A Level Music Terminology

Figure

A clearly defined melodic fragment such as the six notes heard in the ripieno violin 1 part in bars 14-15 of NAM 1. This is repeated in sequence in the next six bars. When a figure such as this is repeated exactly, varied, or used in sequence the result is called figuration. See also Motif.

Rounded binary form

A common type of binary form in which material from the opening returns towards the end of the second section, transposed to the tonic key if necessary. This structure, which could be represented as II:A:III:BA1=11, is used in the first movement of NAM 21 and in the first two movements of NAM 23. Rounded binary form differs from ternary form (ABA) in having a B section that does not provide a clear contrast and that leads without a break into the abbreviated repeat of the opening material.

Episode

A contrasting section in rondo form, or a passage in a fugue that does not contain either the subject or answer (e .g. NAM 25, fugue, bars 15-20).

Suspension

A device in which a note is first sounded in a consonant context (the preparation) and is then repeated (or held) over a change of chord so that it becomes a dissonance (this is the suspension itself). Finally, there is a resolution when the suspended note moves by step (usually downwards) to a consonant note. All three stages can be seen in the violin 2 part of NAM 15 : the note A is prepared in bar 17 (it is part of both chords in that bar), it then sounds against the B in the first-violin part at the start of bar 18 (creating the actual suspension) and it resolves by falling to G# (thus forming part of the prevailing chord of E major) in the second half of that bar.

Diminished 7th chord

A four note chord made up of superimposed minor 3rds (or their enharmonic equivalents), creating an interval of a diminished 7th between its outer notes. In the first piece in NAM 23, the notes C#-E-G-Bb in the second half of bar 1 form a diminished-7th chord.

Turn

A four-note ornament that can be indicated by the symbol ~. It usually starts a step above the written note, drops to the written note, falls to the note below and then returns to the written note. The vertical stroke through the symbol in bar 62 of NAM 22 indicates an inverted turn, in which the order of notes described above is reversed.

Head arrangement

A jazz arrangement worked out in rehearsal and then memorised ('in the head'). It starts with a section called the head, which may include a composed theme, and which introduces a chord progression known as the changes. After this the changes are repeated a number of times, above which each principal player improvises variations. Each repetition of the changes is called a chorus. The head may be repeated at the end of the performance, in which case it is called the 'out chorus'. NAM 50 is a head arrangement.

Codetta

A little coda. The final section of part of a movement.

Tierce de Picardie

A major 3rd in the final tonic chord of a passage in a minor key. For example, NAM 33 is in A minor, but the C~ in bar 24 is a tierce de Picardie that makes the last chord A major.

Ostinato

A melodic, rhythmic or chordal pattern repeated throughout a substantial passage of music. For example, the four-note pattern starting in bar 163 of NAM 31 is played 31 times in succession by pianos, harp and timpani. In popular music and jazz a melodic ostinato is known as a riff. A ground bass is a type of ostinato.

Ground bass

A melody in a bass part that is repeated many times and which forms the basis for a continuous set of variations. The 3/2 section of NAM 36 uses a ground bass.

Inverted melody

A melody is inverted when every interval is kept the same but now moves in the opposite direction (e.g. a rising 3rd becomes a falling 3rd). The alto part in bars 5-6 of NAM 32 is an exact inversion of the soprano part above it.

Countermelody

A melody of secondary importance heard at the same time as (and therefore in counterpoint with) a more important melody. In NAM 17 the horn melody in bars 250-253 is combined with a cello countermelody.

Imitative point

A motif that is used as the subject for imitation.

Tertiary shift

A move to an unrelated key that is a 3rd away. Bars 80-84 of NAM 47 are in D major, but a tertiary shift in bar 85 takes the music to the unrelated key of B major at bar 86.

Monothematic

A movement in which the music is based on a single theme, such as NAM 16.

Leitmotif

A musical idea, particularly in German opera of the Romantic period (such as NAM 4) representing an object, emotion or person.

Rondo form

A musical structure in which a refrain in the tonic key alternates with contrasting episodes, creating a pattern such as ABACA or ABACABA. NAM 16 is a rondo.

