1. Fundamentals of Instructing

21. What is a learning plateau and how can an instructor help a student who has reached a learning plateau? (FAA-H-8083-9)

A learning plateau is a learning phenomenon where progress appears to cease or slow down for a significant period of time before once again increasing. Instructors can help students experiencing a learning plateau by moving to a different place in the curriculum and giving the current task a break, or by better explaining the lesson, the reason for the lesson, and how it applies to the student. Instructors should be aware that they can bring on a learning plateau by over practice.

23. How much practice is needed by a student in order to attain proficiency? (FAA-H-8083-9)

A beginning student reaches a point where additional practice is not only unproductive, but may even be harmful. When this point is reached, errors increase and motivation declines. As a student gains experience, longer periods of practice are profitable.

26. What are the characteristics of a good scenario? (FAA-H-8083-9)

A good scenario: a. Is not a test. b. Will not have a single correct answer. c. Does not offer an obvious answer. d. Engages all three learning domains. e. Is interactive. f. Should not promote errors. g. Should promote situational awareness and opportunities for decision-making.

What are the general characteristics of an effective assessment?

An effective assessment is: Objective - The assessment should be focused on student performance; it should not reflect the personal opinions, likes, dislikes, or biases of the instructor. Flexible -The assessment should evaluate the entire performance in the context in which it was accomplished; it should be designed and executed so that the instructor can allow for variables. The challenge for the instructor is deciding what to say, what to omit, what to stress, and what to minimize at the proper moment. Acceptable -The student must accept the instructor in order to accept his or her assessment willingly. They must have confidence in the instructor's qualifications, teaching ability, sincerity, competence, and authority. Comprehensive - It must cover strengths as well as weaknesses; it should not be unnecessarily long, nor must it treat every aspect of the performance in detail. The instructor's task is to determine how to balance the two. Constructive -Praise can be very effective in reinforcing and capitalizing on things that are done well; negative comments that do not point toward improvement or a higher level of performance should be omitted. Organized - Almost any pattern is acceptable as long as it is logical and makes sense to the student. Thoughtful-An effective assessment reflects the instructor's thoughtfulness toward the student's need for self-esteem, recognition, and approval. Specific - At the conclusion of an assessment, students should have no doubt about what they did well and what they did poorly -and most importantly, specifically how they can improve.

8. Describe the characteristics of an effective critique. (FAA-H-8083-9)

An effective critique considers good as well as bad performance, the individual parts, relationships of the individual parts, and the overall performance. It may be oral, written, or both, and should come immediately after a student's performance while the details of the performance are easy to recall.

6. How can an instructor help students counter their anxieties? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Anxiety can be countered by reinforcing the student's enjoyment of flying and by teaching them to cope with their fears. An effective technique is to treat fears as a normal reaction, rather than ignoring them. Instructors should introduce certain types of operations and maneuvers (e.g., stalls) with care, so that students know what to expect and how to react.

5. What is the definition of anxiety and why is a student's anxiety of concern to an instructor? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Anxiety is a feeling of worry, nervousness, or unease, often about something that is going to happen - typically something with an uncertain outcome. It results from the fear of anything, real or imagined, that threatens the person who experiences it, and may have a potent effect on actions and the ability to learn from perceptions.

1. What term describes the process of gathering measurable information to meet evaluation needs? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Assessment.

3. Modern learning theories grew out of two concepts of how people learn: behaviorism and cognitive theory. Explain these two concepts. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Behaviorism- stresses the importance of reinforcing desired behaviors by someone other than the student to shape or control what is learned. In aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement. Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the student's mind. It is more concerned with cognition (the process of thinking and learning) than with stimulus and response.

2. Explain the demonstration-performance technique of flight instruction. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice, the demonstration-performance method is based on the principle that people learn by doing. The instructor first shows the student the correct way to perform an activity and then has the student attempt the same activity. This method of training is divided into five phases: explanation, demonstration, student performance, instructor supervision, and evaluation.

5. What factors affect perception? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Both internal and external factors affect an individual's ability to perceive: a. Physical organism -Provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them: the ability to see, hear, feel, and respond. b. Goals and values - Every experience and sensation that is funneled into a person's central nervous system is colored by the individual's own beliefs and value structures. c. Self-concept- a student's self-image, described in such terms as "confident" or "insecure," has a great influence on the total perceptual process. d. Time and opportunity - Learning some things depends on other perceptions that have preceded that learning, and on the availability of time to sense and relate those new things to the earlier perceptions. e. Element of threat- Confronted with a threat, students tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or condition. Fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field.

