Women and Religion Final Exam

Ethno-religious group

an ethnic group whose members are also unified by a common religious background and often define identity by a combination of both ancestral heritage and religious affiliation

What is the Wiccan rede?

code of morality in the Wiccan tradition, but isn't practiced by all adherents

Hadiths

collections of the sayings of Muhammad -are regarded as the Sunnah (lived example) of Muhammad -the writings do not have the same status as the Holy Qur'an which is considered to be God's word; however the Hadith are important teachings and resources for messages from Muhammad

Gospels

each Gospel describes Jesus' life and the events leading up to & including his death & resurrection; concludes with events after death where followers share stories of seeing Jesus alive again; gospels written anonymously, but attributed to an apostle; written for different audiences; the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke have a number of similarities and include similar stories told in a similar order; also called the synoptic Gospels (synoptic is a Greek word roughly translated as "seen together")

House Churches

early Christian communities met in people's houses because Christianity was not legal in Rome at the time & didn't have churches; these homes were place where women played key roles & often women owned the houses where they met; women took on leadership roles in house churches

Endogamy

marriage within a specific tribe or similar social unit and interfaith marriages or intercourse is discouraged as a way to preserve the stability and longevity of the community and culture

Nerot

means "lights"; privilege of lighting candles to mark beginning of Shabbat or a holiday; lighting marks beginning of sacred time for the home; once candles are lit, any restrictions or observances of the holiday are in effect

Challah

privilege of separating portion of dough from bread before baking; from Num. 15:20, one is commanded to set aside a portion of dough for kohein (rabbi); this is only fully in effect in Israel; however, rabbis felt important to be reminded of mitzvah by separating dough before baking it

Burqa

referred to as the "veil"; worn by many Afghan women

Non-trinitarians

refers to beliefs systems that reject the doctrine of the Trinity; they form a small minority of Christians; non-trinitarian positions include binitarianism, unitarianism, the Oneness belief held by certain Pentecostal groups, Modalism, and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints

Gnostic

relating to knowledge, especially esoteric mystical knowledge; in early Christianity, there were several factions in church; Gnostics blended Egyptian, Greek, Jewish and Persian ideas; they recognized Jesus as a divinity who descended to earth with wisdom that would save those who followed his teachings; were called heretics (counter to the teachings of the Church) and their egalitarian ideals were not incorporated into the Church

Niddah

-In Judaism, the rules regarding menstruation. -the Jewish practice of sexual separation during a woman's menstrual period

Helena Petrovna Blavatsky

-Founding member of Theosophy, claimed to be in contact with "Hidden Masters" -born Russian aristocrat in 1831, spoke to spirits & described past lives; by early 1870s, HPB was involved in Spiritualist movement; defended the existence of Spiritualist phenomena, but argued against Spiritualist idea that entities contacted were the spirits of the dead; rose to attention as a spirit medium; Madame Blavatsky made a name for herself as a travelogue and medium

A'ishah

-A wife of Muhammad who is the source of many hadith and led troops in battle -renowned hadith scholar & military leader; early Islamic history, women including Aisha, Ume Warqa active in politics; Aisha, Muhammad's wife, had political clout & even participated in battle (the Battle of Camel).

Hagar

-Abraham's concubine who conceives and bears Ishmael -shows the voice of African women in Old Testament; urges a re-examination of slave & surrogate mother, Hagar, concubine of Abraham; in Eurocentric theology, she is a solution to childlessness of Sara & Abraham, but is seen by black women as heroine, an exiled woman suffering many of their own fates; the relationship between Hagar and God is central to womanist theme of being "called"; just as God called on Hagar, he calls on other women

Asherah

-Canaanite mother-fertility goddess. Regarded as consort of Baal. Also could refer to her cult object which was usually a sacred pole or even a tree. Though technically not the same, often used interchangeably with Ashtoreth. -God's wife in Judaism

Shekhinah

-God's presence in the world, in Judaism -the feminine presence of God

What does Grant say the role of Jesus is in the Womanist tradition and why do Black women relate to him? She describes a threefold significance of Jesus and what he represents to womanists - what are the three points?

