in this genus share a common ancestor that is believed to have lived around 6-7 million years ago in the Near East (the Middle East).[35] The exact relationships within the Felidae are close but still uncertain,[36][37] e.g. the Chinese mountain cat is sometimes classified (under the name Felis silvestris bieti) as a subspecies of the wildcat, like the North African variety F. s. lybica.[28][36] Ancient Egyptian sculpture of the cat goddess Bastet. The earliest evidence of felines as Egyptian deities comes from a c. 3100 BC. In comparison to dogs, cats have not undergone major changes during the domestication process, as the form and behavior of the domestic cat is not radically different from those of wildcats and domestic cats are perfectly capable of surviving in the wild.[38][39] Fully domesticated house cats often interbreed with feral F. catus populations,[40] producing hybrids such as the Kellas cat. This limited evolution during domestication means that hybridisation can occur with many other felids, notably the Asian leopard cat.[41] Several natural behaviors and characteristics of wildcats may have predisposed them for domestication as pets.[39] These traits include their small size, social nature, obvious body language, love of play and relatively high intelligence.[42]:12-17 Several small felid species may have an inborn tendency towards tameness.[39] Cats have either a mutualistic or commensal relationship with humans. Two main theories are given about how cats were domesticated. In one, people deliberately tamed cats in a process of artificial selection as they were useful predators of vermin.[43] This has been criticized as implausible, because the reward for such an effort may have been too little; cats generally do not carry out commands and although they do eat rodents, other species such as ferrets or terriers may be better at controlling these pests.[28] The alternative idea is that cats were simply tolerated by people and gradually diverged from their wild relatives through natural selection, as they adapted to hunting the vermin found around humans in towns and villages.[28] Nomenclature and etymology The origin of the English word cat (Old English catt) and its counterparts in other Germanic languages (such as German Katze), descended from Proto-Germanic *kattōn-, is controversial. It has traditionally thought to be a borrowing from Late Latin cattus "domestic cat", from catta (used around 75 AD by Martial),[44][45] compare also Byzantine Greek κάττα, Portuguese and Spanish gato, French chat, Maltese qattus, Lithuanian katė, and Old Church Slavonic kotъ (kotka), among others.[46] The Late Latin word is generally thought to originate from an Afro-Asiatic language, but every proposed source word has presented problems. Many references refer to "Berber" (Kabyle) kaddîska "wildcat" and "Nubian kadīs" as possible sources or cognates, but M. Lionel Bender says the Nubian term is a loan from Arabic قِطَّة qiṭṭa.[47] Jean-Paul Savignac suggests the Latin word is from an Egyptian precursor of Coptic ϣⲁⲩ (šau) "tomcat" or its feminine form suffixed with -t,[48] but John Huehnergard says "the source [...] was clearly not Egyptian itself, where no analogous form is attested."[47] Huehnergard opines it is "equally likely that the forms might derive from an ancient Germanic word, imported into Latin and thence to Greek and to Syriac and Arabic". Guus Kroonen also considers the word to be native to Germanic (due to morphological alternations) and Northern Europe, and suggests that it might ultimately be borrowed from Uralic, cf. Northern Sami gađfe "female stoat" and Hungarian hölgy "stoat; lady, bride" from Proto-Uralic *käďwä "female (of a fur animal)".[49] In any case, cat is a classic case of a Wanderwort. An alternative word is English puss (extended as pussy and pussycat). Attested only from the 16th century, it may have been introduced from Dutch poes or from Low German puuskatte, related to Swedish kattepus, or Norwegian pus, pusekatt. Similar forms exist in Lithuanian puižė and Irish puisín or puiscín. The etymology of this word is unknown, but it may have simply arisen from a sound used to attract a cat.[50][51] A group of cats is referred to as a clowder or a glaring,[52] a male cat is called a tom or tomcat[53] (or a gib,[54] if neutered), an unaltered female is called a queen,[55] and a juvenile cat is referred to as a kitten. The male progenitor of a cat, especially a pedigreed cat, is its sire,[56] and its female progenitor is its dam.[57] In Early Modern English, the word kitten was interchangeable with the now obsolete word catling.[58] A pedigreed cat is one whose ancestry is recorded by a cat fancier organization. A purebred cat is one whose ancestry contains only individuals of the same breed. Many pedigreed and especially purebred cats are exhibited as show cats. Cats of unrecorded, mixed ancestry are referred to as domestic short-haired or domestic long-haired cats, by coat type, or commonly as random-bred, moggies (chiefly British), or (using terms borrowed from dog breeding) mongrels or mutt-cats. While the African wildcat is the ancestral subspecies from which domestic cats are descended, and wildcats and domestic cats can completely interbreed (being subspecies of the same species), several intermediate stages occur between domestic pet and pedigree cats on one hand and entirely wild animals on the other. The semiferal cat, a mostly outdoor cat, is not owned by any one individual, but is generally friendly to people and may be fed by several households. Feral cats are associated with human habitation areas and may be fed by people or forage for food, but are typically wary of human interaction.[40] Biology Anatomy Main article: Cat anatomy Diagram of the general anatomy of a male Domestic cats are similar in size to the other members of the genus Felis, typically weighing between 4 and 5 kg (9 and 10 lb).[36] Some breeds, such as the Maine Coon, can occasionally exceed 11 kg (24 lb). Conversely, very small cats, less than 2 kg (4 lb), have been reported.[59] The world record for the largest cat is 21 kg (50 lb).[60] The smallest adult cat ever officially recorded weighed around 1 kg (2 lb).[60] Feral cats tend to be lighter as they have more limited access to food than house cats. In the Boston area, the average feral adult male will weigh 4 kg (9 lb) and average feral female 3 kg (7 lb).[61] Cats average about 23-25 cm (9-10 in) in height and 46 cm (18 in) in head/body length (males being larger than females), with tails averaging 30 cm (12 in) in length.[62] Cats have seven cervical vertebrae, as do almost all mammals; 13 thoracic vertebrae (humans have 12); seven lumbar vertebrae (humans have five); three sacral vertebrae like most mammals (humans have five); and a variable number of caudal vertebrae in the tail (humans retain three to five caudal vertebrae, fused into an internal coccyx).