11. What are the three domains of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Cognitive (thinking) - a grouping of levels of learning associated with mental activity. The six major levels, in order of increasing complexity, are: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Affective (feelings)-a grouping of levels of learning associated with a person's attitudes, personal beliefs, and values. The levels (in order of increasing complexity) include: receiving, responding, valuing, organization, and characterization. Psychomotor (doing) -a grouping of levels of learning associated with physical skill levels, which include (in order of increasing complexity): perception, set, guided response, mechanism, complex overt response, adaptation, and origination.

18. What are the three stages of acquiring skill knowledge? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Cognitive -Cognitive learning has a basis in factual knowledge; since the student has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or her to a basic skill. The student then memorizes the steps required to perform the skill. Associative - As the storage of skill knowledge through practice continues, the student learns to associate individual steps in performance with likely outcomes. They no longer perform a series of memorized steps, but are able to assess their progress along the way and make adjustments in performance. Automatic Response Stage - As procedures become automatic, less attention is required to carry them out, so it is possible to do other things simultaneously, or at least do other things more comfortably.

10. What are the barriers to effective communication? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object- This results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent. Words and symbols do not always represent the same thing to every person. Overuse of abstractions - Abstractions are words that are general rather than specific. They stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced and things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of students. The word "aircraft" is an abstract word that might mean an airplane, a helicopter, an airship, etc. Interference -The prevention of a process or activity from being carried out properly; composed of factors outside the control of the instructor which include physiological (hearing loss, injury, or physical illness), environmental (noise, etc.), and psychological (fear of a situation or mistrust between the instructor and student). Lack of common experience - between the instructor and the student; this is the greatest single barrier to effective communication; communication can be effective only when the experiences (physical, mental, and emotional) of the people concerned are similar.

6. Define the following: course of training, curriculum, training course outline, and syllabus. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Course of training -a complete series of studies leading to attainment of a specific goal such as a certificate of completion, graduation, or an academic degree. Curriculum -a set of courses in an area of specialization offered by an educational institution. A curriculum for a pilot school usually includes courses for various pilot certificates and ratings. Training course outline - the content of a particular course within a curriculum; it normally includes statements of objectives, descriptions of teaching aids, definitions of assessment criteria, and indications of desired outcomes. Syllabus -a summary or outline of a course of study that generally contains a description of each lesson, including objectives and completion standards.

3. What are defense mechanisms? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Defense mechanisms are subconscious ego-protecting reactions to unpleasant situations. They soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one's self-image.

22. What are the three types of practice? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Deliberate -practice aimed at a particular goal; the student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice; the feedback points out discrepancies and the student focuses on eliminating those discrepancies. Blocked--practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic; doing the same task over and over leads to better short-term performance, but poorer long-term learning; it tends to fool not only the student but the instructor into thinking the skills have been well learned. Random -mixing up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session, which results in better retention. By performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the student begins to recognize the similarities and differences of each skill, which makes it more meaningful.

5. What is one of the most common forms of assessment used by instructors? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Direct or indirect oral questioning. Questions may be loosely classified as "fact" questions or "HOTS" questions. Answers to fact questions are based on memory or recall and usually concern who, what, when, and where. HOTS questions involve why or how and require the student to combine knowledge of facts with an ability to analyze situations, solve problems, and arrive at conclusions.

7. To teach effectively, why must an instructor make sure that a student's physiological needs are met first? (FAA-H-8083-9)

During flight training, students may react to unfamiliar noises or vibrations, experience unfamiliar sensations due to G-force, or have an uncomfortable feeling in their stomach. To teach effectively, instructors cannot ignore the existence of these negative factors, nor should they ridicule students who are adversely affected. These negative sensations can usually be overcome by understanding the nature of their causes. Remember, a sick student does not learn well.

3. Explain the "positive exchange of flight controls" concept as it relates to flight training. (FAA-H-8083-9)

During flight training, there must always be a clear understanding between students and flight instructors about who has control of the aircraft. There should be a preflight briefing that includes the procedure for the exchange of flight controls. A positive three-step process in the exchange of flight controls between pilots is a proven procedure and one that is strongly recommended.

6. What are the characteristics of effective questions that instructors must consider? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Effective questions: a. Apply to the subject of instruction. b. Are brief and concise, but also clear and definite. c. Are adapted to the ability, experience, and stage of training of the students. d. Center on only one idea (limited to who, what, when, where, how, or why - not a combination). e. Present a challenge to the students.

12. What is meant by the term "e-learning"? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Electronic learning is any type of education delivered through the use of an electronic component such as the Internet, a network, a stand-alone computer, CD/DVDs, video conferencing, websites, or e-mail. The advantages of e-learning are that it is learner-centered, easily updated, accessible anytime/anywhere, and cost competitive.