-Jesus is the savior, even more so for those who are oppressed in society 1. he identifies with the little people 2. he affirms the basic humanity of these 3. he inspires active hope in the struggle for a resurrected, liberated existence

Mitzvoh

-Jewish commandments; given to the Jewish people; is regarded as a privilege; the more mitzvot one is obliged to observe, the more privileged one is; since women are not obligated to observe as much mitzvot as men are, they are regarded as less privileged

Mikvah

-Jewish ritual bath -a ritual bath that Jewish women do after the end of their menstrual period

Theodora Episcopa/ Theodor Episcopus

-Mosaic from early church in 1st C Rome depicts a woman with the inscription "Theodora Episcopa" Someone had altered the inscription to read "Theodo Episcopus," a male name. The female name also found on columns outside the chapel, confirming that was the original inscription

Rabbinic Ordination

-Most Orthodox Jews reject the idea of ordaining women as rabbis, which contradicts Jewish law. Reform Judaism had the first woman rabbi in 1972; Conservative Judaism had the first woman rabbi in 1985. Women were granted ordination on an equal basis as men.

sabbat

-One of eight seasonal turning points marked by Wiccans and Druids -seasonally based festivals in Wicca, of which there are usually eight annually; the Sabbats are eight solar festivals of the year

Pantheistic

-Seeing the power of God in all the natural forces of the universe; Worshiping all gods of all creeds and cults -a doctrine that identifies God with the universe, or regards the universe as a manifestation of God or rare worship that admits or tolerates all gods

In her essay Ryiah Lilith combines what religious traditions? Why was Rosh Chodesh important to her?

-She combines Judaism and Paganism/witchcraft or wicca

Trinitarianism

-The biblical teaching that there is one God who exists as three persons: Father, Son, and Holy Spirit -belief in the Holy Trinity, which consists of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit, as three separate persons, all eternal, all omnipresent and omnipotent who form a single, unified deity

exegesis

-The process used by scholars to discover the meaning of the biblical text -interpretation of holy texts

Syncretism

-a blending of beliefs and practices from different religions into one faith -combining of different beliefs, while blending practices of various schools of thought

Neopagan

-a modern religious movement that seeks to incorporate beliefs or ritual practices from traditions outside the main world religions, especially those of pre-Christian Europe and North America; often polytheist, animistic or pantheist in nature -a collective term for new religious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe, North Africa and the Near East

Liberation Theology

-a movement within the Catholic church to understand Christianity from the perspective of the poor and oppressed, with a focus on fighting injustice -a movement in Christian theology that sees teachings of Jesus in terms of liberation from unjust political, economic, social conditions

Jihad (struggle)

-an inner spiritual struggle, or an outer physical struggle against enemies of Islam -sixth pillar

Astarte

-ancient Phoenician great goddess of fertility and motherhood

Kashrut

-laws pertaining to permissible (kosher) and forbidden foods and their preparation -Jewish dietary laws; has significant meaning for Jewish people in their history

Epistles

-letters found in the New Testament to the early Christian communities about God's Revelation in Jesus Christ -the New Testament contains twenty-one epistles, or letters, which were examples of communications between individuals & groups in the Christian communities of the first century

Queen of Heaven

-name for the Virgin Mary

Kate and Margaret Fox

-reported that they made contact with the spirit of a murdered peddler. They communicated through rapping noises, audible to onlookers. They became a sensation. -Spiritualists mark March 31, 1848, as beginning of movement when Kate & Margaret Fox from New York reported that they made contact with the spirit of a murdered peddler. They played an important role in the creation of spiritualism.

Rosh Chodesh

-the name for the first day of every month in the Hebrew calendar, marked by the birth of a new moon

What does Grant mean when she states Black women must do theology out of their "tri-dimensional" experience?

