World History since 1500 Exam 2

Darwin

(12 February 1809 - 19 April 1882) was an English naturalist.[I] He established that all species of life have descended over time from common ancestry, and proposed the scientific theory that this branching pattern of evolution resulted from a process that he called natural selection. He published his theory with compelling evidence for evolution in his 1859 book On the Origin of Species, overcoming scientific rejection of earlier concepts of transmutation of species.[ (Survival of the Fittest)

Herder

(1744-1803) He sang the praises of the German "Volk" (people) and their powerful and expressive language. He emphasized the uniqueness of their societies through the study of history, literature, and song.

E. Whitney

(1765-1825) The inventor of the cotton gin, but he also developed the technique of using machine tools to produce interchangeable parts in the making of firearms.

Alexander I

(1777-1825) He was born in Saint Petersburg to Grand Duke Paul Petrovich, later Emperor Paul I, and Maria Feodorovna, daughter of the Duke of Württemberg. ? was the eldest of four brothers. He succeeded to the throne after his father was murdered, and ruled Russia during the chaotic period of the Napoleonic Wars. In the first half of his reign ? tried to introduce liberal reforms, while in the second half he turned to a much more arbitrary manner of conduct, which led to the revoking of many early reforms. In foreign policy ? gained certain successes, mainly by his diplomatic skills and winning of several military campaigns. In particular under his rule Russia acquired Finland and part of Poland. His sudden death in Taganrog, under allegedly suspicious circumstances, caused the spread of the rumors that ? in fact did not die in 1825, but chose to "disappear" and to live the rest of his life in anonymity.

J.S. Mill

(1806-1873) Liberal English philosopher who championed the Enlightenment values of freedom of equality, which they believed would lead to higher standards of morality and increased prosperity for the whole society.

H. Spencer

(1820-1903) An English philosopher who relied on theories of evolution to explain differences between the strong and the weak; successful individuals and races had competed better in the natural world and consequently evolved to higher states than did other, less fit, peoples. On the basis of that reasoning, ? and others justified the domination of European imperialists over subject peoples as the inevitable result of natural scientific principles.

L. Riel

(1844-1885) He was a metis (those of French and Indian ancestry) who emerged as the leader of the metis and indigenous peoples of western Canada. He led the resistance to the Canadian Pacific Railroad. In 1885, he organized a military force of metis and native peoples in the Saskatchewan river country and led an insurrection know as the Northwest Rebellion. It was quickly repressed, and he was executed.

Alexander II

(1855-1881) Emancipated the serfs partly with the intention of creating a mobile labor force for emerging industries and the tsarist government encouraged industrialization. was the Emperor of the Russian Empire from 3 March 1855 until his assassination in 1881. He was also the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Finland.

Herzl

(1860-1904) was a Jewish journalist at the Dreyfus trial, and he concluded that anti-Semitism was a persistent feature of human society that assimilation could not solve. He published the pamphlet Judenstaat in 1896, which argued that the only defense against anti-Semitism lay in the mass migration of Jews from all over the world to a land of their own. He organized the first Zionist Congress in Basel, Switzerland, which founded the World Zionist Organization. He started the Zionist movement.

U.S. Civil War

(1861-1865) was a civil war fought in the United States of America. In response to the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States, 11 southern slave states declared their secession from the United States and formed the Confederate States of America ("the Confederacy"); the other 25 states supported the federal government ("the Union"). After four years of warfare, mostly within the Southern states, the Confederacy surrendered and slavery was outlawed everywhere in the nation. Issues that led to war were partially resolved in the Reconstruction Era that followed, though others remained unresolved.

Napoleon III

(20 April 1808 - 9 January 1873) was the President of the French Second Republic and as Napoleon III, the ruler of the Second French Empire. He was the nephew and heir of Napoleon I, christened as Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte. Elected President by popular vote in 1848, he initiated a coup d'état in 1851, before ascending the throne as Napoleon III on 2 December 1852, the forty-eighth anniversary of Napoleon I's coronation. He ruled as Emperor of the French until 4 September 1870. He holds the unusual distinction of being both the first titular president and the last monarch of France.

Santa Anna

(21 February 1794 - 21 June 1876),[1] often known as Santa Anna[2] or López de Santa Anna, known as "the Napoleon of the West," was a Mexican political leader, general, and president who greatly influenced early Mexican and Spanish politics and government. Santa Anna fought first against Mexican independence from Spain, then in support of it. Though not the first caudillo (military leader) of Mexico, he was among the earliest.[3] He held the rank of general and/or the office of president (or both concurrently) at various times over a turbulent forty-year career; he was president of Mexico on eleven non-consecutive occasions over a period of twenty-two years.

