8.2 Contrast two theories explaining altruism in humans.

8.2 Madsen et. al (2007) evaluation

+ it does simulate the altruistic definition well with the situation, because the participant is only benefitting in that they would increase the survival of their relatives, at the cost of being in pain - some people might have not taken this experiment seriously and thus bowed out early. - the relative that the money or food was going to may not have needed that money so the participant did not feel the need to win money/food for them - Only zulu male sample - only takes into account 2 different cultures regarding the broad concept of altruism

8.2 Kin Selection Evaluation

+ theory supported by empirical studies which generally shows preference for helping close blood relatives + mathematical computer simulations demonstrate that kin selection is one of the possible selection processes in evolution together with reciprocity - theory cant explain why people help non relatives (cooperation among non relatives, spontaneous acts of bravery, adoption of non relative children) - human kinship patterns are not necessarily based upon blood tie. Shared developmental environment, familiarity, and social bonding also contribute to kinship according to anthropologists.

8.2 Empathy-Altruism Evaluation

+ theory supported by many experimental studies + can to some extent predict conditions under which altruistic behaviour will happen (more empathy, more likely to help and vice versa) - Difficult to generalise findings from experiments such as this one in real life problem that it is not possible to determine whether altruisms the result of empathetic motivation or the motivation to escape one's own negative emotions - Empathy doesn't always come before altruistic behaviour - People may help for other reasons.

Toi & Batson (1982) evaluation

- Evaluation: + Batson's findings have been consistently replicated, so it appears that the theory of empathy-altruism is consistent + Batson's model makes it easier to predict behaviour - The research has only investigated short-term altruism, and the interpretation of the results has not taken personality factors into account. - Difficult to measure one's level of empathy. Batson argues that empathy is an innate trait in all of us, but it is not clear why we do not experience a predictable level of empathy in a given situation.

8.2 Introduction

= Altruism: giving help to another person for no anticipated reward at the potential cost to oneself - Batson (1991): 'a motivational state with the ultimate goal of increasing another's welfare'. = Altruism (psychological): Prosocial behaviours without expectation of benefit to oneself. Sharing, helping and cooperation are altruistic behaviours. = Altruism evolution: A behaviour that reduces the fitness (chance of survival) of the helper but increases the fitness of the victim

8.2 Altruism theories & studies

= Kin Selection Theory - Madsen et al (2007) = The Empathy - Altruism Model - Toi and Batson (1982)

8.2 Contrasting the two theories

= Kin selection theory: FOCUS on genes that operate at a biological level without human consciousness. Theory largely based on observation of animals and insects. Humans more complex. (BIO) = EA Theory - FOCUS on human emotion empathy as the primary motivating factor in altruism (COGNITIVE ) = Kin selection theory - ALTRUISM SEEN AS behaviour that has a cost to the individual = EA Theory - ALTRUISM SEEN AS behaviour that increases another's welfare = Kin selection theory - DISPOSITIONAL (instinct) = EA theory - SITUATIONAL = Kin selection theory - CAN EXPLAIN observations of people who behave more altruistically towards kin but cannot really explain why. May not be for biological reasons. - CANT EXPLAIN altruistic behaviour towards non relatives = EA theory - CAN EXPLAIN why people tend to behave altruistically in situations that evoke empathy - CANT EXPLAIN linear relationship. People might feel empathy but choose not to help. = Kin selection theory - DIFFICULT TO TEST evolutionary theories as such but there is empirical support for kin altruism (organ donation) = EA theory - EASY TO TEST theory under lab conditions but it is difficult to operationalize concepts like empathy.

8.2 Sime 1983

= People fled from burning buildings - Individuals become separated before exit when with unrelated group members. - Individuals stay together with family members before exit. = Favours group survival.

8.2 Kin Selection Theory

= Selfish Gene Theory (Dawkin, 1989) - Drive for the survival and propagation of one's own genes. Since animals living in social groups share many genes, altruistic behavior is seen as a way to guarantee that one's own genes will be passed on the future generations. = Individuals are more likely to sacrifice themselves for relatives than non-relatives. - By sacrificing oneself for relatives, one still contributes to the survival of their genes by helping their close relatives. = Studies (Sime 1983) (Madsen et. al 2007)

8.2 Madsen et. al (2007)

= Type of study: laboratory experiment = Aim: to test the kin selection hypothesis experimentally using participants of 2 different cultures (UK and South Africa) = Procedure: -participants were asked to perform a physical exercise that becomes increasingly painful: wall sit. -each participant supplied list of biological relatives outside from home. -participants told that random relative would receive payment according to length of time seated against wall UK: 40p/20s. On average participants spent more time when money was going to closer family member. Females were slightly more equitable. South Africa: Money substituted for food. Again, longer for closer family members. Conclusion: Kin selection is a powerful motivator to perform altruistic deeds.

8.2 Toi and Batson (1982)

Carol Study Experimental Study = Aim: test to see if participants would help carol by writing to her, meeting with her, and sharing lecture notes = Procedure: Participants asked to help a girl named Carol who couldn't attend lectures as she lost her legs. She needed help with lecture notes. Participants listened to an audio recording of Carol. - Condition 1: Participants were asked to focus on Carol's feelings (High empathy condition) - Condition 2: Participants were not asked to focus on Carol's feelings (Low empathy condition) #2 IV B: High or low cost conditions - Condition 1: High cost. Carol would be in the class. It would be embarrassing to deny her the lecture notes - Condition 2: Low cost. Carol would not be in the class. It would not be as embarrassing to deny her the lecture notes. = Results: -High empathy group were equally likely to help in either condition, -Low empathy group was more likely to help Carol in the high cost condition

8.2 The Empathy-Altruism Model

assumes that some helpful actions are truly altruistic because they are motivated by the genuine desire to increase another's welfare. The helper's motives determine whether a behavior is altruistic or not. - Observing another person's situation may either produce: -Empathic concern(positive emotions)-evokes altruistic motivation to reduce another person's distress -Personal distress (negative emotions)- evokes an egoistic motivation to reduce one's own distress