-they feel oppression in three ways: racism, sexism, and classism, they must use this to show the difference between them and white women/black men

Duotheistic

-worship of both a God and Goddess -means belief in the existence of two deities; Wicca is typically a duotheistic religion, worshipping a Goddess and a God, who are traditionally viewed as the Triple Goddess and Horned God

What are the three pillars Womanist Theology?

1. Authentic womanist voice: Through engaged discourse within & outside the Black Church, African American women create & maintain spaces for authentic womanist voice. 2. Gendered cultural knowledge: Womanist theology understands that being racialized and gendered in a particular context shapes Black women's religious expression, education, healthy femininity, wealth and self identity. 3. Ethical discourse for salvation: Womanists use gendered cultural knowledge to explore issues of morality and the ethical discourse of salvation.

What are the three feminist critiques of women's place in Religion & how do they differ?

1. Reformist critique is made from within a religious tradition. Reformist feminist scholars argue scriptures, traditions & histories have something valuable to say but don't seek to change them but to have their fullest message heard and be inclusive. 2. Like the Reform Feminist, the Reconstructionists stay within their religion, but search for women's experiences within it. Although biblical texts were created in patriarchal cultures, they remain sacred & inform religious commitment of contemporary women. 3. Radical feminists believe traditional religions focus on stressing the power, infinity, and knowledge of God & this separates God from humans because they have so little in common. Also argue they encourage dualistic thinking; separation of groups (God/human, soul/body, intellect/emotions, spirit/matter, man/woman).

What is meant by the 4 methodological intents of Womanist Theology?

1. a multi-dialogical intent: means to participate in dialogue and action with many diverse social, political, & religious communities concerned with human survival and productive quality of life for the oppressed 2. a liturgical intent: focused on making womanist theology relevant to the thought, worship, and action of the black church 3. a didactic intent: focuses on the teaching aspect of theology 4. a commitment to validity of female imagery and metaphorical language

What are the three challenges for "womanist Christology" according to Grant?

1. language and symbolism of the church 2. what does Christ mean in a society where class distinctions are ever increasing 3. constructive Christology

What are the three "pervasive and powerful ideas of Jewish and Christian cultures" (117) that Margaret Miles believes contribute to misogyny and violence against women? How do they contribute to violence against women?

1. patriarchal order is the right ordering of society, reflecting cosmic order: patriarchy has been constant throughout most of history 2. identification in Western Christian cultures, of woman with body and nature, and body with sin: women have been reduced in male eyes to body, visibility, and temptation 3. suffering is the path to transcendence and salvation: glorifies suffering, especially women's

What 3 ways does Pui-lan think Christian theology needs to change to address the needs of 3rd World Christians?

1. shift our attention from the Bible and tradition to people's stories 2. move from a passive reception of tradition to an active construction of our own theology 3. move away from a unified theological discourse to a plurality of voices and a genuine catholicity

5 Pillars

A Muslim's duties as described in the Five Pillars of Islam: 1. To recite at least once during their lifetime the shahadah, which is the creed: "There is no God but God and Muhammad is his Prophet". Most Muslims repeat it at least daily. 2. To perform the salah-prayer 5 times a day, if possible. This is recited while orienting one's body towards Mecca. This is generally north east in the U.S. 3. To donate regularly to charity through zakat. A 2.5% charity tax on the income and property of middle and upper class Muslims. Believers urged to make additional donations to needy as they feel moved 4. To fast during the lunar month of Ramadan. Believed to be the month that Muhammad received the first revelation of the Qur'an from God. 5. If economically and physically able, to make at least one hajj-pilgrimage to Mecca.

Lilith

Adam's first wife; was created equal and demanded to be treated equal; she was denied this so she fled, joined demons, & gave birth to demons

What was the Jesus Movement and what was its impact on women? How did changes in the early church history result in closing women out of leadership roles?