9. When evaluating a student's ability to perform a maneuver or procedure, an instructor should follow what general guidelines? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Evaluation of student's ability is based upon: a. Established standards of performance suitably modified to the student's experience and stage of development. b. Consideration of the student's mastery of the elements involved in the maneuver or procedure, rather than merely the overall performance. c. Keeping the student informed of their progress by identifying deficiencies and suggesting corrective measures d. Not immediately correcting student errors when a mistake is made (safety permitting). It is difficult for students to learn if they seldom have the opportunity to correct an error.

14. What are the five essential phases of the demonstration-performance method of teaching? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Explanation - must be clear, be pertinent to the objectives of the lesson presented, and convey to students the precise actions they are to perform. Demonstration - the instructor must show students the actions necessary to perform a skill. Student performance - requires students to act and do. Through doing, students learn to follow correct procedures and to reach established standards. Instructor supervision - instructor supervises and coaches as necessary. Evaluation - the instructor judges student performance and determines effectiveness of instruction.

32. The ability to retrieve knowledge from memory depends on what two things? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Frequency - how often the knowledge has been used in the past. Recency - how recently the knowledge has been used.

1. What is the definition of human behavior? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Human behavior is the product of factors that cause people to act in predictable ways. It can also be defined as the result of a person's attempt to satisfy certain needs. A working knowledge of human behavior can help an instructor better understand students.

10. During a student's training, when is an assessment more appropriate than a critique? (FAA-H-8083-9)

In the initial stages of skill acquisition, practical suggestions are more valuable to the student than a grade. Early assessment is usually teacher-oriented and provides a check on teaching effectiveness. It can be used to predict eventual student learning proficiency, and help the teacher locate special problem areas.

6. Define "insight." (FAA-H-8083-9)

Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. It is the mental relating and grouping of associated perceptions. Creating insight is one of the instructor's major responsibilities.

19. Explain the difference between instructional aids and training media. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Instructional aids - devices that assist an instructor in the teaching-learning process. They are not self-supporting; they support, supplement, or reinforce what is being taught. Training media - any physical means that communicates an instructional message to students. Examples include printed text, interactive computer programs, flight training devices, etc.

22. Why are instructional aids useful in helping students learn? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Instructional aids help: a. Gain and hold the attention of students b. Increase students' knowledge retention c. Provide an accurate visual image and make learning easier for the student d. Clarify the relationships between material objects and concepts. e. Instructors teach more in a shorter time frame.

5. The traditional organization for a lesson consists of what steps? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Introduction -consists of three elements: *Attention- the instructor gains the student's attention and focuses it on the subject. *Motivation - the instructor offers the student specific reasons why the lesson content is important. *Overview - the instructor gives a clear concise presentation of what is to be covered during the lesson. Development - the main part of the lesson in which the instructor logically organizes the material to show the relationships of the main points in one of the following ways: from past to present, simple to complex, known to unknown, or most-frequently used to least-frequently used. Conclusion - retraces the important elements of the lesson and relates them to the objective. This review reinforces student learning and improves the retention of what has been learned. No new ideas should be introduced.

20. Why is it important for a flight instructor to always make certain that a student is aware of their progress? (FAA-H-8083-9)

It's as important for students to know when they are right as when they are wrong. They should be told as soon after the performance as possible, and should not be allowed to practice mistakes. It's more difficult to unlearn a mistake, and then learn the skill correctly, than to learn it correctly in the first place.

2. How can you tell if your student has "learned" what you have taught? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Learning can be defined as a change in the behavior of the learner as a result of experience. If a change in your student's behavior has not occurred, then the student probably has not learned what you taught.

17. What are the basic characteristics of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Learning is: Purposeful - Each student is a unique individual whose past experience affects readiness to learn and understanding of the requirements involved. Students have fairly definite ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Experience -Learning is an individual process from personal experiences. Previous experience conditions a person to respond to some things and ignore others. Knowledge cannot be poured into the student's head. Multifaceted - Learning may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once. Active - process Students do not soak up knowledge like a sponge absorbs water. For students to learn, they must react and respond - perhaps outwardly, or perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.

1. What is the definition of the term "learning theory"? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Learning theory is the body of principles that explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.

11. Describe your overall responsibility as an instructor regarding endorsements and recommendations for knowledge tests and practical tests. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Making an endorsement or signing a recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the flight instructor. If an instructor fails to ensure a student pilot or additional rating pilot meets the requirements of regulations prior to making endorsements or recommendations, that instructor is exhibiting a serious deficiency in performance. The FAA holds him or her accountable. It is also a breach of faith with the student or applicant.