[63]:11 The extra lumbar and thoracic vertebrae account for the cat's spinal mobility and flexibility. Attached to the spine are 13 ribs, the shoulder, and the pelvis.[63] :16 Unlike human arms, cat forelimbs are attached to the shoulder by free-floating clavicle bones which allow them to pass their body through any space into which they can fit their head.[64] Cat skull The cat skull is unusual among mammals in having very large eye sockets and a powerful and specialized jaw.[65]:35 Within the jaw, cats have teeth adapted for killing prey and tearing meat. When it overpowers its prey, a cat delivers a lethal neck bite with its two long canine teeth, inserting them between two of the prey's vertebrae and severing its spinal cord, causing irreversible paralysis and death.[66] Compared to other felines, domestic cats have narrowly spaced canine teeth, which is an adaptation to their preferred prey of small rodents, which have small vertebrae.[66] The premolar and first molar together compose the carnassial pair on each side of the mouth, which efficiently shears meat into small pieces, like a pair of scissors. These are vital in feeding, since cats' small molars cannot chew food effectively, and cats are largely incapable of mastication.[65]:37 Though cats tend to have better teeth than most humans, with decay generally less likely because of a thicker protective layer of enamel, a less damaging saliva, less retention of food particles between teeth, and a diet mostly devoid of sugar, they are nonetheless subject to occasional tooth loss and infection.[67] Cats, like dogs, are digitigrades. They walk directly on their toes, with the bones of their feet making up the lower part of the visible leg.[68] Cats are capable of walking very precisely because, like all felines, they directly register; that is, they place each hind paw (almost) directly in the print of the corresponding fore paw, minimizing noise and visible tracks. This also provides sure footing for their hind paws when they navigate rough terrain. Unlike most mammals, when cats walk, they use a "pacing" gait; that is, they move the two legs on one side of the body before the legs on the other side. This trait is shared with camels and giraffes. As a walk speeds up into a trot, a cat's gait changes to be a "diagonal" gait, similar to that of most other mammals (and many other land animals, such as lizards): the diagonally opposite hind and fore legs move simultaneously.[69] Like almost all members of the Felidae, cats have protractable and retractable claws.[70] In their normal, relaxed position, the claws are sheathed with the skin and fur around the paw's toe pads. This keeps the claws sharp by preventing wear from contact with the ground and allows the silent stalking of prey. The claws on the fore feet are typically sharper than those on the hind feet.[71] Cats can voluntarily extend their claws on one or more paws. They may extend their claws in hunting or self-defense, climbing, kneading, or for extra traction on soft surfaces. Most cats have five claws on their front paws, and four on their rear paws.[72] The fifth front claw (the dewclaw) is proximal to the other claws. More proximally is a protrusion which appears to be a sixth "finger". This special feature of the front paws, on the inside of the wrists, is the carpal pad, also found on the paws of big cats and dogs. It has no function in normal walking, but is thought to be an antiskidding device used while jumping. Some breeds of cats are prone to polydactyly (extra toes and claws).[72] These are particularly common along the northeast coast of North America.[73] Physiology Cats are familiar and easily kept animals, and their physiology has been particularly well studied; it generally resembles those of other carnivorous mammals, but displays several unusual features probably attributable to cats' descent from desert-dwelling species.[31] For instance, cats are able to tolerate quite high temperatures: Humans generally start to feel uncomfortable when their skin temperature passes about 38 °C (100 °F), but cats show no discomfort until their skin reaches around 52 °C (126 °F),[65]:46 and can tolerate temperatures of up to 56 °C (133 °F) if they have access to water.[74] Normal physiological values[75]:330 Body temperature 38.6 °C (101.5 °F) Heart rate 120-140 beats per minute Breathing rate 16-40 breaths per minute Thermograph of various body parts of a cat Cats conserve heat by reducing the flow of blood to their skin and lose heat by evaporation through their mouths. Cats have minimal ability to sweat, with glands located primarily in their paw pads,[76] and pant for heat relief only at very high temperatures[77] (but may also pant when stressed). A cat's body temperature does not vary throughout the day; this is part of cats' general lack of circadian rhythms and may reflect their tendency to be active both during the day and at night.[78]:1 Cats' feces are comparatively dry and their urine is highly concentrated, both of which are adaptations to allow cats to retain as much water as possible.[31] Their kidneys are so efficient, they can survive on a diet consisting only of meat, with no additional water,[79] and can even rehydrate by drinking seawater.[78]:29[80] While domestic cats are able to swim, they are generally reluctant to enter water as it quickly leads to exhaustion.[81] Cats are obligate carnivores: their physiology has evolved to efficiently process meat, and they have difficulty digesting plant matter.[31] In contrast to omnivores such as rats, which only require about 4% protein in their diet, about 20% of a cat's diet must be protein.[31] Cats are unusually dependent on a constant supply of the amino acid arginine, and a diet lacking arginine causes marked weight loss and can be rapidly fatal.[82] Another unusual feature is that the cat cannot produce taurine, with taurine deficiency causing macular degeneration, wherein the cat's retina slowly degenerates, causing irreversible blindness.[31] A cat's gastrointestinal tract is adapted to meat eating, being much shorter than that of omnivores and having low levels of several of the digestive enzymes needed to digest carbohydrates.[83] These traits severely limit the cat's ability to digest and use plant-derived nutrients, as well as certain fatty acids.[83] Despite the cat's meat-oriented physiology, several vegetarian or vegan cat foods have been marketed that are supplemented with chemically synthesized taurine and other nutrients, in attempts to produce a complete diet. However, some of these products still fail to provide all the nutrients cats require,[84] and diets containing no animal products pose the risk of causing severe nutritional deficiencies.[85] However, vets in the United States have expressed concern that many domestic cats are overfed.