Women's Bodies, Women's Health

"Petty Power" vs. "Real Power"

- "petty power": psychological sense of worth women get when they obtain the ideal body type - focus on achieving "petty power" diverts women's attention from making efforts to achieve "real power" - obsession with body diverts women's attention away from real sources of employment

Struggle with 'internal' control

- advertising encourages women to adopt a critical attitude towards their body, their self, and their lifestyle, which promotes insecurity - how? - the media or advertising also creates the illusion that women have free will. What is meant by this? *its up to us what we want to eat, how much we want to exercise, and what creams to use * as long as we go along with advertising we are controllable and we are profitable

DNA (desoxyribonucleic acid)

- 2 strands of nucleotides and 2 bases - 4 different bases exist - 2 of each type - 1 specific purine + 1 specific pyrimidine form a pair - sequence of base pairs = genetic doe (like letters + sentence) - structure discovered by Rosalind Franklin, Maurice Wilkins, James Watson and Francis Crick; all but Rosalind recieved the nobel prize in medicine *how males dealt with women *never rewarding them for their work *marie currie rewarded 2 nobel prizes as the first female nobel prize winner - DNA is twisted ladder composed of "side pieces of ladder" = 2 strands of nucleotides = sugar and phosphates; "rung of ladder" = 2 CONNECTED bases; 2 base types: each is made out of one purine (like urine with a p) and one pyrimidine (like pirate and end like dean with an M) (thymine and cytosine) genetic codes like letters form words - each base pair forms a letter and each sequence forms a word that forms a sentence that makes sense for the body to know what to do

Chromosomes and Genomes

- a human cell contains 23 pairs of 'matching' chromosomes: 22 of them are autosomes (homologous non-sex chromosomes) and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. - human females and males have: *22 pair of autosomes (homologues) = 44 chromosomes *+1 pair of sex chromsomes (homology varies) = 2 chromosomes *= 23 chromosomes pairs = 46 chromosomes - females (46, XX): sex chromosomes are homologous - male (46, XY): sec chromosomes are not strictly homologous - sex chromosomes of males share only a small region of homology (synapsis would occur in that region during meiosis)

What happened as women attempted to gain social, political and economic power?

- women were though to be weaker in every sense, physically and mentally - the patriarchy made sure to make women weaker by withholding knowledge

From Gene to Eye Colour

- after proteins are made as directed by the DNA, they work together according to their function and location - some protein *make muscle cells * ensure muscle cells contract and relax *help with thinking, seeing, etc *make a pigment called melanin - the amount of melanin in sombody's eye determines partially that person's eye colour (a lot of melanin making proteins results in darker/browner eyes; fewer melanin making proteins results in lighter coloured eyes)

Sex Reassignment Surgery (SRS)

- also called GRS (gender reassignment surgery) - surgical process of changing one's physical sex to align with one's gender identity - most often refers to genital restructuring but can also refer to mastectomy and a variety of cosmetic surgeries to enhance gender presentation - is an insured service under OHIP (since 2008) BUT 'patients' have to 'successfully' complete the Gender Identity Clinic Program through the Centre for Addiction and Mental Health (CAMH) to get approved

Allele: Alternate form of a gene

- an allele is defined as: *a slightly different form of the same gene *one member of a pair of genes occupying a specific spot on a chromosome (called locus) - therefore, alleles are responsible for the expression of one specific autosomal trait (ex. freckles, tongue rolling, there is no single gene for eye colour) - colloquially, the term gene is used when referring to an inherited trait that is usually accompanied by a phenotype as in "tall genes" = but the more proper (scientific) term for this is allele - because chromosomes exist in matching (homologous) pairs, alleles also exist in pairs

Gender Ideologies

- are a system of ideas that justify and legitimate the argument or belief that men and women are utterly different *based on dualism * speaks to us through: > over messages: emphasizing gender differences > silence: overlooking/ignoring similarities

OHIP Health Coverage for SRS

- because hormonal treatments give rise to breast enlargement, breast augmentation and or reconstruction in male to female conversion is not an insured/covered benefit (exception if breasts dont grow sufficiently with hormonal treatment) - in 2014, CAMH approved 177 surgeries (up from 59 in 2010) - CAMH (located in toronto) is currently the only approved "gatekeeper" for SRS, creating barriers to access - as of June 25, 2015: 970 people in the queue, and it can take up to 2 years for an initial appointment - out of pocket cost for SRS if not covered OHIP $20,000