10. How can an instructor ensure that a student has developed the ability and required skills necessary to conduct their first solo flight safely? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Mastery of the skill set includes consistent use and continued growth as well as increased accuracy of performance. Generally, a student is ready for the first solo flight when the instructor observes the student from preflight to engine start to engine shutdown, and the student performs consistently, without the need for instructor assistance.

38. Why does use of the building block technique of instruction ensure proper habits and correct techniques are learned during training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

New learning and habit patterns are based on a solid foundation of experience and/or old learning. Everything from intricate cognitive processes to simple motor skills depends on what the student already knows and how that knowledge can be applied in the present. As knowledge and skill increase, there is an expanding base upon which to build for future learning.

4. How can an instructor ensure that an adequate level of instruction is provided to a student? (FAA-H-8083-9)

No two students are alike, and a particular method of instruction cannot be equally effective for all students. An instructor should tailor teaching techniques to the student by first analyzing the student's personality, thinking, and ability. The instructor should also be prepared to change instruction methods as the student advances through successive stages of training.

7. What are several examples both of a student's normal reactions and abnormal reactions to stress?

Normal reactions - Responds rapidly and exactly within the limits of their experience and training; the individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of their surroundings. Abnormal reactions -The response to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at least inadequate; response may be random or illogical or may be more than is called for by the situation.

11. Your student asks you a question for which you don't know the answer. How will you respond? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Occasionally, a student asks a question that the instructor cannot answer. In such cases, the instructor should freely admit not knowing the answer, but should promise to get the answer or, if practicable, offer to help the student look it up in available references.

1. What are the four teaching skills that are essential to being an effective instructor? (FAA-H-8083-9)

People skills, subject matter expertise, management skills, and assessment skills.

4. Why are perceptions so important to learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Perceptions result when a person gives meaning to external stimuli or sensations. Initially, all learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Meaning derived from perception is influenced by an individual's experience and many other factors.

8. What are the two types of training objectives used in aviation training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Performance-based objectives define what needs to be done and how it will be done. They consist of three elements: a description of the skill or behavior, conditions, and criteria. Decision-based objectives teach critical thinking skills such as risk management and ADM. They facilitate a higher level of learning and application through the use of dynamic and meaningful scenarios.

37. When learning two skills, when does a positive transfer of learning occur and when does a negative transfer of learning occur? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Positive transfer occurs if the learning of skill A helps to learn skill B. Negative transfer -occurs if the learning of skill A hinders the learning of skill B. Example: The practice of slow flight helps the student learn short-field landings (positive transfer). Practice in making a landing approach in an airplane may hinder learning to make an approach in a helicopter (negative transfer).

2. Explain the four basic steps involved in the teaching process. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Preparation - determining the scope of the lesson, the objec-tives, and the goals to be attained, and ensuring that the necessary supplies are available. Presentation- consists of delivering information or demonstrating the skills that make up the lesson. Delivery could be through the lecture method, guided discussion method, demonstration-performance method, etc. Application- the student performs the procedure or demonstrates the knowledge required in the lesson. Review and evaluation -consists of a review of all material and an evaluation of the student's performance.

17. Describe the "problem-based" approach to teaching. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Problem-based learning (PBL) presents lessons in a way that confronts students with problems that are encountered in real life, which forces them to reach real-world solutions. It starts with a carefully constructed problem for which there is no single solution. The benefit of PBL lies in helping learners gain a deeper understanding of the information and in improving their ability to recall the information.

19. How does a student develop and become proficient at a skill? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Progress depends on repeated practice and it tends to follow what is known as the "power law of practice." This law states that the speed of performance of a task improves as a power of the number of times that the task is performed. Simply stated, practice improves performance.

7. Effective oral assessment should never include what types of questions? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Puzzle - questions with many subparts. Oversize - questions that are too general, covering a wide subject area. Toss-up - questions for which there is more than one correct answer. Bewilderment - questions with unclear content. Irrelevant - questions that are unrelated to what is being discussed. Trick - questions that cause students to think they are in a battle of wits with the instructor.

31. What are the three types of memory? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Sensory memory - receives and processes input from the environment according to the individual's pre-conceived concept of what is important. Information is then sent to short-term memory. Short-term memory - the part of the memory where information is stored briefly (30 seconds), after which it may rapidly fade or be consolidated into long-term memory. Long-term memory - relatively permanent storage of unlimited information; it is possible for memories in long-term memory to remain there for a lifetime.