After the crucifixion of Jesus, his followers continued to preach his teachings in the Jesus Movement, in the early years before it was called Christianity. Women appeared frequently, though often unnamed, in the gospel in company of Jesus. The gospels represent Jesus as engaging with the outcasts of society, such as the sinners and women. Some gospels are more likely to portray Jesus in this way. The Gospel of Luke has Jesus in the company of women frequently. The New Testament acknowledges women were among Jesus' earliest followers.

What role did A'ishah play in early Islam?

Aisha was one of Muhammad's wives and was a renowned hadith scholar & military leader. Early Islamic history, women including Aisha, Ume Warqa active in politics. Female relatives of Muhammad important in early Muslim community because they knew his practice & teachings. Aisha, Muhammad's wife, had political clout & even participated in battle (the Battle of Camel).

What is meant by ethno-religious group and why is it significant in Judaism?

An ethno-religious group is an ethnic group whose members are also unified by a common religious background and often define identity by a combination of both ancestral heritage and religious affiliation. This is important because Jews are endogamous. In fact, one of the requirements to be considered a Jew is to have been born from a Jewish mother. Similarly, Jews are strongly encouraged to marry and procreate with other Jews.

What are the roots of the Wicca tradition?

Began in England in early 20th C, popularized in 1950s by Gerald Gardner, retired British civil servant, called it the "witch cult" & "witchcraft" and its followers "the Wica". From 1960s name was normalized to "Wicca".

Why is "God language" important?

Challenging God language is an important issue because even though any symbol of God is considered idolatrous, images do exist and God is often referred to as male/father/king. J. Plaskow argues that language is important as male images of God describe a divine nature & support a social system of male authority. The image of God shows God's power and dominance as a warrior and a king and denies human authority.

How does ecofeminism challenge the way Christianity and western culture have understood the environment? How does she see saving the planet to be a theological process?

Christianity has sacralized relationships of domination between men and women and humans to the earth. In order to heal this relation, a new symbolic culture and spirituality must be created.

Why is Critical engagement important?

Critical engagement is a field in religious studies & extending to politics of theological thought in US and globally. Womanism plays a role with other feminist, liberationist, and anti-racist scholarly movements and social institutions. Activists in field insist womanism is a resource for engaging in a variety of disciplines & contexts on the interaction of religion and society. Womanism is a movement with multiple voices, cultures, and experiences

What challenges to the language and symbolism about God do feminists raise?

Every variety of ancient Christianity that advocated the legitimacy of women's leadership was eventually declared heretical, and evidence of women's leadership roles was erased or suppressed. Collections of prophetic oracles were destroyed. Texts were changed. One instance, woman's role obscured by turning her into a man. In Romans 16:7, apostle Paul sends greetings to a woman named Junia. Says of her & her male partner Andronicus that they are "my kin and my fellow prisoners, prominent among the apostles and they in Christ before me." Assuming that women could not be apostles, text editors and translators changed Junia into Junias, a man.

Who was Fatima and what do these women represent for women today?

Fatima was Muhammad's daughter and was an important role models of religious piety for women in Islam.

What strategies do feminists use to uncover the lives of women?

Feminists utilize: - midrash (process of interpreting the bible): important because it helps reconstruct that which has been left out and recovering women's experiences in text that have been suppressed - challenging the language of God: even though God symbolism is idolatrous, images exist and God is often referred to as male/father/king - feminist liturgy: feminists have invented new celebrations, redefined older practices, and written liturgies that avoid male language in some traditions

Who is Gaia and why is she important to Radford?

Gaia is a goddess and represents earth. She's important in the sense that Gaia veneration calls for a new symbolic culture and spirituality and respect towards the earth.

What is hijab and how does this impact woman?