Determination of Sex (1)

- biological and physiological indicators define a human as a "male" or a "female" *the assumption is there is only 2 binary sexes - commonly determined by (but not limited to): 1. chromosome (XX or XY) 2. external genitalia (penises or vulvas and clitorises) 3. internal genitalia (gonads = ovaries/testes) 4. hormones (estrogen/ testosterone)

Tight Lacing and Foot Binding: Consequences

- both prevents movement *reinforcing women's dependence and submissiveness - both were symbols of high status * women become a prized showpiece or evidence of their husbands wealth

Consequences of 'internal' control

- consequently, women purchase and use more goods and beauty products or alter their body surgically to enhance their self-esteem and femininity - in reality, the pervasiveness of certain beauty and body ideals make it a constrained choice (at best)

Women have experienced a shift from external body control to internal body control. What is meant by this?

- dieting and extreme exercise - eating disorders

Overt messages: gender marketing and gender policing

- explicitly drawing attention to gender by using gender markers (implying normative genders for certain activities, occupation, etc) *ex. a nurse who is a caring position is known as a female nurse - enforcing or policing gender to ensure no one steps outside of their appropriate (through teasing, ridiculing, bullying, violence, sarcasm, snide comments or social condemnation) *hate crimes happening towards transgender

Transphobia

- fear, discrimination or hatred of trans people because they are transgender - transphobia is commonly expressed as: *discrimination against transgender people * physical threats or harrassment * physical, emotion, or psychological violence against trans people

How was science defined?

- women werent able to think about science because they had to focus their energy on their family - science was seen as a male area that only men could do - science was defined as something as very masculine, no feelings, no emotions, just objectivity

Fighting Trans-phobia

- fighting for "equal rights" based on human rights - focusing on anti-discrimination and hate crime law - could these legal initiatives defeat their purpose? * a human rights-based approach can actually exacerbate inequality *focus on hate crimes individualizes the cases of violence and discrimination against trans people, while failing to acknowledge or address systemic and state-sanctioned transphobia - it is important for trans persons, while failing to acknowledge or address systemic and state-sanctioned transphobia

Sex Determination

- gametes differ from somatic cells; - gametes have 23 chromosomes on;y (haploid) -gametes (sperm and egg) fuse to form a diploid cell (zygote, fertilized egg cell) -zygote has a total of 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) *23 from the father (from the sperm cell) *23 from the mother (from the egg cell)

Bi-Gender

- gender variant people who reject the limited choices of male/female or man/woman as the only gender options - some identify as androgynous (simultaneously exhibiting both male and female traits), others feel that they are "gender neutral" (without gender), and others are bi-gender (feel they encompass both genders) -transsexual people usually do not consider themselves bi-gendered -first nations term is "two-spirited"

Becoming a Gendered Body

- gendered (along with raced and classed) bodies create particular context for social relations as they signal, manage, negotiate information about power and status. Bodies that clearly delineate gender status facilitate the maintenance of the gender hierarchy

Sex-linked Genes

- genes on the x- and y-chromosome are called sex-linked genes - inheritance occurs along sex determination - x-chromosomes contain around 5% of a human's total number of genes - the x-chromosome carries many genes which are not related to human reproduction but, rather, to general functioning in the body

Determination of Physical Appearance

- genetics (0.01% of genome) - nutrition (or lack thereof) - physical activity - social and economic status (body alternations) - geographic location (90% variability in a village) - climate and other environmental factors *all the above cause enormous individual variation among males and among females (not uniform)

In which way are bodies gendered early on?

- girls learn their voices should be different from boys - how girls are dressed

Hetero- and Homozygous

- heterozygous individual (for a particular gene): both alleles are concerned with the same function but arrangement of nucleotides might be different (one dominant and one recessive allele - in some traits, alleles may be co-dominant - ex. neither acts as dominant or recessive) - homozygous individual (for a particular gene): both alleles have the same arangement of nucleotides

Homologous Chromosomes

- homologous chromosomes that are similar but not identical (one maternal, one paternal); alleles may be different - one of a pair chromosomes that have the same genes at the same loci ( same gene sequence)

Is it a boy or a girl?