4. Explain the eight common defense mechanisms that may apply to students. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Repression- A person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind. Thoughts or information a person is unable to cope with are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or never. Denial -A refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening. Denial is the refusal to acknowledge what has happened, is happening, or will happen. Compensation- Students often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more positive one. Projection - Students may relegate the blame for their own shortcomings and mistakes to others or attribute their motives, desires, and characteristics to others. Rationalization - Justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable; the substitution of excuses for reasons. Reaction formation - Faking a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. Fantasy- A student engages in daydreaming about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are. Displacement- An unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less-threatening substitute. It avoids the risk associated with feeling unpleasant emotions by transferring them toward someone or something unthreatening.

11. How can flight instructors develop their instructional communication skills? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Role playing - Instructional communication experience comes from actually doing it and is leaned by role playing during the instructor's initial training, For example, an instructor applicant can fly with a CFI who assumes the role of a student pilot. Instructional communication - Instructors must always determine whether the student has actually received and retained the knowledge. Communication has not occurred unless the desired results of the communication have taken place. Also, instructors should not be afraid to use examples of past experiences to illustrate particular points. Listening - Instructors must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively. One way of doing this is to be a good listener. In addition, instructors can improve information transfer by teaching their students how to listen. Questioning -Good questioning can determine how well the student understands what is being taught. It also shows the student that the instructor is paying attention and is interested in the student's response. Instructional enhancement -The more an instructor knows about a subject, the better the instructor is at conveying that information. Additional knowledge and training improves the instructor's confidence and gives the instructional presentation more depth.

12. What are the four basic levels of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Rote - the ability to repeat something back that was learned but not necessarily understood. Understanding - to comprehend or grasp the nature or meaning of something. Application - the act of putting something to use that has been learned and understood. Correlation - associating what has been learned, understood, and applied with previous or subsequent learning; this level is the overall objective of aviation instruction.

18. What are the three types of problem-based instruction? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Scenario based - training that uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. Collaborative problem-solving - collaboration (two or more people working together) to solve problems. Case study - a written or oral account of a real-world situation that contains a message that educates the student.

24. What is scenario-based training and what makes a good scenario? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Scenario-based training (SBT) is a training method that uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment. A good scenario has a clear set of objectives, is tailored to the needs of the student, and capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.

34. Why do students forget information? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Several theories on why people forget exist, including: Fading -a person forgets information that is not used for an extended period of time. Interference - people forget because a certain experience has overshadowed it or the learning of similar things has intervened. Repression or suppression - a memory is pushed out of reach because the individual does not want to remember feelings associated with it. Retrieval failure - the inability to retrieve information.

27. What are the two kinds of errors? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Slip -occurs when a person plans to do one thing but then inadvertently does something else. Slips are errors of action and can take on a variety of forms. Mistake -occurs when a person plans to do the wrong thing and is successful. Mistakes are errors of thought and are sometimes the result of gaps or misconceptions in the student's understanding.

8. What are the three basic elements of communication? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Source -speaker, writer, or instructor Symbols--words or signs Receiver- listener, reader, or student

29. How can a student making errors be a valuable learning resource? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Students naturally make errors, which instructors can utilize to help students learn while being careful not to let the student practice doing the wrong thing. When a student makes an error, it is useful to ask the student to consider why the error happened, and what could be done differently to prevent the error from happening again in the future.

30. Define "memory." (FAA-H-8083-9)

The ability of people to encode (initial perception and registration of information), store (retention of encoded information over time), and retrieve (processes involved in using stored information) information.

16. Describe the "drill and practice" method of teaching. (FAA-H-8083-9)

The drill and practice method is based on the learning principle of exercise, which holds that connections are strengthened with practice. It promotes learning through repetition because those things most often repeated are best remembered.

9. How can an instructor help students in acquiring knowledge? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The instructor should: a. Ask students to recite or practice newly acquired knowledge. b. Ask questions that probe students' understanding and prompt them to think about what they have learned. c. Present opportunities for students to apply what they know to solving problems or making decisions. d. Present students with problems and decisions that test the limits of their knowledge. e. Demonstrate the benefits of understanding and being able to apply knowledge. f. Introduce new topics as they support the objectives of the lesson, whenever possible.

39. How can an instructor help students remember what they have learned? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The instructor should: a. Discuss the difference between short-term memory and long-term memory. b. Explain the effect of frequent and recent usage of knowledge on remembering and forgetting. c. Explain the effect of depth of understanding on remembering and forgetting. d. Encourage student use of mnemonic devices while studying. e. Explain the benefits of studying at regularly spaced intervals, and the disadvantages of "cramming."

4. What elements should a lesson plan contain? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The lesson objective, content, schedule, equipment, instructor's actions, student's actions, and completion standards.