Hijab is an Arabic word meaning barrier or partition. Hijab is Quranic requirement that Muslims, both male & female, dress & behave modestly. The Quran directs both men and women to dress modestly, but interpretation and implementation of this varies enormously. Most visible form of hijab is head covering that many Muslim women wear. In one school of Islamic thought, hijab refers to complete covering of everything except hands, face and feet in long, loose and non see-through garments. Veil often seen in West as symbol of Muslim women's subordinate position, but meaning & use vary enormously. Historically, veil was related to social class, not religion. Head coverings vary, range from loose scarves to veils to full-length coverings, such as the burqa worn by many Afghan women. Covering face was more common in past, more in some regions than others. In modern period, strict laws about women's dress emphasize religious orientation of government, as in Iran or Saudi Arabia.

What are the two main streams of thought about gender in Islam?

In Islam, relations between sexes are governed by principle of complementarity, which defines different rights & obligations for men & women. A woman's primary role is wife and mother, whereas a man's role is to financially support his family. -Conservatives reject argument that different laws for men and women imply that men are more valuable than women. Instead argue both genders must have a different role in society and the only criterion of value before God is piety. -Liberal Muslims urge that ijtihad, a form of critical thinking, be used to develop a progressive Islam with respect to the status of women.

Mihu Yehudi ("who is a jew")

In Jewish Law, anyone born of Jewish mother or converted in accord with Jewish Law is a Jew. Traditional Judaism maintains that a Jew is a Jew forever. Reform movement holds a Jew who converts to another religion is no longer a Jew & the Israeli Government agrees. The question of Jewish identity in State of Israel was raised in the 1950s. David Ben-Gurion sought advice on Mihu Yehudi ("who is a Jew") to settle citizenship questions. This issue is still not settled and occasionally resurfaces in Israeli politics.

Sharia

Islamic law; outlines differences in women's & men's roles, rights, & obligations -majority Muslim countries give women varying degrees of rights with regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, & education based on different interpretations

Mary Magdalene

Jesus' disciple and the first witness to Jesus' resurrection; she accompanied Jesus & supported him with her own resources

What is the basic characteristic of Muslim law?

Jesus, Moses & Abraham respected as prophets of God. Believe the final Prophet was Muhammad.

What are the three major Jewish religious movements and how have the impacted women within them?

Largest religious movements are Orthodox, Conservative & Reform Judaism. The major differences between them are their approach to Jewish law. - Orthodox and Conservative hold that Jewish law should be followed. Conservative uses a more "modern" interpretation than Orthodox. - Reform is more liberal; it holds that Jewish law should be viewed as a set of general guidelines rather than restrictions requiring literal observance by all Jews. Orthodox and Conservative tend to have more patriarchal views on women and gender roles, whereas Reform is more liberal.

Who was Lilith and what roles does she play for Jewish women- how has she been revisioned?

Lilith appears in Talmud & rabbinical folklore. A figure of evil, she is said to be a female demon who seduces men and threatens babies & women in childbirth. In recent years, women have reinvented Lilith as a role model for women who do not accept male domination or a rival goddess to patriarchal traditions.

Who was Lilith?

Lilith appears in Talmud & rabbinical folklore. A figure of evil, she is said to be a female demon who seduces men, threatens babies & women in childbirth. In recent years, women have reinvented Lilith as a role model for women who do not accept male domination or a rival goddess to patriarchal traditions.

How does Wicca differ from witchcraft?

Many Wiccans believe in magic, a force they can manipulate through practice of witchcraft or sorcery. Wicca is a neopagan tradition whereas witchcraft is ritual practice.

Who was Mary -Magdalene and how has her life story been changed over the centuries?

Mary Magdalene was Jesus' disciple and the first witness to his resurrection. Mary Magdalene is infamous in Christianity as an adulteress & repentant. Apparently of independent means, she accompanied Jesus during his ministry and supported him out of her own resources. In Christian literature by the fourth and fifth century, Mary Magdalene is thought of as a repentant prostitute, a sinner who repents. In the late 6th century, Mary Magdalene's image changes. Pope Gregory I combines New Testament stories of unnamed women washing or anointing Jesus' feet & spoke of Mary Magdalene as a repentant prostitute.