Louis XVI

(23 August 1754 - 21 January 1793) was a Bourbon monarch who ruled as King of France and Navarre until 1791, and then as King of the French from 1791 to 1792. Suspended and arrested as part of the insurrection of 10 August during the French Revolution, he was tried by the National Convention, found guilty of high treason, and executed by guillotine on 21 January 1793 as a desacralized French citizen known as "Citoyen Louis Capet". He is the only King of France ever to be executed. Although Louis XVI was beloved at first, his indecisiveness and conservatism led some elements of the people of France to eventually view him as a symbol of the perceived tyranny of the Ancien Régime and gave him the nickname Oncle Louis ("Uncle Louis"). After the abolition of the monarchy in 1792, the new republican government gave him the surname Capet, a nickname in reference to Hugh Capet, the founder of the Capetian dynasty - which the revolutionaries interpreted as a family name.

Wilberforce

(24 August 1759 - 29 July 1833) was a British politician, a philanthropist and a leader of the movement to abolish the slave trade. A native of Kingston upon Hull, Yorkshire, he began his political career in 1780, eventually becoming the independent Member of Parliament for Yorkshire (1784-1812). In 1785, he underwent a conversion experience and became an evangelical Christian, resulting in major changes to his lifestyle and a lifelong concern for reform. In 1787, he came into contact with Thomas Clarkson and a group of anti-slave-trade activists, including Granville Sharp, Hannah More and Charles Middleton. They persuaded Wilberforce to take on the cause of abolition, and he soon became one of the leading English abolitionists. He headed the parliamentary campaign against the British slave trade for twenty-six years until the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807. Wilberforce was convinced of the importance of religion, morality and education. He championed causes and campaigns such as the Society for Suppression of Vice, British missionary work in India, the creation of a free colony in Sierra Leone, the foundation of the Church Mission Society and the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. His underlying conservatism led him to support politically and socially repressive legislation, and resulted in criticism that he was ignoring injustices at home while campaigning for the enslaved abroad. In later years, Wilberforce supported the campaign for the complete abolition of slavery, and continued his involvement after 1826, when he resigned from Parliament because of his failing health. That campaign led to the Slavery Abolition Act 1833, which abolished slavery in most of the British Empire; Wilberforce died just three days after hearing that the passage of the Act through Parliament was assured. He was buried in Westminster Abbey, close to his friend William Pitt.

Rousseau

(28 June 1712 - 2 July 1778) was a major Genevan philosopher, writer, and composer of 18th-century Romanticism. His political philosophy heavily influenced the French Revolution, as well as the overall development of modern political, sociological, and educational thought. His novel, Émile: or, On Education is a seminal treatise on the education of the whole person for citizenship. His sentimental novel, Julie, ou la nouvelle Héloïse, was of great importance to the development of pre-romanticism[1] and romanticism in fiction.[2] Rousseau's autobiographical writings: his Confessions, which initiated the modern autobiography, and his Reveries of a Solitary Walker were among the pre-eminent examples of the late 18th-century movement known as the Age of Sensibility, featuring an increasing focus on subjectivity and introspection that has characterized the modern age. His Discourse on the Origin of Inequality and his On the Social Contract are cornerstones in modern political and social thought and make a strong[citation needed] case for democratic government and social empowerment. Rousseau was also a successful composer and made important contributions to music as a theorist. During the period of the French Revolution, Rousseau was the most popular of the philosophes among members of the Jacobin Club. He was interred as a national hero in the Panthéon in Paris, in 1794, 16 years after his death.

Leopold II

(9 April 1835 - 17 December 1909) was the second king of the Belgians. Born in Brussels the second (but eldest surviving) son of Leopold I and Louise-Marie of Orléans, he succeeded his father to the throne on 17 December 1865 and remained king until his death. Leopold is chiefly remembered as the founder and sole owner of the Congo Free State, a private project undertaken by the King. He used Henry Morton Stanley to help him lay claim to the Congo, an area now known as the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Powers at the Berlin Conference allowed the Free State to accede to its final Act in 1885, which committed the State to bringing the inhabitants into the modern world and that all nations be allowed to trade freely. From the beginning, however, Leopold essentially ignored these conditions and ran the Congo brutally, using a mercenary force, for his own personal gain. He extracted a fortune from the Congo, initially by the collection of ivory, and after a rise in the price of rubber in the 1890s by forcing the native population to collect sap from rubber plants. His harsh regime was directly or indirectly responsible for the death of millions of people. The Congo became one of the most infamous international scandals of the early 20th century, and Leopold was ultimately forced to relinquish control of it to the government of Belgium.

Beccaria

(March 15, 1738 - November 28, 1794) was an Italian jurist, philosopher and politician best known for his treatise On Crimes and Punishments (1764), which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology.