5. When should application of the minimum acceptable standards for passing a checkride be introduced during flight training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The minimum standards to pass the checkride should be kept in the proper perspective, with emphasis on the student meeting test standards increasing later in the training- the ACS (PTS) is a testing document, not a teaching document.

3. Why is it important to use standards of performance when training students? (FAA-H-8083-9)

The use of standards, and measurement against standards, is key to helping students learn. Meeting standards holds its own satisfaction for students. People want to feel capable and they are proud of the successful achievement of difficult goals.

10. What are the principles (laws) of learning? (FAA-H-8083-9)

They are rules and principles that apply generally to the learning process. The first three are the basic laws; the last three are the result of experimental studies: Readiness- Individuals learn best when they are ready to learn, and they do not learn well if they see no reason for it or lack motivation. If students have a strong purpose, a clear objective, and a true reason for learning something, they make more progress. Exercise- Memory and connections between concepts are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage "use it or lose it." The student needs to practice what has been learned in order to understand and remember it. Effect-Learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, but weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling. Primacy- The state of being first often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason that an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student's initial learning must be right. Intensity - A vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. Recency -The things most recently learned are best remembered.

13. Explain the "demonstration-performance" method of teaching. (FAA-H-8083-9)

This method is based on the principle that people learn by doing. The instructor first shows the student the correct way to perform an activity and then has the student attempt the same activity. Students observe the skill and then try to reproduce it. This method is best used for the mastery of mental or physical skills that require practice.

10. Describe the "lecture" method of teaching. (FAA-H-8083-9)

This method is usually delivered by an instructor to a group of students with the use of instructional aids and training devices. Lectures are useful for the presentation of new material, summarizing ideas, and showing relationships between theory and practice. Types of lectures include the teaching lecture, illustrated talk, briefing, and formal lecture. Lectures may be conducted in a formal or informal manner.

11. Explain the "guided discussion" method of teaching. (FAA-H-8083-9)

This method relies on student possession of a level of knowledge about the topic to be discussed, either through reading prior to class or a short lecture to set up the topic to be discussed. It employs instructor-guided discussion with the instructor maintaining control of the discussion. The goal of guided discussions is to draw out what the students know.

15. Explain the steps involved in the Telling-and-Doing technique of flight instructing. (FAA-H-8083-9)

This technique is a variation of the demonstration-performance method and is very effective in teaching procedures and maneuvers: Instructor Tells - Instructor Does Student Tells - Instructor Does Student Tells - Student Does Instructor evaluates - Student Does

4. Briefly describe the two broad categories of assessment. (FAA-H-8083-9)

Traditional assessment - written testing, such as multiple choice, matching, true/false, or fill-in-the-blank; normally used to judge or evaluate the student's progress at the rote and understanding levels of learning. Authentic assessment - the student is asked to perform real-world tasks and demonstrate a meaningful application of skills and competencies; requires the student to use critical thinking skills and exhibit in-depth knowledge by generating a solution instead of merely choosing a response.

36. What is meant by the term "transfer of learning"? (FAA-H-8083-9)

Transfer of learning is defined as the ability to apply knowledge or procedures learned in one context to new contexts. Learning occurs more quickly and a deeper understanding of the task develops if the learner brings some knowledge or skills from previous learning.

9. Explain the three characteristics that instructors must understand about their students before effective communication can take place. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Abilities -An instructor needs to determine the abilities of the student in order to properly communicate. b. Attitudes -The attitudes that students exhibit may indicate resistance, willingness, or passive neutrality. c. Experiences -Student experience, background, and educational level determine the approach an instructor takes.

20. When planning a lesson, what general guidelines may be used concerning the use of instructional aids? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Clearly establish the lesson objective; be certain of what is to be communicated. b. Gather the necessary data by researching for support material. c. Organize the material into an outline or a lesson plan. The plan should include all key points that need to be covered. d. Select the ideas to be supported with instructional aids. The aids should be concentrated on the key points.

12. How can instructors improve upon their effectiveness and qualifications as teachers? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Continuing Education - Instructors should continually update their knowledge and skills. Possible resources to use for as are: • Government--Pilot Proficiency Awards Program, Gold Seal CFI certificate, FAA Safety Seminars. • Educational/training institutions- local community colleges technical schools etc. • Commercial organizations- provide videos, computer-based training, printed material, etc. • Industry organizations - AOPA, Air Safety Institute, etc. b. Sources of material - Instructors should maintain access to current flight publications, which include FAA regulations, the Aeronautical Information Manual, Airman Certification Standards, Practical Test Standards, and FAA handbooks.