[86] Cats do eat grass occasionally. A proposed explanation is that cats use grass as a source of folic acid. Another proposed explanation is that it is used to supply dietary fiber, helping the cat defecate more easily and expel parasites and other harmful material through feces and vomit.[87] Senses Main article: Cat senses Reflection of camera flash from the tapetum lucidum Cats have excellent night vision and can see at only one-sixth the light level required for human vision.[65]:43 This is partly the result of cat eyes having a tapetum lucidum, which reflects any light that passes through the retina back into the eye, thereby increasing the eye's sensitivity to dim light.[88] Another adaptation to dim light is the large pupils of cats' eyes. Unlike some big cats, such as tigers, domestic cats have slit pupils.[89] These slit pupils can focus bright light without chromatic aberration, and are needed since the domestic cat's pupils are much larger, relative to their eyes, than the pupils of the big cats.[89] At low light levels a cat's pupils will expand to cover most of the exposed surface of its eyes.[90] However, domestic cats have rather poor color vision and (like most nonprimate mammals) have only two types of cones, optimized for sensitivity to blue and yellowish green; they have limited ability to distinguish between red and green.[91] A 1993 paper reported a response to middle wavelengths from a system other than the rods which might be due to a third type of cone. However, this appears to be an adaptation to low light levels rather than representing true trichromatic vision.[92] Cats have excellent hearing and can detect an extremely broad range of frequencies. They can hear higher-pitched sounds than either dogs or humans, detecting frequencies from 55 Hz to 79,000 Hz, a range of 10.5 octaves, while humans and dogs both have ranges of about 9 octaves.[93][94] Cats can hear ultrasound, which is important in hunting[95] because many species of rodents make ultrasonic calls.[96] However, they do not communicate using ultrasound like rodents do. Cats' hearing is also sensitive and among the best of any mammal,[93] being most acute in the range of 500 Hz to 32 kHz.[97] This sensitivity is further enhanced by the cat's large movable outer ears (their pinnae), which both amplify sounds and help detect the direction of a noise.[95] Cats have an acute sense of smell, due in part to their well-developed olfactory bulb and a large surface of olfactory mucosa, about 5.8 cm2 (0.90 in2) in area, which is about twice that of humans.[98] Cats are sensitive to pheromones such as 3-mercapto-3-methylbutan-1-ol,[99] which they use to communicate through urine spraying and marking with scent glands.[100] Many cats also respond strongly to plants that contain nepetalactone, especially catnip, as they can detect that substance at less than one part per billion.[101] About 70-80% of cats are affected by nepetalactone.[102] This response is also produced by other plants, such as silver vine (Actinidia polygama) and the herb valerian; it may be caused by the smell of these plants mimicking a pheromone and stimulating cats' social or sexual behaviors.[103] Cats have relatively few taste buds compared to humans (470 or so versus more than 9,000 on the human tongue).[104] Domestic and wild cats share a gene mutation that keeps their sweet taste buds from binding to sugary molecules, leaving them with no ability to taste sweetness.[105] Their taste buds instead respond to amino acids, bitter tastes, and acids.[106] Cats and many other animals have a Jacobson's organ located in their mouths that allows them to taste-smell certain aromas in a way of which humans have no experience. Cats also have a distinct temperature preference for their food, preferring food with a temperature around 38 °C (100 °F) which is similar to that of a fresh kill and routinely rejecting food presented cold or refrigerated (which would signal to the cat that the "prey" item is long dead and therefore possibly toxic or decomposing).[104] The whiskers of a cat are highly sensitive to touch. To aid with navigation and sensation, cats have dozens of movable whiskers (vibrissae) over their body, especially their faces. These provide information on the width of gaps and on the location of objects in the dark, both by touching objects directly and by sensing air currents; they also trigger protective blink reflexes to protect the eyes from damage.[65]:47 Most breeds of cat have a noted fondness for settling in high places, or perching. In the wild, a higher place may serve as a concealed site from which to hunt; domestic cats may strike prey by pouncing from a perch such as a tree branch, as does a leopard.[107] Another possible explanation is that height gives the cat a better observation point, allowing it to survey its territory. During a fall from a high place, a cat can reflexively twist its body and right itself using its acute sense of balance and flexibility.[108] This is known as the cat righting reflex. An individual cat always rights itself in the same way, provided it has the time to do so, during a fall. The height required for this to occur is around 90 cm (3.0 ft). Cats without a tail (e.g. Manx cats) also have this ability, since a cat mostly moves its hind legs and relies on conservation of angular momentum to set up for landing, and the tail is little used for this feat.[109] Health Main article: Cat health The average lifespan of pet cats has risen in recent years. In the early 1980s, it was about seven years,[110]:33[111] rising to 9.4 years in 1995[110]:33 and 12-15 years in 2014.[112][unreliable source?] However, cats have been reported as surviving into their 30s,[113] with the oldest known cat, Creme Puff, dying at a verified age of 38.[114] Spaying or neutering increases life expectancy: one study found neutered male cats live twice as long as intact males, while spayed female cats live 62% longer than intact females.[110]:35 Having a cat neutered confers health benefits, because castrated males cannot develop testicular cancer, spayed females cannot develop uterine or ovarian cancer, and both have a reduced risk of mammary cancer.[115] Despite widespread concern about the welfare of free-roaming cats, the lifespans of neutered feral cats in managed colonies compare favorably with those of pet cats.[116]:45[117]:1358 [118][119][120][121] Diseases Main article: Feline diseases A wide range of health problems may affect cats, including infectious diseases, parasites, injuries, and chronic disease. Vaccinations are available for many of these diseases, and domestic cats are regularly given treatments to eliminate parasites such as worms and fleas.[122] Poisoning In addition to obvious dangers such as rodenticides, insecticides, and herbicides, cats may be poisoned by many chemicals usually considered safe by their human guardians,[123] because their livers are less effective at some forms of detoxification than those of many other animals, including humans and dogs.