How do women practice Islam different from men?

Men and women are expected to do the same rituals. There is another ritual (the veil) that distinguishes men from women. Although both men and women are encouraged to dress conservatively, there's a bigger focus for women to wear hijabs than men.

Khadija

Muhammad's wife; a wealthy widow who ran a prosperous caravan business

What is niddah and what message does this have for women?

Niddah is the practice of sexual separation during a woman's menstrual period & ritual immersion afterwards; afterwards, women have to undergo mikvah, a ritual bath that women do after the end of their menstrual period.

"Women-Church Convergence"

Oct 1987, over 3,000 women join "Women-Church Convergence" with theme, "Claiming Our Power"

Judaism has developed several different traditions. How did the Reform, Orthodox, and Conservative traditions develop and how are they different?

Orthodox - men & women are required to sit in separate sections with a mechitza (partition) separating them Conservative - permits mixed seating Reform - have mixed seating. Orthodox Judaism have a prohibition on women leading public congregational prayers. Conservative Judaism justify that women should not lead prayers, arguing that only obligated individuals can lead prayers & women are not obligated. However, some Conservative women have voluntarily undertaken the obligation. Reform congregations permit women to perform all prayer roles because they do not regard Jewish Law as binding.

What does the Qur'an teach about women and what is the Sharia? How has it impacted women?

Quran explicitly states men and women are equal in the eyes of God. As the Islamic religion expanded, interpretations of gender roles in the Quran varied with different cultures. Sharia (Islamic law) outlines differences in women's & men's roles, rights, & obligations. Majority Muslim countries give women varying degrees of rights with regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, & education based on different interpretations.

How has feminist theology developed within Christianity and what are some of the questions that feminists ask?

Reoccurring themes appear in theological views of early Christian women. Jesus seen as teacher & mediator of wisdom rather than ruler & judge. Reflections center on experience of risen Christ more than crucified savior. Direct access to God is possible for all through receiving the Spirit. Spiritually advanced give freely to all without claim to hierarchical order of power. Freedom & spiritual development emphasized over order & control. Woman's identity & spirituality could be developed apart from her roles as wife and mother (or slave), whether she withdrew from those roles or not. Overcoming social injustice & human suffering integral to spiritual life.

What is Shariah and why is it important? How have these laws changed and what problems have they created for women?

Sharia (Islamic law) outlines differences in women's & men's roles, rights, & obligations. Majority Muslim countries give women varying degrees of rights with regards to marriage, divorce, civil rights, legal status, dress code, & education based on different interpretations.

What is langar and why is it important?

Sharing with others is a social responsibility. The individual is expected to help others in need through charity. The free community food service found at every Sikh temple, is open to people of all religions and is an expression of the community service. Langar (Free food) started by first Guru & strengthened by the later Gurus. Rules of Langar require that all should sit in the same row & eat the same food without any distinction between high or low, rich or poor, & prince or the peasant.

What did Guru Nanak teach about women and his understanding of God and how did it translate into practices and attitudes about women within Sikhism?

Sikh religion founded by Guru Nanak. Nanak (1469-1538) born in village in present-day Pakistan. Fascinated by religion & took many missionary journeys. In teens, Nanak caught attention of landlord Rai Bular Bhatti for his intellect & divine qualities. Began to spread teachings. Is said to have made four major journeys, covering thousands of miles. The Sikhs believe that the spirit of Nanak was passed from one guru to the next.

Early Hebrew peoples worshiped three ancient goddesses. Who were they and what happened to them?

The Hebrew Goddess supports the theory through the interpretation of archaeological and textual sources as evidence for veneration of feminine beings. The three goddesses were Asherath, Astarte, and the Queen of Heaven (Shekhinah). Over time, worship of these gods became increasingly condemned.

What specific issues was the Oprah video about?