3. Describe the steps necessary in preparing a lesson plan. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Determine the objective of the lesson. b. Research the subject as defined by the objective. c. Determine the method of instruction and lesson plan format. d. Decide how to organize the lesson and select suitable supporting material. e. Assemble training aids. f. Write the lesson plan outline.

7. What are the initial steps in planning a course of training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Determine the overall objectives and standards. b. Identify the foundation blocks of learning. c. Design and develop the blocks of learning.

12. Name several techniques instructors can use to become better at listening to their students. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Do not interrupt. b. Do not judge. c. Think before answering. d. Be close enough to hear. e. Watch non-verbal behavior. f. Beware of biases. g. Look for underlying feelings. h. Concentrate. i. Avoid rehearsing answers while listening. j. Do not insist on the last word.

2. What additional responsibilities do flight instructors have (in addition to the above)? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Evaluation of student piloting ability b. Pilot supervision c. Practical test recommendations d. Flight instructor endorsements e. Additional training and endorsements f. Pilot proficiency g. Responsibility to see and avoid h. Student's pre-solo flight thought process

1. What are several common obstacles to learning during flight instruction? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Feeling of unfair treatment b. Impatience to proceed to more interesting operations c. Worry or lack of interest d. Physical discomfort, illness, fatigue, and dehydration e. Apathy due to inadequate instruction f. Anxiety

21. When is use of instructional aids appropriate? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. For long segments of a technical description. b. When a point is complex and difficult to put into words. c. When instructors finds themselves forming visual images. d. When students are puzzled by an explanation or description.

1. What are the five main responsibilities of all flight instructors with regards to the learning process? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Help students learn - make learning interesting and enjoyable. b. Provide adequate instruction - analyze student's personality, thinking, and ability. c. Demand adequate standards of performance -continuous evaluation of both the instructor and the student's standard of performance. d. Emphasize the positive - positive instruction results in positive learning. e. Ensure aviation safety -emphasize safety by example.

7. How can an instructor ensure that a student develops insight during flight training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Help the student understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task to be learned. b. Provide a secure and non-threatening environment in which to learn. c. Help the student acquire and maintain a favorable self-concept.

9. Name several useful methods for critique of a student's performance. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Instructor/student critique - The instructor leads a group discussion in which members of the class are invited to offer criticism of a performance. This method should be carefully controlled by the instructor. It must have a clear purpose, be organized, and not be allowed to degenerate into a random free-for-all. b. Student-led critique -The instructor asks a student to lead the assessment. Because of student inexperience in the lesson area, student-led assessments may not be efficient, but they can generate student interest and learning. c. Small group critique - The class is divided into small groups, each assigned a specific area to analyze. Each group presents its findings to the class and the combined reports from the groups result in a comprehensive assessment. d. Individual student critique by another student -The instructor may require another student to present the entire assessment. Discussion of the performance and of the assessment can often allow the group to accept more ownership of the ideas expressed. e. Self-critique - A student critiques their personal performance. A self-critique must be controlled and supervised by the instructor. f. Written critique - This method has three advantages. First, the instructor can devote more time and thought to it than to an oral assessment. Second, students can keep written assessments and refer to them whenever they wish. Third, the student has a permanent record of all suggestions, recommendations, and opinions.

2. Why is an effective assessment an important component in the teaching and learning process? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. It provides the instructor and student with information on how well the student is progressing. b. It provides feedback to the student, including direction and guidance on how to improve performance. c. It contributes to the development of aeronautical decision making (ADM) and judgment skills by helping develop the student's ability to accurately evaluate their own knowledge and performance. d. It helps the instructor see where more emphasis is needed by highlighting the areas in which a student's performance is incorrect or inadequate.

13. Briefly describe the six major levels of the cognitive domain. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Knowledge -the least complex level; remembering information. b. Comprehension - understanding and explaining the meaning of information. c. Application - using abstractions in concrete situations. d. Analysis - breaking down a whole into component parts. e. Synthesis - putting parts together to form a new and integrated whole. f. Evaluation - making judgments about the merits of ideas, materials, and phenomena; the most complex level.

33. What are several threats to remembering what has been learned during training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Lack of frequent usage in the past - students must engage in regular practice of what they have learned in order to retain that knowledge. b. Lack of understanding - students may lack understanding that might serve to assist them in recalling what they've learned. Study practices that combine repetition of knowledge with efforts to understand the knowledge lead to best results.