[31][124] Some of the most common causes of poisoning in cats are antifreeze and rodent baits.[125] Cats may be particularly sensitive to environmental pollutants.[123][126] When a cat has a sudden or prolonged serious illness without any obvious cause, it has possibly been exposed to a toxin. Many human medicines should never be given to cats. For example, the painkiller paracetamol (or acetaminophen, sold as Tylenol and Panadol) is extremely toxic to cats: even very small doses need immediate treatment and can be fatal.[127][128] Even aspirin, which is sometimes used to treat arthritis in cats, is much more toxic to them than to humans[128] and must be administered cautiously.[123] Similarly, application of minoxidil (Rogaine) to the skin of cats, either accidentally or by well-meaning guardians attempting to counter loss of fur, has sometimes been fatal.[129] Essential oils can be toxic to cats and cases have been reported of serious illnesses caused by tea tree oil, including flea treatments and shampoos containing it.[130] Other common household substances that should be used with caution around cats include mothballs and other naphthalene products.[123] Phenol-based products (e.g. Pine-Sol, Dettol/Lysol or hexachlorophene)[123] are often used for cleaning and disinfecting near cats' feeding areas or litter boxes, but these can sometimes be fatal.[131] Ethylene glycol, often used as an automotive antifreeze, is particularly appealing to cats, and as little as a teaspoonful can be fatal.[132] Some human foods are toxic to cats; for example chocolate can cause theobromine poisoning, although (unlike dogs) few cats will eat chocolate.[133] Large amounts of onions or garlic are also poisonous to cats.[123] Many houseplants are also dangerous,[134] such as Philodendron species and the leaves of the Easter lily (Lilium longiflorum), which can cause permanent and life-threatening kidney damage.[135] Genetics Main article: Cat genetics The domesticated cat and its closest wild ancestor are both diploid organisms that possess 38 chromosomes[136] and roughly 20,000 genes.[137] About 250 heritable genetic disorders have been identified in cats, many similar to human inborn errors.[138] The high level of similarity among the metabolism of mammals allows many of these feline diseases to be diagnosed using genetic tests that were originally developed for use in humans, as well as the use of cats as animal models in the study of the human diseases.[139][140] Behavior See also: Cat behavior and Cat intelligence A black-and-white cat on a fence A cat on a fence. Outdoor cats are active both day and night, although they tend to be slightly more active at night.[141][142] The timing of cats' activity is quite flexible and varied, which means house cats may be more active in the morning and evening, as a response to greater human activity at these times.[143] Although they spend the majority of their time in the vicinity of their home, housecats can range many hundreds of meters from this central point, and are known to establish territories that vary considerably in size, in one study ranging from 7 to 28 hectares (17-69 acres).[142] Cats conserve energy by sleeping more than most animals, especially as they grow older. The daily duration of sleep varies, usually between 12 and 16 hours, with 13 and 14 being the average. Some cats can sleep as much as 20 hours. The term "cat nap" for a short rest refers to the cat's tendency to fall asleep (lightly) for a brief period. While asleep, cats experience short periods of rapid eye movement sleep often accompanied by muscle twitches, which suggests they are dreaming.[144] Sociability Social grooming Although wildcats are solitary, the social behavior of domestic cats is much more variable and ranges from widely dispersed individuals to feral cat colonies that form around a food source, based on groups of co-operating females.[145][146] Within such groups, one cat is usually dominant over the others.[33] Each cat in a colony holds a distinct territory, with sexually active males having the largest territories, which are about 10 times larger than those of female cats and may overlap with several females' territories.[100] These territories are marked by urine spraying, by rubbing objects at head height with secretions from facial glands, and by defecation.[100] Between these territories are neutral areas where cats watch and greet one another without territorial conflicts. Outside these neutral areas, territory holders usually chase away stranger cats, at first by staring, hissing, and growling, and if that does not work, by short but noisy and violent attacks. Despite some cats cohabiting in colonies, they do not have a social survival strategy, or a pack mentality, and always hunt alone.[147] Cat with an Alaskan Malamute dog However, some pet cats are poorly socialized. In particular, older cats may show aggressiveness towards newly arrived kittens, which may include biting and scratching; this type of behavior is known as feline asocial aggression.[148] Though cats and dogs are often characterized as natural enemies, they can live together if correctly socialized.[149] Life in proximity to humans and other domestic animals has led to a symbiotic social adaptation in cats, and cats may express great affection toward humans or other animals. Ethologically, the human keeper of a cat may function as a sort of surrogate for the cat's mother,[150] and adult housecats live their lives in a kind of extended kittenhood,[151] a form of behavioral neoteny. The high-pitched sounds housecats make to solicit food may mimic the cries of a hungry human infant, making them particularly hard for humans to ignore.[152] Communication Main article: Cat communication Domestic cats use many vocalizations for communication, including purring, trilling, hissing, growling/snarling, grunting, and several different forms of meowing.[7] (By contrast, feral cats are generally silent.)[153]:208 Their types of body language, including position of ears and tail, relaxation of the whole body, and kneading of the paws, are all indicators of mood. The tail and ears are particularly important social signal mechanisms in cats;[154][155] for example, a raised tail acts as a friendly greeting, and flattened ears indicates hostility. Tail-raising also indicates the cat's position in the group's social hierarchy, with dominant individuals raising their tails less often than subordinate animals.[155] Nose-to-nose touching is also a common greeting and may be followed by social grooming, which is solicited by one of the cats raising and tilting its head.