Toussaint L'Ouverture

(May 20, 1743 - April 7, 1803) was the leader of the Haitian Revolution. His military genius and political acumen led to the establishment of the independent black state of Haiti, transforming an entire society of slaves into a free, self-governing people.[1] The success of the Haitian Revolution shook the institution of slavery throughout the New World.[2] Toussaint Louverture began his military career as a leader of the 1791 slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue. Initially allied with the Spaniards of neighboring Santo Domingo, Toussaint switched allegiance to the French when they abolished slavery. He gradually established control over the whole island, expelling the British invaders and using political and military tactics to gain power over his rivals. Throughout his years in power, he worked to improve the economy and security of Saint Domingue. He restored the plantation system using free labour, negotiated trade treaties with Britain and the USA and maintained a large and well-disciplined army.[3] In 1801 he promulgated an autonomist constitution for the colony, with himself as governor for life. In 1802 he was forced to resign by forces sent by Napoleon Bonaparte to restore French authority in the colony. He was deported to France where he died in 1803. The Haitian Revolution continued under his lieutenant, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, who declared independence in 1804.[3]

E.C. Stanton

(November 12, 1815 - October 26, 1902) was an American social activist, abolitionist, and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Her Declaration of Sentiments, presented at the first women's rights convention held in 1848 in Seneca Falls, New York, is often credited with initiating the first organized woman's rights and woman's suffrage movements in the United States.[1]

P. Diaz

(September 15, 1830 - July 2, 1915) was a Mexican-American War volunteer and French intervention hero, an accomplished general and the President of Mexico continuously from 1876 to 1911, with the exception of a brief term in 1876 when he left Juan N. Méndez as interim president, and a four-year term served by his political ally Manuel González from 1880 to 1884. Commonly considered by historians to have been a dictator, he is a controversial figure in Mexican history. The period of his leadership was marked by significant internal stability (known as the "paz porfiriana"), modernization, and economic growth. However, Díaz's conservative regime grew unpopular due to repression and political continuity, and he fell from power during the Mexican Revolution, after he had imprisoned his electoral rival and declared himself the winner of an eighth term in office. The years in which Díaz ruled Mexico are referred to as the Porfiriato.

Boer War

(known in Afrikaans as Vryheidsoorlog (lit. "freedom wars")) were two wars fought between the British Empire and the two independent Boer republics, the Oranje Vrijstaat and the South African Republic (Transvaal Republiek). It took a heavy toll on black Africans. The Afrikaners conceded defeat in 1902, and by 1910, the British government had reconstituted the four former colonies as provinces in the Union of South Africa, a largely autonomous British dominion.

Seneca Falls Convention

A conference of feminists organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton in 1848 in New York. It passed 12 resolutions demanding that lawmakers grant women the right to vote, to attend public schools, to enter professional occupations, and to participate in public affairs.

Saratoga

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Utopian vs. Scientific Socialism

1. is a term used to define the first currents of modern socialist thought. It is distinguished from later socialist thought by being based on idealism instead of materialism[citation needed][dubious - discuss]. Although it is technically possible for any set of ideas or any person living at any time in history to be a utopian socialist, the term is most often applied to those socialists who lived in the first quarter of the 19th century who were ascribed the label "utopian" by later socialists to convey negative attitudes and naivete to dismiss their ideas as fanciful or unrealistic.[1] These socialists instead contrasted utopian socialism with scientific socialism. 2. is the term used by Friedrich Engels[1] to describe the social-political-economic theory first pioneered by Karl Marx. The purported reason why this socialism is "scientific socialism" (as opposed to "utopian socialism") is because its theories are held to an empirical standard, observations are essential to its development, and these can result in changes/falsification of elements of theory. Although Marx denounced "utopian socialism", he never referred to his own ideas as "scientific socialism". Similar methods for analyzing social and economic trends and involving socialism as a product of socioeconomic evolution have also been used by non-Marxist theoreticians, such as Joseph Schumpeter and Thorstein Veblen.

Gobineau

14 July 1816, Ville-d'Avray, Hauts-de-Seine - 13 October 1882, Turin) was a French aristocrat, novelist and man of letters who became famous for developing the racist theory of the Aryan master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855). ? is credited as being the father of modern racial demography.

Louis XVIII

17 November 1755 - 16 September 1824), known as "the Unavoidable",[1] was King of France and of Navarre from 1814 to 1824, omitting the Hundred Days in 1815. Louis XVIII spent twenty-three years in exile, from 1791 to 1814, during the French Revolution and the First French Empire, and again in 1815, for 100 days, upon the return of Napoleon from Elba. While in exile, he lived in Prussia, the United Kingdom and Russia.[2] The First French Republic abolished the monarchy and deposed King Louis XVI on 21 September 1792.[3] Although the monarchy had been disestablished, Louis XVIII succeeded his nephew, Louis XVII, as titular King, when the latter died in prison in June 1795.[4] When the coalition armies captured Paris from Napoleon in 1814, Louis XVIII was restored to what he, and Royalists, considered his rightful place. Louis XVIII ruled as king for slightly less than a decade, during the Bourbon Restoration period. The Bourbon Restoration was a constitutional monarchy (unlike the Ancien Régime, which was absolute). As a constitutional monarch, Louis XVIII's royal prerogative was reduced substantially by the Charter of 1814, France's new constitution. Louis had no children; therefore, upon his death, the crown passed to his brother, Charles, Count of Artois.[5] Louis XVIII was the last French monarch to die while reigning.