28. Although errors cannot be eliminated entirely, what are several ways to reduce them? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Learning and practicing b. Taking time c. Checking for errors d. Using reminders e. Developing routines f. Raising awareness

9. What are several common teaching methods an instructor may use to present instructional material? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Lecture method - delivered by an instructor to a group of students. b. Discussion method - short lecture followed by instructor-student and student-student discussion. c. Guided discussion method - instructor participates only as necessary to keep the group focused on the subject. d. Problem-based learning - instructor confronts students with problems encountered in real life that force them to reach real-world solutions. e. E-learning - computer-based method of delivery. f. Cooperative or group learning - students organized into small groups that work together to maximize their own and each other's learning. g. Demonstration-performance method - instructor first shows the student correct way to perform an activity and then has the student attempt the same activity. h. Drill and practice method - based on the principle that connections are strengthened with practice.

8. How does a student acquire knowledge (3 phases)? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Memorization b. Understanding c. Application

6. How can an instructor minimize student frustrations during training? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Motivate students -They will gain more if they want to learn than if they are forced to learn. b. Keep students informed Tell students what is expected of them and what they can expect in return. c. Approach students as individuals -Each individual has a unique personality. d. Give credit when due -Praise and credit from the instructor provides incentive to do better. e. Criticize constructively - It is important to identify mistakes and failures and explain how to correct them. f. Be consistent -The instructor's philosophy and actions must be consistent. g. Admit errors - No one, including students, expects an instructor to be perfect.

16. What are the four practical instructional levels of the psychomotor domain? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Observation - learner observes a more experienced person perform the skill. b. Imitation - learner attempts to copy the skill. c. Practice -learner repeatedly tries a specific activity. d. Habit- learner can perform the skill in twice the time it takes an instructor to perform it.

15. Briefly describe the seven educational objective levels of the psychomotor domain. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Perception awareness of sensory stimulus. b. Set -relates cues/knows. c. Guided Response - performs as demonstrated. d. Mechanism- performs simple acts well. e. Complex Overt Response - skillful performance of complex acts. f. Adaptation -modifies for special problems. g. Origination - new movement patterns, creativity.

2. Control of human behavior involves understanding human needs. What are these basic needs, and how are they important to the instructor-student relationship? (FAA-H-8083-8)

a. Physiological -The need for air, food, water, unless these biological needs are met, a person cannot concentrate fully on learning, b. Security- If a student does not feel safe, they cannot concentrate on learning. c. Belonging- Students are usually out of their normal surroundings during training, and their need for association and belonging is more pronounced. d. Self-esteem-Humans have a need for a stable, firmly based, high level of self-respect and respect from others. High self-esteem results in self-confidence, independence, achievement, competence, and knowledge. e. Cognitive -Humans have a deep need to understand what is going on around them. When a person understands what is going on, he or she can either control the situation or make an informed choice about what steps might be taken next. f. Aesthetic -Needs connect directly with human emotions. When someone likes another person or an object, the reasons are not examined- he or she simply likes it. This need can factor into the student instructor relationship. g. Self-actualization- A person's need to be and do that which the person was "born to do." Helping a student achieve his or her individual potential in aviation offers the greatest challenge as well as reward to the instructor.

35. What principles facilitate retention of learning or remembering? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Praise - stimulates remembering; absence of praise or recognition discourages remembering. b. Association - recall is promoted by association. c. Attitudes -favorable attitudes aid retention; people learn and remember only what they wish to know. d. Senses -learning with all senses is most effective. e. Repetition - meaningful repetition aids recall, but mere repetition does not guarantee retention.

14. Briefly describe the five levels of the affective domain. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Receiving - willingness to pay attention; least complex level. b. Responding - reacts voluntarily or complies. c. Valuing -acceptance. d. Organization - rearrangement of value system. e. Characterization - incorporates value into life; most complex level.

25. For SBT instruction to be effective, what information should the instructor and student establish before training begins? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Scenario destination(s) b. Desired student learning outcome(s) c. Desired level of student performance d. Possible inflight scenario changes

8. Professionalism can be achieved by practicing certain characteristics when teaching a student. What are some of those characteristics? (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. Sincerity - Instructors should be straightforward and honest. b. Acceptance of the student - Instructors should accept students as they are, including faults and problems. c. Personal appearance and habits - These have an important effect on the professional image of the instructor. d. Demeanor - The attitude and behavior of the instructor contributes much to professional image. e. Proper language - The use of profane/obscene language leads to distrust and lack of confidence in instructor.

4. Describe the three-step process used for the positive exchange of flight controls. (FAA-H-8083-9)

a. When the flight instructor wants the student to take control of the aircraft, the instructor says to the student: "You have the flight controls." b. The student acknowledges immediately by saying, "I have the flight controls". c. The flight instructor again says: "You have the flight controls." Note: During this procedure, a visual check is recommended to see that the other person actually has the flight controls. When returning the controls to the instructor, the student should follow the same procedure the instructor used when giving control to the student.