The Oprah video was about mikvah, a Jewish practice in which women immerse themselves in a ritual bath after their menstrual cycle ends. Mikvah is meant to purify women after niddah, another Jewish practice in which women separate themselves from their husbands during their menstrual cycle.

What is the rule of three and what does it mean?

The Rule of Three (also Three-fold Law or Law of Return) is a religious tenet held by some Wiccans/Pagans and occultists. It states that whatever energy a person puts out into the world, be it positive or negative, will be returned to that person three times. Some subscribe to a variant of this law in which return is not necessarily threefold.

What does the text say about the interaction between Jesus and women? What roles did women play in the early Christian community?

The gospels represent Jesus as engaging with the outcasts of society, the sinners and women. Some gospels more likely to portray Jesus in this way. The Gospel of Luke has Jesus in the company of women frequently. New Testament acknowledges women were among Jesus' earliest followers.

Who were the Khalsa and what did they pledge to do?

Under 10th Guru, Gobind Singh they developed an extended fighting force, the Khalsa, in 1699 to defend their independence. The Khalsa is a disciplined community that combines its religious purpose and goals with political and military duties. Shortly before his death, Gobind Singh ordered that Gurū Granth Sāhib (Sikh Holy Scripture), would be the ultimate spiritual authority for Sikhs & temporal authority would be vested in the Khalsa Panth—Sikh Nation/Community. Also decreed that Gurū Granth Sāhibwould be the final and perpetual guru of the Sikhs.

How have conservatives and liberals interpreted women's status in Islamic societies?

Veil often seen in West as symbol of Muslim women's subordinate position, but meaning & use vary enormously. Historically, veil was related to social class, not religion. Head coverings vary, range from loose scarves to veils to full-length coverings, such as the burqa worn by many Afghan women. Covering face was more common in past, more in some regions than others. In modern period, strict laws about women's dress emphasize religious orientation of government, as in Iran or Saudi Ara

Alice Walker

Walker argued womanist leads to new demands & different views and will expand feminist theory and practice. Walker linked womanism to spirituality. However, often oppose its connection to Alice Walker. Arguing she has been quite negative in writings, esp. about black males. They also point out that womanist theology contradicts scripture by openly endorsing behaviors, particularly sexual behaviors, that Bible explicitly forbids.

What are some of the official and unofficial roles of women in Christianity? What role did religious orders play for women? What impact did the Protestant Reformation have on women in religious orders?

While women haven't had opportunities equal to men in some roles, they have been encouraged to take the lead at grass roots levels. Central tenet of Christianity is to spread word of God through conversion of non-believers commonly referred to as heathens or pagans. Role of missionary became a career path for single women in the same way that becoming a nun was a path toward empowerment for Catholic women. Evangelical opportunities allowed women opportunities to influence politics. Christian evangelists were vital components of the Second Great Awakening in American history & the temperance and suffrage movements in the late 19th century. Some argue women are more Christ-like (nuns & health care debate).

What is Wicca -? Why is this practice important to women today?

Wicca is a Neopagan religion & form of modern witchcraft; often referred to as Witchcraft or the Craft by followers, known as Wiccans or Witches. Began in England in early 20th C, popularized in 1950s by Gerald Gardner, retired British civil servant, called it the "witch cult" & "witchcraft" and its followers "the Wica". It is important to women because of its worship of a female deity and its affirmation of the feminine.

What purpose do rituals serve in the Wicca tradition?

Wiccans cast spells during ritual practices, often held inside a sacred circle, in an attempt to bring about changes in the physical world.

What are some of the specific gendered practices within Judaism?

Women are not required to perform certain mitzvot, so their practice of those mitzvot does not "count" for group purposes. Since women are not obligated to perform as many mitzvot as men are, women are regarded as less privileged than men. Men and women are also separated during prayer, usually by a wall or curtain (a mechitza) or women are placed on a 2nd floor balcony. Women are also not obligated by law to attend services and cannot participate in parts of the services so they have less motivation to attend. Women also are expected to perform niddah, which is the obligation to separate themselves from their husbands during their menstrual periods & immerse themselves in mikvah (ritual bath) after the end of their menstrual period.