[146] Purring may have developed as an evolutionary advantage as a signalling mechanism of reassurance between mother cats and nursing kittens. Post-nursing cats often purr as a sign of contentment: when being petted, becoming relaxed,[156][157] or eating. The mechanism by which cats purr is elusive. The cat has no unique anatomical feature that is clearly responsible for the sound.[158] It was, until recent times, believed that only the cats of the Felis genus could purr. However, felids of the Panthera genus (tiger, lion, jaguar, and leopard) also produce sounds similar to purring, but only when exhaling.[159] Grooming The hooked papillae on a cat's tongue act like a hairbrush to help clean and detangle fur. File:Housecat Grooming Itself.webm A tabby housecat uses its brush-like tongue to groom itself, licking its fur to straighten it. Cats are known for spending considerable amounts of time licking their coat to keep it clean.[160] The cat's tongue has backwards-facing spines about 500 μm long, which are called papillae. These contain keratin which makes them rigid[161] so the papillae act like a hairbrush. Some cats, particularly longhaired cats, occasionally regurgitate hairballs of fur that have collected in their stomachs from grooming. These clumps of fur are usually sausage-shaped and about 2-3 cm (0.8-1.2 in) long. Hairballs can be prevented with remedies that ease elimination of the hair through the gut, as well as regular grooming of the coat with a comb or stiff brush.[160] Fighting Among domestic cats, males are more likely to fight than females.[162] Among feral cats, the most common reason for cat fighting is competition between two males to mate with a female. In such cases, most fights are won by the heavier male.[163] Another common reason for fighting in domestic cats is the difficulty of establishing territories within a small home.[162] Female cats also fight over territory or to defend their kittens. Neutering will decrease or eliminate this behavior in many cases, suggesting that the behavior is linked to sex hormones.[164] An arched back, raised fur, and an open-mouthed hiss can all be signs of aggression in a domestic cat. When cats become aggressive, they try to make themselves appear larger and more threatening by raising their fur, arching their backs, turning sideways and hissing or spitting.[154] Often, the ears are pointed down and back to avoid damage to the inner ear and potentially listen for any changes behind them while focused forward. They may also vocalize loudly and bare their teeth in an effort to further intimidate their opponent. Fights usually consist of grappling and delivering powerful slaps to the face and body with the forepaws as well as bites. Cats also throw themselves to the ground in a defensive posture to rake their opponent's belly with their powerful hind legs.[165] Serious damage is rare, as the fights are usually short in duration, with the loser running away with little more than a few scratches to the face and ears. However, fights for mating rights are typically more severe and injuries may include deep puncture wounds and lacerations. Normally, serious injuries from fighting are limited to infections of scratches and bites, though these can occasionally kill cats if untreated. In addition, bites are probably the main route of transmission of feline immunodeficiency virus.[166] Sexually active males are usually involved in many fights during their lives, and often have decidedly battered faces with obvious scars and cuts to their ears and nose.[167] Hunting and feeding A cat that is playing with a caught mouse. Cats play with their prey to weaken or exhaust them before making a kill. Cats hunt small prey, primarily birds and rodents,[168] and are often used as a form of pest control.[169][170] Domestic cats are a major predator of wildlife in the United States, killing an estimated 1.4-3.7 billion birds and 6.9-20.7 billion mammals annually.[171][172] The bulk of predation in the United States is done by 80 million feral and stray cats. Effective measures to reduce this population are elusive, meeting opposition from cat enthusiasts.[171][172] In the case of free-ranging pets, equipping cats with bells and not letting them out at night will reduce wildlife predation.[168] Free-fed feral cats and house cats tend to consume many small meals in a single day, although the frequency and size of meals varies between individuals.[147] Cats use two hunting strategies, either stalking prey actively, or waiting in ambush until an animal comes close enough to be captured.[173] Although it is not certain, the strategy used may depend on the prey species in the area, with cats waiting in ambush outside burrows, but tending to actively stalk birds.[174]:153 Perhaps the best known element of cats' hunting behavior, which is commonly misunderstood and often appalls cat owners because it looks like torture, is that cats often appear to "play" with prey by releasing it after capture. This behavior is due to an instinctive imperative to ensure that the prey is weak enough to be killed without endangering the cat.[175] This behavior is referred to in the idiom "cat-and-mouse game" or simply "cat and mouse". Another poorly understood element of cat hunting behavior is the presentation of prey to human guardians. Ethologist Paul Leyhausen proposed that cats adopt humans into their social group and share excess kill with others in the group according to the dominance hierarchy, in which humans are reacted to as if they are at, or near, the top.[176] Anthropologist and zoologist Desmond Morris, in his 1986 book Catwatching, suggests, when cats bring home mice or birds, they are attempting to teach their human to hunt, or trying to help their human as if feeding "an elderly cat, or an inept kitten".[177][178] Morris's hypothesis is inconsistent with the fact that male cats also bring home prey, despite males having negligible involvement with raising kittens.[174]:153 Domestic cats select food based on its temperature, smell and texture; they dislike chilled foods and respond most strongly to moist foods rich in amino acids, which are similar to meat.[85][147] Cats may reject novel flavors (a response termed neophobia) and learn quickly to avoid foods that have tasted unpleasant in the past.[147] They may also avoid sugary foods and milk. Most adult cats are lactose intolerant; the sugars in milk are not easily digested and may cause soft stools or diarrhea.[147][179] They can also develop odd eating habits. Some cats like to eat or chew on other things, most commonly wool, but also plastic, cables, paper, string, aluminum foil, or even coal. This condition, pica, can threaten their health, depending on the amount and toxicity of the items eaten.[180][181] Though cats usually prey on animals less than half their size, a feral cat in Australia has been photographed killing an adult pademelon of around the cat's weight at 4 kg (8.8 lb).