A. Smith

1723-1790 A Scottish philosopher who held that society would prosper when individuals pursued their own economic interests. June 1723 - 17 July 1790 [OS: 5 June 1723 - 17 July 1790]) was a Scottish social philosopher and a pioneer of political economy. One of the key figures of the Scottish Enlightenment, Smith is the author of The Theory of Moral Sentiments and An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. The latter, usually abbreviated as The Wealth of Nations, is considered his magnum opus and the first modern work of economics. It earned him an enormous reputation and would become one of the most influential works on economics ever published. Smith is widely cited as the father of modern economics and capitalism.

Montesquieu

18 January 1689 - 10 February 1755), generally referred to as simply ?, was a French social commentator and political thinker who lived during the Enlightenment. He is famous for his articulation of the theory of separation of powers, taken for granted in modern discussions of government and implemented in many constitutions throughout the world. He was largely responsible for the popularization of the terms feudalism and Byzantine Empire.

Omdurman

1898 battle in the Sudan in which a British and Egyptian force defeated the Sudanese. It opened the door for British colonial rule in Sudan.

Garibaldi

19th century Italian nationalist who led the Italian unification movement.

Social Darwinism

19th century philosophy, championed by thinkers such as Herbert Spencer, that attempted to apply Darwinian "survival of the fittest" to the social and political realm; adherents saw the elimination of weaker nations as part of a natural process and used the philosophy to justify war.

Wollstonecraft

27 April 1759 - 10 September 1797) was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book. ? is best known for A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), in which she argues that women are not naturally inferior to men, but appear to be only because they lack education. She suggests that both men and women should be treated as rational beings and imagines a social order founded on reason.

J. Locke

29 August 1632 - 28 October 1704), widely known as the Father of Liberalism,[2][3][4] was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers. Considered one of the first of the British empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he is equally important to social contract theory. His work had a great impact upon the development of epistemology and political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to classical republicanism and liberal theory are reflected in the American Declaration of Independence.[5] ? theory of mind is often cited as the origin of modern conceptions of identity and the self, figuring prominently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Rousseau and Kant. ? was the first to define the self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated that the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa. Contrary to pre-existing Cartesian philosophy, he maintained that we are born without innate ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by experience derived from sense perception.[6]

Kipling

30 December 1865 - 18 January 1936)[1] was an English poet, short-story writer, and novelist chiefly remembered for his celebration of British imperialism, tales and poems of British soldiers in India, and his tales for children. ? received the 1907 Nobel Prize for Literature. He was born in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, and was taken by his family to England when he was five years old.[2] ? is best known for his works of fiction, including The Jungle Book, Just So Stories (1902) (1894) (a collection of stories which includes "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi"), Kim (1901) (a tale of adventure), many short stories, including "The Man Who Would Be King" (1888); and his poems, including Mandalay (1890), Gunga Din (1890), The White Man's Burden (1899) and If— (1910). He is regarded as a major "innovator in the art of the short story";[3] his children's books are enduring classics of children's literature; and his best works are said to exhibit "a versatile and luminous narrative gift".[

K. Marx

5 May 1818 - 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, sociologist, economic historian, journalist, and revolutionary socialist who developed the socio-political theory of Marxism. His ideas have since played a significant role in the development of social science and the socialist political movement. He published various books during his lifetime, with the most notable being The Communist Manifesto (1848) and Capital (1867-1894), many of which were co-written with his friend, the fellow German revolutionary socialist Friedrich Engels.[2]

Robespierre

6 May 1758 - 28 July 1794) is one of the best-known and most influential figures of the French Revolution. He largely dominated the Committee of Public Safety and was instrumental in the period of the Revolution commonly known as the Reign of Terror, which ended with his arrest and execution in 1794. Robespierre was influenced by 18th-century Enlightenment philosophes such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Montesquieu, and he was a capable articulator of the beliefs of the left-wing bourgeoisie. He was described as being physically unimposing yet immaculate in attire and personal manners. His supporters called him "The Incorruptible", while his adversaries called him dictateur sanguinaire (bloodthirsty dictator).

Deists

An Enlightenment view that accepted the existence of God but denied the supernatural aspects of Christianity; the universe was an orderly realm maintained by rational and natural laws.