Why was it important that women served as companions and witnesses of Mohammed and helped transmit the hadiths? What are the hadith and how has women's role with the hadith changed since early Islam?

Women could study, earn ijazahs (academic degrees) & qualify as scholars and teachers. Was not common for women to be students in formal classes, but could attend informal lectures & study sessions at mosques & other public places. No legal restrictions but some men did not approve, including teachers who felt women would disrupt the sessions. In Islam's early history, female religious scholars were relatively common. In Islam, there is no difference between men & women's relationship to God; they receive identical rewards & punishments for their conduct. Hadith attributed to Muhammad stated women are allowed to go to mosques. However, as Islam spread, it became unusual for women to worship in mosques because of fears of unchastity with interaction between sexes.

What have been the places where women have been able to engage in Christianity as full participants?

Women were able to be full participants in early Christianity when they were often led house churches. They are also participative in the grassroots levels as missionaries and sometimes priests.

What are Women's Spiritual Circles and why are they important to women?

Women's spirituality groups provide a haven where female values can be discussed and embraced. From Jewish to Christian, Mormon, & pagan, sacred circles are safe spaces that foster the development of women's individual gifts. They celebrate diversity of women's spiritual lives and offer women a variety of opportunities to create community with like minded women, bring ritual into everyday life, deepen their own spiritual practice, attain clarity through self-reflection, explore ancient teachings, honor their life experiences, and access their own intuition.

Wicca

a Neopagan religion & form of modern witchcraft; often referred to as Witchcraft or the Craft by followers, known as Wiccans or Witches. Began in England in early 20th C, popularized in 1950s by Gerald Gardner, retired British civil servant, called it the "witch cult" & "witchcraft" and its followers "the Wica"

Shariah

a law code drawn up by Muslim scholars after Muhammad's death; it provided believers with a set of practical laws to regulate their daily lives

Feminist Theology

a movement in religion to reconsider the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of many religions from a feminist perspective

Minyan

a prayer with a quorum of ten adults is called a minyan and is both a "prayer with the community" and the recommended form of prayer; originally, only men were counted in a minyan because one does not count someone who is not obligated to participate; women exempted from time related mitzvot (commandments) because women dealt with an endless cycle of pregnancy, birthing and nursing from a very early age

Hijab

an Arabic word meaning barrier or partition -hijab is Quranic requirement that Muslims, both male & female, dress & behave modestly -the Quran directs both men and women to dress modestly, but interpretation and implementation of this varies enormously -most visible form of hijab is head covering that many Muslim women wear; in one school of Islamic thought, hijab refers to complete covering of everything except hands, face and feet in long, loose and non see-through garments

laṅgar

free food served at gurdwara

Apostles

the Gospels were written by certain apostles; the church was founded by the twelve apostles, but not right after Jesus' ascension; the apostles were Jesus' followers

Your text describes several pivotal events in the history of Judaism. What are some of these key events and what role did women play in them? What factors led to changes in women's status?

the Jewish religious movements of reform, orthodox and conservative were pivotal events in the history of Judaism. Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance: Small group modern orthodox looking at role of women in prayers, due to activism of Jewish Orthodox Feminist alliance

Mishnah

the first major written collection of the Jewish oral traditions known as the "Oral Torah"; it is also the first major work of rabbinic literature.

Women-church

the need to bond together to explore patriarchal sexism led some women to form own church called Womenchurch; envisioned & modeled a church liberated from patriarchal control; for first time, women shared disappointment & dissent in church and collectively claimed themselves to be a church; shared experiences of spirituality, sexuality and survival in the church & society; now a national network of feminist communities & coalition of feminist organizations supporting each other living out their own faith experience