[182] Since cats lack lips[183] to create suction, they use a lapping method with the tongue to draw liquid upwards into their mouths. Lapping at a rate of four times a second, the cat touches the smooth tip of its tongue to the surface of the water, and quickly retracts it, drawing water upwards.[184] Play Main article: Cat play and toys File:Play fight between cats.webmhd.webm Play fight between kittens, age 14 weeks Domestic cats, especially young kittens, are known for their love of play. This behavior mimics hunting and is important in helping kittens learn to stalk, capture, and kill prey.[185] Cats also engage in play fighting, with each other and with humans. This behavior may be a way for cats to practice the skills needed for real combat, and might also reduce any fear they associate with launching attacks on other animals.[186] Owing to the close similarity between play and hunting, cats prefer to play with objects that resemble prey, such as small furry toys that move rapidly, but rapidly lose interest (they become habituated) in a toy they have played with before.[187] Cats also tend to play with toys more when they are hungry.[188] String is often used as a toy, but if it is eaten, it can become caught at the base of the cat's tongue and then move into the intestines, a medical emergency which can cause serious illness, even death.[189] Owing to the risks posed by cats eating string, it is sometimes replaced with a laser pointer's dot, which cats may chase.[190] Reproduction See also: Kitten When cats mate, the tomcat (male) bites the scruff of the female's neck as she assumes a position conducive to mating known as lordosis behavior. Radiography of a pregnant cat (about one month and a half) Female cats are seasonally polyestrous, which means they may have many periods of heat over the course of a year, the season beginning in spring and ending in late autumn. Heat periods occur about every two weeks and last about 4 to 7 days.[191] Multiple males will be attracted to a female in heat. The males will fight over her, and the victor wins the right to mate. At first, the female rejects the male, but eventually the female allows the male to mate. The female utters a loud yowl as the male pulls out of her because a male cat's penis has a band of about 120-150 backwards-pointing penile spines, which are about 1 mm long; upon withdrawal of the penis, the spines rake the walls of the female's vagina, which acts to induce ovulation. This act also occurs to clear the vagina of other sperm in the context of a second (or more) mating, thus giving the later males a larger chance of conception.[192] After mating, the female washes her vulva thoroughly. If a male attempts to mate with her at this point, the female will attack him. After about 20 to 30 minutes, once the female is finished grooming, the cycle will repeat.[191] Because ovulation is not always triggered by a single mating, females may not be impregnated by the first male with which they mate.[193] Furthermore, cats are superfecund; that is, a female may mate with more than one male when she is in heat, with the result that different kittens in a litter may have different fathers.[191] A newborn kitten At 124 hours after conception, the morula forms. At 148 hours, early blastocysts form. At 10-12 days, implantation occurs.[194][195] The gestation period for cats is between 64 and 67 days, with an average of 66 days.[196] The size of a litter usually is three to five kittens, with the first litter usually smaller than subsequent litters. Kittens are weaned between six and seven weeks old, and cats normally reach sexual maturity at 5-10 months (females) and to 5-7 months (males), although this can vary depending on breed.[191] Females can have two to three litters per year, so may produce up to 150 kittens in their breeding span of around ten years.[191] Cats are ready to go to new homes at about 12 weeks of age,[197] when they are ready to leave their mother. They can be surgically sterilized (spayed or castrated) as early as 7 weeks to limit unwanted reproduction.[198] This surgery also prevents undesirable sex-related behavior, such as aggression, territory marking (spraying urine) in males and yowling (calling) in females. Traditionally, this surgery was performed at around six to nine months of age, but it is increasingly being performed prior to puberty, at about three to six months.[199] In the US, about 80% of household cats are neutered.[200] Ecology Habitats A cat in snowy weather Cats are a cosmopolitan species and are found across much of the world.[38] Geneticist Stephen James O'Brien, of the National Cancer Institute in Frederick, Maryland, remarked on how successful cats have been in evolutionary terms: "Cats are one of evolution's most charismatic creatures. They can live on the highest mountains and in the hottest deserts."[201] They are extremely adaptable and are now present on all continents except Antarctica, and on 118 of the 131 main groups of islands—even on isolated islands such as the Kerguelen Islands.[202][203] Feral cats can live in forests, grasslands, tundra, coastal areas, agricultural land, scrublands, urban areas, and wetlands.[204] Their habitats even include small oceanic islands with no human inhabitants.[205] Further, the close relatives of domestic cats, the African wildcat (Felis silvestris lybica) and the Arabian sand cat (Felis margarita) both inhabit desert environments,[28] and domestic cats still show similar adaptations and behaviors.[31] The cat's ability to thrive in almost any terrestrial habitat has led to its designation as one of the world's worst invasive species.[206] As domestic cats are little altered from wildcats, they can readily interbreed. This hybridization poses a danger to the genetic distinctiveness of some wildcat populations, particularly in Scotland and Hungary and possibly also the Iberian Peninsula.[41] Feral cats Main article: Feral cat Feral farm cat Feral cats are domestic cats that were born in or have reverted to a wild state. They are unfamiliar with and wary of humans and roam freely in urban and rural areas.[9] The numbers of feral cats is not known, but estimates of the US feral population range from 25 to 60 million.[9] Feral cats may live alone, but most are found in large colonies, which occupy a specific territory and are usually associated with a source of food.[207] Famous feral cat colonies are found in Rome around the Colosseum and Forum Romanum, with cats at some of these sites being fed and given medical attention by volunteers.[208] Public attitudes towards feral cats vary widely, ranging from seeing them as free-ranging pets, to regarding them as vermin.[209] One common approach to reducing the feral cat population is termed 'trap-neuter-return', where the cats are trapped, neutered, immunized against diseases such as rabies and the feline Panleukopenia and Leukemia viruses, and then released.