Olympe de Gouges

7 May 1748 - 3 November 1793), born Marie Gouze, was a French playwright and political activist whose feminist and abolitionist writings reached a large audience. She began her career as a playwright in the early 1780s. As political tension rose in France, ? became increasingly politically involved. She became an outspoken advocate for improving the condition of slaves in the colonies as of 1788. At the same time, she began writing political pamphlets. Today she is perhaps best known as an early feminist who demanded that French women be given the same rights as French men. In her Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen (1791), she challenged the practice of male authority and the notion of male-female inequality. She was executed by guillotine during the Reign of Terror for attacking the regime of Maximilien Robespierre and for her close relation with the Girondists.

Emancipation of Slaves

?

Salons

?

Thermidor

?

"Great Fear"

? News of the event (the storming of the Bastille) soon spread, sparking insurrections in cities throughout France. These insurrections grew even more intense when rumors spread that armed bands organized by nobles were moving through the country-side to restore order. This prompted the peasantry all over France to burn monasteries, pubic records offices, and the houses of nobles.

Wounded Knee

A Sioux man accidentally shot off a gun, and the cavalry overreacted badly, slaughtering more than two hundred men, women, and children with machine guns. Emblematic of harsh U.S. treatment of native peoples, ? represented the place where "a people's dream died," as a later native put it.

Social Contract

A book written in 1762 where Rousseau argued that members of society were collectively the sovereign. In an ideal society all individuals would participate directly in the formulation of policy and the creation of laws.

Directory

A group of conservative men of property then seized power and ruled France under a new institution known as the ? It was unable to resolve the economic and military problems that plagued revolutionary France. It faced constant challenges to its authority, and it finally fell in 1799 to Napoleon Bonaparte.

Young Italy

A group that promoted independence from Austrian and Spanish rule and the establishment of an Italian national state.

E. Burke

An English political philosopher (1729-1797) who condemned radical or revolutionary change, which in his view could only lead to anarchy. He approved of the American revolution, which he viewed as a natural and logical change, but he denounced the French revolution as a chaotic and irresponsible assault on society.

Liberalism

A political philosophy inspired by John Locke and the ideals of the Enlightenment that advocated individual liberty, constitutional government, and free trade. 19th century ? favored representative government but not necessarily democracy.

Conservatism

A political philosophy that emphasizes gradual change, continuity of traditions, and established authority. Although the word has has taken on many shades of meaning, nineteenth-century ? generally opposed democracy and supported traditional institutions such as the church, monarchy, and nobility.

Jacobins

A radical party in the French Revolution that dominated the Convention. They believed passionately that France needed complete restructuring, and they unleashed a campaign of terror to promote their revolutionary agenda. They sought to eliminate the influence of Christianity in French society by closing churches, forcing priests to take wives, and promoting a new, secular "cult of reason." They reorganized the calendar, replacing seven-day weeks with ten-day units that recognized no day of religious observance; they also wore working class clothes and granted increased rights to women by permitting them to inherit property and divorce their husbands.

Bastille

A royal jail and arsenal filled with weapons that was stormed by French Revolutionaries July 14, 1789.

Estates-General

An assembly that represented the entire French population through three groups, known as estates. The first estate consisted of about one hundred thousand Roman Catholic clergy, and the second included some four hundred thousand nobles. The third estate embraced the rest of the population - about twenty-four million serfs, free peasants, and urban residents. It had as many delegates as the other two combined.

J. Watt

An instrument maker at the University of Glasgow in Scotland who invented the general-purpose steam engine.

Dreyfus Affair

Anti-Semitism in France reached a fever pitch after a military court convicted Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish army officer, of spying for Germany in 1894. Although he was innocent of the charges and eventually had the verdict reversed on appeal, Dreyfus was the focus of bitter debates about the trustworthiness of Jews in French society. This trial also became a key event in the evolution of Zionism.

Gauchos

Argentine cowboys, highly romantic figures.

C. Rhodes

British financier and statesman in Southern Africa who made his fortune in gold and diamonds.

Panama Canal

Constructed 1904-1914 facilitated the building and maintenance of empires by enabling naval vessels to travel rapidly between the world's seas and oceans. It also lowered the costs of trade between imperial powers and subject lands. (It was constructed while Theodore Roosevelt was president. He helped rebels break away from Colombia in 1903, and as a consequence of the help, the U.S. was granted the right to build it).

National Assembly

Disillusioned by weeks of arguing, on 17 June 1789 representatives of the third estate took the dramatic step of seceding from the Estates General and proclaiming themselves to be the ?. They swore not to disband until they had provided France with a new constitution.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

Document from the French Revolution (1789) that was influenced by the American Declaration of Independence and in turn influenced other revolutionary movements.

Congress of Vienna

Gathering of European diplomats in Vienna, Austria, from October 1814 to June 1815. The representatives of the "great powers" that defeated Napoleon - Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia - dominated the proceedings, which aimed to restore the pre-revolutionary political and social order.

P. Villa

General in the Mexican Revolution, also known as "Pancho Villa."