- if a sperm cell containing an x chromosome is fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be a GIRL (XX) - if a sperm containing a y chromosome fertilizes an egg, the resulting zygote will be a BOY (XY) -because only males can produce X or Y chromosomes, the sperm of the fathers determine the sex of the child

Mitosis

- in order to grow ("replicate" their chromosomal information before cell division), all cells go through a duplication and division process that is called mitosis - after mitosis, the DNA strand contains; *one half that is from the original DNA molecule * one half that is the new "replicated" DNA - mitosis ensures that each resulting cell has the exact same genetic information as the original cell (and thus, each new cell contains the same number of chromosomes (46) as the original cell) - the goal of mitosis, therefore, is to produce two genetically identical daughter cells from one original parent cell (cell growth) - mitosis reproduces body cells (skin, heat, hair, etc)

How did women try to meet the body ideal in Victorian times and Ancient China?

- in the Victorian times it was the corset and in Ancient Chine it was foot binding

A Gene XXX

- is a distinct part of a chromosome - is a specific segment of a DNA strand - is a single unit of genetic information (sequence of nucleotide)

Transgender

- is an umbrella term to describe any person who does not 'fit' with the cissexual or cisgender assumed "norm" who move across or beyond gender - is created and used by transgender individuals themselves to describe their experiences (not a term created by "doctors") - can include people who identify as transsexual (ex. female to male FTM; male to female MTF), gender queer, cross dressers, intersexed and other differently gendered people - can be only sexual orientation (heterosexual, homosexual, bisexual or non-sexual) - some transgender people believe in a binary gender system (male or female), others believe in expanding the performance of gender beyond those categories, others believe in "expanding the gender system" - is seen by some as not being a 'true identity' or some natural fact but a political category trans people have to take on

Gender Determination

- is based on sex-that is after examination of the physical characteristics of a new born *meaning, "gender" is assigned by doctors at birth; is the social and cultural meanings attached to one's biological sex * meaning, we make assumptions about somebody's sex

Human Genome

- is very similar in all human (regardless of 'race') **but a small number of genes (about 0.1% of the total)** are slightly different between people - contains approx. 3 billion base pairs 19,000-20,000 protein coding genes - only about 1.5% of the genome codes for proteins (protein-coding genes)** 8.3% of genetic differences were found between populations within a race and 6,3% between race - comparison: chimpanzee genome is 95% identical to human genome

Karotype and Karyogram

- karyograms are photographic representation of all the chromosomes (the karyotype) of an individual - some individuals have an abnormal number of chromosomes that might cause malfunction or (rarely) dealt - mostly sex chromosomes (ex. turner syndrome) few autosomal abnormalties (trisomy 21 or down's syndrome)

Genes on Sex Chromosomes

- x-chromosomes = 1,184 genes - y-chromosomes -231 genes - thus, the only genetic difference between males and females is 231 genes (which men have but no women) which are all primary concerned with sperm production

Gender Privilege

- many dominant gender ideologies privilege cis-sexual or cisgender identities as the only "normal" gender identity - dysphoria was known as a mental disease, meaning these people are seen as sick, because the medical system says that for society to pay for your treatment, we have to categorize you as not normal *this is the pathologizing of trans people - this belief defines gender binary as: *biologically determined and derived from nature * permanent and unchangeable * healthy or normal

(Trans-) Normativity

- normativity *refers to a set of standards that are institutionally and socially enforced *depends on a hierarchy/binary of privilege and shame (normative or non-normative) - trans-normativity *upholds the sex-equals-gender binary and gender normativity * is enforced through medicalization and government institutions * normalizes trans-bodies and identities through adoption of cisgender institutions by trans people *reinforced the intersectionality with race, class, gender, sexual orientation

Silence

- not acknowledging similar behaviour in different genders (ex. nurturing) - ignore or not acknowledge the similarities

Cross Dressers

- people who wear the clothing usually assigned to a different gender - psychologists have called them "transvestites," but most individuals prefer the term "cross dresser" (not for erotic pleasure) - cross dressers are by clinical definition usually males who dress in women's clothing (and are usually heterosexual) - "drag queens" refer usually (but not necessarily!) to gay males who dress as women for fun or entertainment "drag kings" refer usually (but not necessarily!) to lesbian women who dress as men for fun or entertainment