[210] Before releasing them back into their feral colonies, the attending veterinarian often nips the tip off one ear to mark it as neutered and inoculated, since these cats may be trapped again. Volunteers continue to feed and give care to these cats throughout their lives. Given this support, their lifespans are increased, and behavior and nuisance problems caused by competition for food are reduced.[207] Impact on prey species Carrying half of a rabbit To date, little scientific data is available to assess the impact of cat predation on prey populations. Even well-fed domestic cats may hunt and kill, mainly catching small mammals, but also birds, amphibians, reptiles, fish, and invertebrates.[168][211] Hunting by domestic cats may be contributing to the decline in the numbers of birds in urban areas, although the importance of this effect remains controversial.[212] In the wild, the introduction of feral cats during human settlement can threaten native species with extinction.[205] In many cases, controlling or eliminating the populations of non-native cats can produce a rapid recovery in native animals.[213] However, the ecological role of introduced cats can be more complicated. For example, cats can control the numbers of rats, which also prey on birds' eggs and young, so a cat population can protect an endangered bird species by suppressing mesopredators.[214] In isolated landmasses, such as Australasia, there are often no other native, medium-sized quadrupedal predators (including other feline species); this tends to exacerbate the impact of feral cats on small native animals.[215] Native species such as the New Zealand kakapo and the Australian bettong, for example, tend to be more ecologically vulnerable and behaviorally "naive", when faced with predation by cats.[216] Feral cats have had a major impact on these native species and have played a leading role in the endangerment and extinction of many animals.[217] Even in places with ancient and numerous cat populations, such as Western Europe, cats appear to be growing in number and independently of their environments' carrying capacity (such as the numbers of prey available).[218][219] This may be explained, at least in part, by an abundance of food, from sources including feeding by pet owners and scavenging. For instance, research in Britain suggests that a high proportion of cats hunt only "recreationally".[219] And in South Sweden, where research in 1982 found that the population density of cats was as high as 2,000 per square kilometre (5,200/sq mi).[218] Impact on birds A black cat eating a house sparrow The domestic cat is a significant predator of birds. UK assessments indicate they may be accountable for an estimated 64.8 million bird deaths each year.[168] A 2012 study suggests feral cats may kill several billion birds each year in the United States.[220] Certain species appear more susceptible than others; for example, 30% of house sparrow mortality is linked to the domestic cat.[221] In the recovery of ringed robins (Erithacus rubecula) and dunnocks (Prunella modularis), 31% of deaths were a result of cat predation.[222] In parts of North America, the presence of larger carnivores such as coyotes which prey on cats and other small predators reduces the effect of predation by cats and other small predators such as opossums and raccoons on bird numbers and variety.[223] The proposal that cat populations will increase when the numbers of these top predators decline is called the mesopredator release hypothesis. On islands, birds can contribute as much as 60% of a cat's diet.[224] In nearly all cases, however, the cat cannot be identified as the sole cause for reducing the numbers of island birds, and in some instances, eradication of cats has caused a 'mesopredator release' effect;[225] where the suppression of top carnivores creates an abundance of smaller predators that cause a severe decline in their shared prey. Domestic cats are, however, known to be a contributing factor to the decline of many species, a factor that has ultimately led, in some cases, to extinction. The South Island piopio, Chatham rail,[222] the New Zealand merganser,[226] and the common diving petrel[227] are a few from a long list, with the most extreme case being the flightless Lyall's wren, which was driven to extinction only a few years after its discovery.[228][229] Some of the same factors that have promoted adaptive radiation of island avifauna over evolutionary time appear to promote vulnerability to non-native species in modern time. The susceptibility of many island birds is undoubtedly due to evolution in the absence of mainland predators, competitors, diseases, and parasites, in addition to lower reproductive rates and extended incubation periods.[230] The loss of flight, or reduced flying ability is also characteristic of many island endemics.[231] These biological aspects have increased vulnerability to extinction in the presence of introduced species, such as the domestic cat.[232] Equally, behavioral traits exhibited by island species, such as "predatory naivety"[233] and ground-nesting,[230] have also contributed to their susceptibility. Interaction with humans Main article: Human interaction with cats Cats and people Cats are common pets throughout the world, and their worldwide population exceeds 500 million.[12] Although cat guardianship has commonly been associated with women,[234] a 2007 Gallup poll reported that men and women in the United States of America were equally likely to own a cat.[235] As well as being kept as pets, cats are also used in the international fur[236] and leather industries for making coats, hats, blankets and stuffed toys;[237] and shoes, gloves and musical instruments respectively[238] (about 24 cats are needed to make a cat fur coat).[239] This use has now been outlawed in the United States, Australia, and the European Union.[240] Cat pelts have been used for superstitious purposes as part of the practise of witchcraft,[241] and are still made into blankets in Switzerland as folk remedies believed to help rheumatism.[242] In the Western intellectual tradition, the idea of cats as everyday objects have served to illustrate problems of quantum mechanics in the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment. A few attempts to build a cat census have been made over the years, both through associations or national and international organizations (such as the Canadian Federation of Humane Societies's one[243]) and over the net,[244][245] but such a task does not seem simple to achieve. General estimates for the global population of domestic cats range widely from anywhere between 200 million to 600 million.[246][247][248][249][250][251] Cat bites and scratches Main article: Cat bite Cats may bite humans when provoked, during play or when aggressive. Complications from cat bites can develop.