Crystal Palace

Exhibitors from around the world displayed fine handicrafts and manufactured goods at the ? exhibition of 1851 in London. Industrial products from Britain and the United States particularly attracted the attention of visitors to the enchanting and futuristic hall. was a cast-iron and glass building originally erected in Hyde Park, London, England, to house the Great Exhibition of 1851. More than 14,000 exhibitors from around the world gathered in the Palace's 990,000 square feet (92,000 m2) of exhibition space to display examples of the latest technology developed in the Industrial Revolution. Designed by Joseph Paxton, the Great Exhibition building was 1,851 feet (564 m) long, with an interior height of 128 feet (39 m).[1]

Trail of Tears

Forced relocation of the Cherokee from the eastern woodlands to Oklahoma (1837-1838); it was symbolic of U.S. expansion and destruction of indigenous Indian societies.

Napoleon I

French general who became emperor of the French from 1804 until his defeat by enemy European powers in 1815.

Convention

French revolutionary leaders created it as a new legislative body elected by universal manhood suffrage, which abolished the monarchy and proclaimed France a republic. It rallied the French population by instituting the levee en masse, a "mass levy" that drafted people and resources for use in the war against invading forces.

Voltaire

French writer who embodied the spirit of the 18th century in the Enlightenment.

Bismarck

German statesman under whose leadership Germany was united.

Metternich

German-Austrian politician who was critical in the negotiations of the Congress of Vienna after the end of the Napoleonic wars.

New South Wales

In 1788, a British fleet with about one thousand settlers, most of them convicted criminals, arrived at Sydney harbor and established this colony.

Bessemer

In 1856, Henry Bessemer built a refined blast furnace known as the Bessemer converter that made it possible to produce large quantities of steel cheaply. Steel production rose sharply, and steel quickly began to replace iron in tools, machines, and structures that required high strength.

Little Big Horn

In 1876, thousands of Lakota Sioux and their allies annihilated an army under the command of Colonel George Armstrong Custer.

Belgian Congo

In the 1870s King Leopold II of Belgium (reigned 1865-1909) employed the American journalist Henry Morton Stanley to help develop commercial ventures and establish a colony called the Congo Free State in the basin of the Congo River. He declared that it would be a free-trade zone accessible to all Europe, He, however, was carving out a personal colony with the sole purpose of extracting lucrative using forced labor. 4-8 million Africans died. The abuses were so many and terrible that the Belgian government t0ok control away from Leopold in 1908 and administered the colony directly.

Sepoys

Indian troops who served the British.

Creoles

Individuals born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese ancestry.

Mazzini

Italian nationalist whose writings spurred the movement for a unified Italy in the 19th century.

Zaibatsu

Japanese term for "wealthy cliques," which are similar to American trusts and cartels but usually organizes around one family.

Standard Oil

John fD. Rockefeller's oil company that controlled almost all oil drilling, processing, refining, marketing, and distributing in the United States.

S. Witte

Late 19th century Russian minister of finance who pushed for industrialization.

Machismo

Latin American social ethic that honored male strength, courage, aggressiveness, assertiveness, and cunning.

Charles X

October 1757 - 6 November 1836) ruled first as the Comte d'Artois, then as King of France and of Navarre from 16 September 1824 until 2 August 1830.[1] A younger brother to Kings Louis XVI and Louis XVIII, he supported the latter in exile and eventually succeeded him. His rule of almost six years ended in the July Revolution of 1830, which ignored his attempts to keep the crown in the senior branch of the House of Bourbon and instead elected Louis Philippe, Duke of Orléans as King of the French. Once again exiled, Charles died in Gorizia, then part of the Austrian Empire.[2]

Serfs

Peasants who, while not chattel slaves, were tied to the land and who owed obligation tot he lords on whose land they worked.

La Reforma

Political reform movement of Mexican president Benito Juarez (1806-1872) that called for limiting the power of the military and the Catholic church in Mexican society.

Meiji Restoration

Restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meji in 1846 by a coalition led by ***uzawa Yukichi and Ito Hirobumi; the restoration enacted western reforms to strengthen Japan.

E. Zapata

Revolutionary who was a leading figure in the Mexican Revolution of 1910.

S. Bolivar

Simón Bolívar (Spanish pronunciation: [siˈmon boˈliβar]; July 24, 1783, Caracas, Venezuela - December 17, 1830, Santa Marta, Colombia) was a Venezuelan military and political leader. Together with José de San Martín, he played a key role in Hispanic-Spanish America's successful struggle for independence from the Spanish Empire, and is today considered one of the most influential politicians in Latin American history. Following the triumph over the Spanish Monarchy, Bolívar participated in the foundation of the first union of independent nations in Hispanic-America, a republic, which was named Gran Colombia, and of which he was president from 1819 to 1830. Bolívar remains regarded in Hispanic-America as a hero, visionary, revolutionary, and liberator. During his lifetime, he led Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia to independence, and helped lay the foundations for democratic ideology in much of Latin America.