Meiosis

- produces gametes (necessary for sexual reproduction) - to ensure that each gamete (germ cell) has 23 chromosomes only (haploid - one half of the chromosomal pairs), the cells in the gonads that produce egg cells and sperm cells undergo two cell divisions (meiosis I and II) *oogenesis - formation of egg cell, only one egg is formed. the other 3 (called polar bodies) just disappear >egg cells are formed to a point in the first division before the female is born. the eggs mature after puberty. 1 or more with each menstrual cycle *spermatogenesis - formation of the sperm, 4 sperm cells are formed from one parent cells. sperm cells do not start to form until puberty in males. Then they continue on - meiosis ensures that one half of the 46 chromosomes in each somatic cell (offspring) comes form one's mother and the other half of 46 chromosomes comes from one's father

"Structural Genes"

- protein-code or structural genes: code for synthesis of a specific protein *these genes are regulated - they turn "on" or "off" so that the right amount of a given protein is present at the right time to carry out vital functions of the cell - non-coding genes or transcription factors; regulate gene transcription (turn it "on" or "off") *these genes dictate which structural genes in a particular cell are suppose to be "Active" at a given time and which genes are suppose to be "inactive"

Reading the Genetic Code

- same genes are present on same chromosomes of all cells in a given body (all cells in your body contain the same genetic information) but... - different parts of the "code" are translated in different cells (ex. follicle - stimulating hormone is synthesized in the cells of the anterior pituitary gland); - some genes are active in some cells while other genes are inactive

Is there a difference between sex and gender - and if so, what would that be?

- sex is biological - gender is what you identify with

Sex vs. Gender (nature vs. nurture)

- sex: scientific definitions of female and male bodies sex refers to reproductive capacity or potential - gender: social and cultural definitions of women's and men's bodies - both terms are falsely used interchangeably

What are the reasons for gendering bodies early on?

- so that differences in gender is seen as natural - seen as though they are born with it - to prepare girls and boys for their future gender roles in society - it is done to facilitate the maintenance of gender in the hierarchy

Gender Roles

- social expectations of proper behaviour and activities for a member of one of the 2 binary genders - people who don't perform according to the prescribed expectations are failing to be 'proper' women/men

Genes - in females

- some genes located on the x-chromosome can cause: *colourblindness *hemophilia *duchenne muscular dystrophy *homosexuality (?) >questionable since most non-physical traits, and behaviour in particular, are most likely the result of cultural influence, and not linked to a single gene

Gender Identity

- subjective sense of being a man/woman/both/neither - might be formed by blending biological determination with the physical and social environment

Genetic Variability

- synapsis *pairing of 2 homologous chromosomes that occur during meiosis *allows for possible chromosomal crossing-over between them - synapsis and subsequent crossing-over increases the genetic variability within the offspring - if humans had only 8 different genes, a couple could produce 65,000 genotypically different children even without chromosomal crossover

Allele: Alternate Form of a Gene (2)

-offspring with AA and aa genotypes are homozygous; they inherited identical alleles from both parents; offspring with Aa and aA genotypes are heterozygousl they inherited a different allele from each parent

Transsexual

- term constructed by psychologists and medical doctors to describe individuals who believe that their physiological sex does not represent their true sex - some: *desire Sex Reassignment Surgery (SRS), but not all: *may believe in binary gender system and describe themselves as either "men" or "women" *may use the phrase "born in the wrong body" to describe their experience, but others may reject this idea

Gender Queer

- term is usually associated with sexuality; - synonym for lesbian or gay - used in early 90s by some people to: *turn the derogative term (for homosexual) into a positive one *find a way to talk about their opposition to heterosexual social normal's without automatically assuming that meant they were gay - "queer" was less a sexual orientation than it was a political one

Chromosomes

- the DNA strand ('ladder') is "cut" into defined pieces and tightly packed (coil) to fit into the nucleus - the coiled 'DNA-pieces' are called chromosomes - are composed of DNA and protein - each cell has a 2 sets of 'similar' chromosome (one of the pair is derived from the mother and the other from the father) - two types of chromosomes exist *autosomes: not involved in sex determination *sex chromosomes: involved in sex determination

What were the consequences of externally controlling female bodies through corseting and foot binding?