[252] A cat bite differs from the bites of other pets. This is because the teeth of a cat are sharp and pointed causing deep punctures. Skin usually closes rapidly over the bite and traps microorganisms that cause infection.[253][252] Infections transmitted from cats to humans Main article: Feline zoonosis Cats can be infected or infested with viruses, bacteria, fungus, protozoans, arthropods or worms that can transmit diseases to humans.[254] In some cases, the cat exhibits no symptoms of the disease,[255] However, the same disease can then become evident in a human. The likelihood that a person will become diseased depends on the age and immune status of the person. Humans who have cats living in their home or in close association are more likely to become infected, however, those who do not keep cats as pets might also acquire infections from cat feces and parasites exiting the cat's body.[254][256] Some of the infections of most concern include salmonella, cat scratch disease and toxoplasmosis.[255] History and mythology Main articles: Cultural depictions of cats and Cats in ancient Egypt A 19th century drawing of a tabby cat Traditionally, historians tended to think ancient Egypt was the site of cat domestication, owing to the clear depictions of house cats in Egyptian paintings about 3,600 years old.[28] However, in 2004, a Neolithic grave excavated in Shillourokambos, Cyprus, contained the skeletons, laid close to one another, of both a human and a cat. The grave is estimated to be 9,500 years old, pushing back the earliest known feline-human association significantly.[15][257][258] The cat specimen is large and closely resembles the African wildcat, rather than present-day domestic cats. This discovery, combined with genetic studies, suggests cats were probably domesticated in the Middle East, in the Fertile Crescent around the time of the development of agriculture, and then were brought to Cyprus and Egypt.[14][19] Direct evidence for the domestication of cats 5,300 years ago in Quanhucun, China has been published by archaeologists and paleontologists from the University of Washington and Chinese Academy of Sciences. The cats are believed to have been attracted to the village by rodents, which in turn were attracted by grain cultivated and stored by humans.[259] In ancient Egypt, cats were sacred animals, with the goddess Bastet often depicted in cat form, sometimes taking on the war-like aspect of a lioness.[260]:220 The Romans are often credited with introducing the domestic cat from Egypt to Europe;[260]:223 in Roman Aquitaine, a first- or second-century engraving of a young girl holding a cat is one of two earliest depictions of the Roman domesticated cat.[261] However, cats possibly were already kept in Europe prior to the Roman Empire, as they may have been present in Britain in the late Iron Age.[43] Domestic cats were spread throughout much of the rest of the world during the Age of Discovery, as ship's cats were carried on sailing ships to control shipboard rodents and as good-luck charms.[260]:223 Several ancient religions believed cats are exalted souls, companions or guides for humans, that are all-knowing but mute so they cannot influence decisions made by humans. In Japan, the maneki neko cat is a symbol of good fortune.[262] Although no species are sacred in Islam, cats are revered by Muslims. Some Western writers have stated Muhammad had a favorite cat, Muezza.[263] He is reported to have loved cats so much, "he would do without his cloak rather than disturb one that was sleeping on it".[264] The story has no origin in early Muslim writers, and seems to confuse a story of a later Sufi saint, Ahmed ar-Rifa'i, centuries after Muhammad.[265] Freyja, the goddess of love, beauty, and fertility in Norse mythology, is depicted as riding a chariot drawn by cats.[266] Superstitions and cat burning Many cultures have negative superstitions about cats. An example would be the belief that a black cat "crossing one's path" leads to bad luck, or that cats are witches' familiars used to augment a witch's powers and skills. The killing of cats in Medieval Ypres, Belgium, is commemorated in the innocuous present-day Kattenstoet (cat parade).[267] In medieval France, cats would be burnt alive as a form of entertainment. According to Norman Davies, the assembled people "shrieked with laughter as the animals, howling with pain, were singed, roasted, and finally carbonized".[268] "It was the custom to burn a basket, barrel, or sack full of live cats, which was hung from a tall mast in the midst of the bonfire; sometimes a fox was burned. The people collected the embers and ashes of the fire and took them home, believing that they brought good luck. The French kings often witnessed these spectacles and even lit the bonfire with their own hands. In 1648 Louis XIV, crowned with a wreath of roses and carrying a bunch of roses in his hand, kindled the fire, danced at it and partook of the banquet afterwards in the town hall. But this was the last occasion when a monarch presided at the midsummer bonfire in Paris. At Metz midsummer fires were lighted with great pomp on the esplanade, and a dozen cats, enclosed in wicker cages, were burned alive in them, to the amusement of the people. Similarly at Gap, in the department of the Hautes-Alpes, cats used to be roasted over the midsummer bonfire."[269] According to a myth in many cultures, cats have multiple lives. In many countries, they are believed to have nine lives, but in Italy, Germany, Greece, Brazil and some Spanish-speaking regions, they are said to have seven lives,[270][271] while in Turkish and Arabic traditions, the number of lives is six.[272] The myth is attributed to the natural suppleness and swiftness cats exhibit to escape life-threatening situations. Also lending credence to this myth is the fact that falling cats often land on their feet, using an instinctive righting reflex to twist their bodies around. Nonetheless, cats can still be injured or killed by a high fall.[273] See also Book icon Book: Cat icon Cats portal icon Mammals portal Animal testing on cats Animal track Cat burning Cancer in cats Cat and mouse (cat-and-mouse game) Cat lady Cats and the Internet Cat years List of cat breeds List of cats List of cat documentaries List of fictional cats and felines Pet door including cat flap Pet first aid Popular cat names Trap-neuter-return Cats by location Cats in ancient Egypt Cats in Australia Cats in New Zealand Cats in the United States References ^ Jump up to: a b c d e f Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). "Species Felis catus". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 534-535. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494. ^ Jump up to: a b Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema naturae (in Latin). 1 (10th ed.). Stockholm: Lars Salvius. p. 42. Retrieved 4 September 2017. 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