British North America Act (Dominion)

The Act of 1867 joined Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick and recognized them as the Dominion of Canada. Other provinces joined the Dominion late. Each province had its own seat of government, provincial legislature, and lieutenant governor representing the British crown. The act created a federal government headed by a governor-general, who acted as the British representative. An elected House of Commons and an appointed Senate rounded out the framework of governance.

M. Perry

The American commander who trained his guns on the bakufu capital of Edo (modern Tokyo) and demanded the shogun open Japan to diplomatic and commercial relations and sign a treaty of friendship. (April 10, 1794 - March 4, 1858) was the Commodore of the U.S. Navy and served commanding a number of US naval ships. He served several wars, most notably in the Mexican-American War and the War of 1812. He played a leading role in the opening of Japan to the West with the Convention of Kanagawa in 1854. Perry was very concerned with the education of naval officers and helped develop an apprentice system that helped establish a naval curriculum at the United States Naval Academy. With the advent of the steam engine he was also a leading advocate of modernizing the U.S. Navy and came to be considered the The Father of the Steam Navy.

German Confederation

The Congress of Vienna created it, and it was composed of 39 states dominated by Austria.

Continental Congress

The colonists in America organized it in 1774 to coordinate the colonies' resistance to British policies.

Committee of Public Safety

The executive authority of the of the Republic (of France during the Reign of Terror). succeeded the previous Committee of General Defence (established in January 1793) and assumed its role of protecting the newly established republic against foreign attacks and internal rebellion. As a wartime measure, the Committee - composed at first of nine, and later of twelve members - was given broad supervisory powers over military, judicial, and legislative efforts. Its power peaked under the leadership of Maximilien Robespierre, between August 1793 and July 1794; following the downfall of Robespierre, the Committee's influence diminished, and it was disestablished in 1795.

Manifest Destiny

The idea, popular in the United States in the mid-19th century, that the North American continent was intended by God to be settled by White Americans. This notion helped justify the Mexican War of 1846-1848 and the Indian Wars of the 1870s and 1880s.

Steam Engine

The most crucial technological breakthrough of the early industrial era was the development of a general-purpose ? in 1765 by James Watt. These were especially prominent in the textile and transportation industries.

St. Helena

The remote island in the South Atlantic Ocean where Napoleon was banished to after Waterloo.

Trade Unions

They sought to advance the quest for a just and equitable society. They struggled to improve worker's live by seeking higher wages and better working conditions for their members.

Cartels

They tried to eliminate competition by means of horizontal organization, which involved the consolidation or cooperation of independent companies in the same business. They sought to ensure the prosperity of their members by absorbing competitors, fixing prices, regulating production, or dividing up markets.

Proletariat

Urban working class in a modern industrial society.

Yorktown

in 1781 was a decisive victory by a combined assault of American forces led by General George Washington and French forces led by the Comte de Rochambeau over a British Army commanded by Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis. The culmination of the Yorktown campaign, it proved to be the last major land battle of the American Revolutionary War in North America, as the surrender of Cornwallis' army prompted the British government eventually to negotiate an end to the conflict.

Waterloo

in present-day Belgium, then part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. An Imperial French army under the command of Emperor Napoleon was defeated by combined armies of the Seventh Coalition, an Anglo-Allied army under the command of the Duke of Wellington combined with a Prussian army under the command of Gebhard von Blücher. It was the culminating battle of the ?Campaign and Napoleon's last. The defeat at ? put an end to Napoleon's rule as Emperor of the French and marked the end of his Hundred Days' return from exile.

Guillotine

is a device used for carrying out executions by decapitation. It consists of a tall upright frame from which an angled blade is suspended. This blade is raised with a rope and then allowed to drop, severing the head from the body. The device is noted for long being the main method of execution in France and, more particularly, for its use during the French Revolution, when it "became a part of popular culture, celebrated as the people's avenger by supporters of the Revolution and vilified as the pre-eminent symbol of the Reign of Terror by opponents."[1] Nevertheless, the guillotine continued to be used long after the French Revolution in several countries, including France, where it was the sole method of execution until the abolition of capital punishment in 1981.

"White Man's Burden"

is a poem by the English poet Rudyard Kipling. It was originally published in the popular magazine McClure's in 1899, with the subtitle The United States and the Philippine Islands.[1] Although Kipling's poem mixed exhortation to empire with sober warnings of the costs involved, imperialists within the United States understood the phrase "white man's burden" as a characterisation for imperialism that justified the policy as a noble enterprise.[2][3][4][5][6]

Communist Manifesto

is a short 1848 book written by the German Marxist political theorists Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. It has since been recognized as one of the world's most influential political manuscripts.[1] Commissioned by the Communist League, it laid out the League's purposes and program. It presents an analytical approach to the class struggle (historical and present) and the problems of capitalism, rather than a prediction of communism's potential future forms.[2] The book contains Marx and Engels' Marxist theories about the nature of society and politics, that in their own words, "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles."[3] It also briefly features their ideas for how the capitalist society of the time would eventually be replaced by socialism, and then eventually communism.