- the foot binding meant that women could not walk very far, this allowed men to keep control over women through having them dependent on men - they wouldn't be allowed to go very far without someone with them constantly - those who didn't follow the corset or footbinding meant they were looked down up and ridiculed - women who followed the beauty standards had higher chances of being married by a rich man - women's position in society depended on their beauty - economically women would not reach the same level as men because of their restrictions - women were showpieces and were married for their ornamental characteristics

Genome

- the genome is composed of *all genes, which is the same as: > all the DNA or > one set full of chromosomes existing in one cell nucleus

Primary Sex Organs

- the gonads, they *produce eggs (females) and sperm (males) = germ cells = gametes *secrete sex hormones - the ovaries (female) and testes (males) are directly involved in reproduction (but other organs the accessory sex organs, are also important for reproduction)

Who, according to Martin, has the power to control fe/male bodies

- the institutions they look to like school, kindergarten, university, etc - the way they are brought up - mostly men in patriarchy societies that have the power

Gender Dysphoria

- the latest diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-V) of a the APA defines trans people as being in a temporary mental ('sick') state (gender dysphoria) - diagnosis changed from being mentally (and according to some severely) ill (Gender identity disorder) due to major critique from feminists and trans people - DSM put psychiatrists, psychologists, and other mental health professionals in the role of "gender police" they *get to decide whether a person has a mental disorder *are the gate keepers to sex transformation (hormone therapy and SRS)

Nucleus

- the nucleus *controls all cellular activities (it "directs" and controls them) *contains all our genes (genome)l they are 'tightly wrapped' in the form of chromosomes

Gene Expression

- the presence of genes alone doesn't ensure that all of the jobs needed to make the body work are done - to keep the body running: *a cell needs to read its genes, follow their instructions and make proteins * the proteins need to work together

What role played culture/society in defining women's health and the standards of their beauty?

- the standards of a women's body has historically been tied to women's status in society

Cis-Identities

- the term cisgender, or cissexual, described individuals *whose gender assignment at birth align with their gender identity as male or female *whose subconscious and physical sexes match (ex, whose gender identity "fits" the bodies they were born with) *who are non-transgender or non-transsexual

Secondary Sex Characteristics

- they are traits that: *distinguished the two sexes of a species *develop during puberty * are not directly part of the reproductive system *build the base for sexual dimorphism (how two sexes look from the outside) > vagina and penises (external and internal)

Feminist Critique

- thin bodies = weak bodies *starving bodies are powerless bodies * women cannot physically protect themselves, excel at their education, advance in their careers if they are physically weak * in turn, it reinforces women's dependence in men - control of women's bodies = control of their mind

Tight Lacing and Footbinding

- to meet the ideal body image of females *girl's heels and toes were tightly wrapped under the soles of their feet to create a clubfoot (10th century china) * tightly laced undergarment (corset reinforced with whalebone (later steel) were used in Victorian times

Our Body

- we are made out of cells - the cells we make ourselves based on what we need to function - does our age reflect the age of our bodies *the cells are not all the same age, they regenerate every 7 years * different cells age differently * when we age our cell ages and looks differently - red blood cells take 4 months - some cells hardly ever regenerate

Why do women still restrain themselves (internally and externally) and seek to meet an unattainable body ideal?

- women depend on their rewards in society

Sex Chromosome - Y

- y-chromosomes is about 25% as long as the x-chromosome - y carries little else other than testes determining factor (TDF), which instructs genes to produce testes - the genes on the y-chromosomes are blieved to be involved in human reproduction solely, which differs form the X

Has the body image changed?

- yes and no - the hegemonic body images is of no advantage to women since men still have control over women (in patriarchal societies)

Sex Reassignment Surgery (2)

-CAMH requirements: *trans persons must have lived in their desired gender for a minimum of 3 months before receiving hormonal therapy *has to undergo hormonal therapy for 1 year prior to approval for SRS - other requirements *cross-gender * identification in childhood >cross-gender: wearing the clothing usually assigned to a different gender (not for erotic pleasure) *rejection of one's genitals one was born with - the notion of 'being trapped in the wrong body has come, virtually by default, to define gender dysphoria* - SRS is often imagined as a border crossing from one sex (and gender) to another - experienced prior to surgery are deemed to be a of a previous life that must be forgotten or rewritten - trans persons are expected to bleed in (and not out themselves) rather than addressing systemic transphobia and cis-normativity

Cells

-are the basic unit of life - growing and reproducing - have organelles with different functions such as: *digestions *disposal * energy generation * control, etc - 3 different types of cells exist: somatic, stem and germ cells (gametes); *germ cells = eggs and sperm * stem cells = the very first cells are produced > the zygote is originated within the stem cells > adults hold the stem cells in bone marrow > pluripotent = infant stem cells can grow into anything >multipotent = adults stem cells can only grow into certain things *somatic = body - somatic (body) cells must be renewed - about 37.2 trillion cells make up the human body - only cells specialized into the reproductive system (and its hormones) results in phenotypic differences between males and females

Sex Determination (3)

-females contain 22 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes 2 sex chromosomes (two x) *thus, mothers can only produce eggs that have x chromosomes -males contain 22 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes (one x and one y) *thus, fathers can produce two different types of sperm - those carrying a y-chromosome sperm - those carrying a y chromosome and those carrying an x chromosome

Alleles - in females/males

-females have 2 alleles of every gene - males have 2 alleles of every gene as well-with the exception of the genes located on the x- and y- chromosome (only 1 present) - males are more affected with x-linked disorders *they will develop a disease that is caused by a recessive allele because they miss a dominant allele of this gene (if both alleles are present, the dominant (health) form will be expressed)

Determination of Gender

-gender determination *is based on sex - that is after examination of the physical characteristics of a newborn > meaning "gender" is assigned by doctors at birth > this is important to parents as they begin to shape the child by the gender * is the social and cultural meanings attached to one's biological sex: > meaning, we make assumptions about somebody's sex

Trans-phobia and Patriarchy

-patriarchy and trans-phobia are interlinked *both are based on 2 distinct; mutually exclusive gender categories (undeniably different and hierarchical) *the patriarchal system created enormous personal, social, physical, and economic costs for individuals for transgress the sex-equal-gender binary * lethal violence against trans people is on the rise (with most victims being transgender women of colour)

Cell Reproduction

-when cells reproduce (grow), it is critical that the new resulting "daughter" cells have the same identical chromosomal information as the original parent cell - for this reason, before a cell divides it must make an identical copy of its genetic information (its chromosomes) to be passed on to the new resulting cells

The Ideal Female Body

1920 - slim, youthful, 'flapper' became beauty symbol - interruption of trend to slenderness in 1930s/40s: white middle class women entered the workforce to meet wartime demand - when soldiers came back, the women were push back out of the work force

The Ideal Female Body

1950 - ideal body was small waist and voluptous curves - the hourglass figure - use of gridle to physically constrain women's bodies paralleled women's use of corsets in the victorian era

More Power: More Restricted Bodies

1959: Barbie doll invented - curvy, tell, high-waisted mid-1960s: 97lb "twiggy" became a fashion icon *known for her thin build and androgynous look consisting of big eyes; long lashes and short hair - corresponding: marked increase in eating disorders -"second-wave" feminism (1960-1080s): broadened the debate to a wide range of issues: sexuality, family, domestic violence, marital rape, reproductive rights, the workplace and official legal inequalities - just as women were demanding more 'space' and equality. the cultural standards of attractiveness demanded that they shrink

"The Slender Amazon"

1980s-today - not enough to be "thin" must be "tone" - focus on development of a body type that can only be obtained through rigorous exercise and weight-training-enhanced by use of "waist trainer" - "toned" physique must be accompanied, however, by full breast - creates unrealistic standard of beauty that can only be achieved for most women through pairing restricted eating with extreme exercise, restraint and plastic surgery

Can you recall another study where French high school students were asked to recall their test scores in that they wrote three years earlier. In which way was similar finding to the previous one (crawling up the slope). How do you think the attitude of the students impact their future decisions?

Girls thought they were better in art than they actually were. Girls are better at reading and arts and men are better at sciences and maths. Men are suppose to have a different brain to work with those. The girls thought they did better in art than in math because of this being ingrained in their brains and underestimated themselves. The boys did the same thing only reversed, the boys thought they were better in math than they actually wore. IT made up a pretend gap that was not actually there. This makes us see that is all socially constructed. The 'math' gene was socially constructed, it deos not exist. This explains why girls don't aim for careers in math and sciences

What are the social consequences of the multibillion toy industry?

it feeds into the societal gender divide, it substantiates female and male gender roles. It co-operates our existing ideas of femininity and masculinity. It helps form 2 gender identities.

Another gender study was done with mother of 11-months old female and male children where moms were asked to estimate how steep a slope their child could crawl up. What was the result - did they find a sex difference?

they underestimated the girl's ability to crawl up the slop. The mothers of the daughters would not be able to crawl up that much. The mothers of the boys, though no problem and even over-estimated the abilities of their boys. This is cause of the gender identity our binary system tells us that the boys are more active, more agile and stronger