Popular Sovereignty

is the political principle that the legitimacy of the state is created by the will or consent of its people, who are the source of all political power. It is closely associated with Republicanism and the social contract philosophers, among whom are Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Popular sovereignty expresses a concept and does not necessarily reflect or describe a political reality.[1] It is often contrasted with the concept of parliamentary sovereignty, and with individual sovereignty. Benjamin Franklin expressed the concept when he wrote, "In free governments, the rulers are the servants and the people their superiors and sovereigns."[2]

U.S. Revolutionary War

or simply the Revolutionary War, began as a war between the Kingdom of Great Britain and thirteen British colonies in North America, and ended in a global war between several European great powers. The war was the result of the political American Revolution. Colonists galvanized around the position that the Stamp Act of 1765, imposed by Parliament of Great Britain, was unconstitutional. The British Parliament insisted it had the right to tax colonists. The colonists claimed, that as they were Englishmen, that taxation without representation was unfair. The American colonists formed a unifying Continental Congress and a shadow government in each colony. The American boycott of British tea led to the Boston Tea Party in 1773. London responded by ending self-government in Massachusetts and putting it under the control of the army with General Thomas Gage as governor. In April 1775, Gage learned that weapons were being gathered in Concord for a rebellion, and he sent British troops to seize and destroy them.[10] Local militia, known as 'minutemen,' confronted the troops and a fire fight broke out. See Battles of Lexington and Concord. Any chance of a compromise ended when the colonies declared independence and formed a new nation, the United States of America on July 4, 1776.

Spanish-American War

was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the Philippine-American War.[6] Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans; there had been war scares before, as in the Virginius Affair in 1873. By 1897-98, American public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities. After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the government of President William McKinley, a Republican, into a war McKinley had wished to avoid.[7] Compromise proved impossible, resulting in an ultimatum sent to Madrid demanding it surrender control of Cuba immediately, which was not accepted. First Madrid, then Washington, formally declared war.[8]

Mexican Revolution

was a major armed struggle that started in 1910, with an uprising led by Francisco I. Madero against longtime autocrat Porfirio Díaz. The Revolution was characterized by several socialist, liberal, anarchist, populist, and agrarianist movements. Over time the Revolution changed from a revolt against the established order to a multi-sided civil war. After prolonged struggles, its representatives produced the Mexican Constitution of 1917. The Revolution is generally considered to have lasted until 1920, although the country continued to have sporadic, but comparatively minor, outbreaks of warfare well into the 1920s. The Cristero War of 1926 to 1929 was the most significant relapse of bloodshed. The Revolution triggered the creation of the National Revolutionary Party in 1929 (renamed the Institutional Revolutionary Party, or PRI, in 1946). Under a variety of leaders, the PRI held power until the general election of 2000.

War of 1812

was a military conflict fought between the forces of the United States of America and those of the British Empire. The Americans declared war in 1812 for several reasons, including trade restrictions because of Britain's ongoing war with France, impressment of American merchant sailors into the Royal Navy, British support of American Indian tribes against American expansion, and over national honour after humiliations on the high seas. Tied down in Europe until 1814, the British at first used defensive strategy, repelling multiple American invasions of the provinces of Upper and Lower Canada. However, the Americans gained control over Lake Erie in 1813, seized parts of western Ontario, and destroyed the dream of an Indian confederacy and an independent Indian state in the Midwest under British sponsorship. In the Southwest General Andrew Jackson destroyed the military strength of the Creek nation at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend. With the defeat of Napoleon in 1814, the British adopted a more aggressive strategy, sending in three large invasion armies. British victory at the Battle of Bladensburg in August 1814 allowed the British to capture and burn Washington, D.C. American victories in September 1814 and January 1815 repulsed all three British invasions in New York, Baltimore and New Orleans.

Mexican-American War

was an armed conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848 in the wake of the 1845 U.S. annexation of Texas, which Mexico considered part of its territory despite the 1836 Texas Revolution.

Parlements

were regional legislative bodies in Ancien Régime France. The political institutions of the Parlement in Ancien Régime France developed out of the previous council of the king, the Conseil du roi or curia regis, and consequently had ancient and customary rights of consultation and deliberation.[1] In the thirteenth century, judicial functions were added. The parlementarians were of the opinion that the parliament's role included active participation in the legislative process, which brought them into increasing conflict with evolving monarchic absolutism during the Ancien Régime, as the lit de justice evolved during the sixteenth century from a constitutional forum to a royal weapon, used to force registration of edicts.[2]