Minimalism

A musical style of the late 20th century characterised by static or slowly changing harmonies and the interaction of short patterns that repeat and change over a considerable length of time, as in NAM 12. See also Postmodernism. Modernism. A term used to describe styles of the 20th-century century that are experimental and/or atonal, such as NAM 8, 10 and 11. See also Postmodernism.

Homophonic

A musical texture in which one part (usually the uppermost) has the melodic interest, and that the other parts accompany (as opposed to a polyphonic or contrapuntal texture, in which all the parts are melodically interesting). The last five bars of NAM 30 are homophonic; since they consist entirely of block chords, the texture in this passage could also be described as homorhythmic or chordal. The opening of NAM 39 illustrates a different type of homophony, often referred to as 'melody-dominated homophony' or, more simply, 'melody and accompaniment'.

Echappee

A non chord note that moves by step from a harmony note and then leaps in the opposite direction to another harmony note. The first Ab in the first violin part of NAM 16 is an echappee.

Passing note

A non-chord note that most commonly fills the gap between two harmony notes a 3rd apart. In the third bar of NAM 1 the second quaver in both recorder parts is a passing note between harmony notes belonging to the chord of G major. See also Accented passing note.

Dominant preparation

A passage focused on and around the dominant chord to create an expectation that the tonic key will return, often at the end of the development section in sonata form (as in bars 87-93 of NAM 22).

Cross rhythm

A passage in which the rhythmic patterns of one or more parts runs counter to the normal accentuation or grouping of notes in the prevailing metre. The effect of 'two-against-three' in bar 3 of NAM 39 is an example of a crossrhythm.

Refrain

A passage of music that returns at intervals throughout a work, especially in rondo form, although the term is also used to refer to the chorus of a song in verse-and -chorus form.

Virtuoso

A performer of great technical skill. The term is also used to describe music which requires a high level of technical skill.

Cantus firmus

A pre-existing melody used as the basis of a contrapuntal piece, such as the chorale melody played in canon by the wind instruments in the first movement of NAM 28.

Diminution

A proportionate reduction in notelengths. In the melody of NAM 22 the first two notes of bar 3 occur twice in diminution in bar 5. The opposite of diminution is augmentation.

Hemiola

A rhythmic device in which two groups of three beats ('strong-weak-weak, strong-weak-weak') are articulated as three groups of two beats ('strong-weak, strong-weak, strong-weak'). See the example printed on page 104.

Whole-tone scale

A scale in which there is a whole tone between all adjacent notes. It occurs in the clarinet and flute solos in bars 32-33 of NAM5.

Progression

A series of chords designed to follow one another.

Circle of 5ths

A series of chords whose roots are each a 5th lower than the previous chord. In practice the series would soon drop below the lowest note available on most instruments, so the bass usually alternates between falling a 5th and rising a 4th, producing the same series of pitches. NAM 39 starts with a circle of 5ths in bars 1-9.

Motif

A short but memorable melodic fragment that is subject to manipulation through techniques such as sequence, inversion, extension. For example, the motivic material in the first two bars of NAM 16 forms the basis of almost all the thematic material in the entire movement. See also Figure.

Monotone

A single pitch repeated a number of times. The vocal part in bars 60-651 of NAM 52 is sung to a monotone on E.

Glissando

A slide between two different pitches. On an instrument such as the harp, a finger is run across the strings so that a fast succession of pitches is heard. On instruments such as the violin and trombone, and when singing, it is possible to glide smoothly from one pitch to another so that the intervening pitches are not heard as separate notes. Singers and string players often refer to this effect as portamento.

Strophic

A song that uses the same music for every verse (such as NAM 37), as opposed to one which is through-composed (such as NAM 38). Subject (1). One of the sections in the exposition of a movement in sonata form. Bars 1-10 of NAM 22 contain the first subject of this sonata-form movement.

Through-composed

A song with mainly different music for each verse (such as NAM 38) rather than one which is strophic (such as NAM 37).

Register

A specific part of the range of a voice or instrument. For example, the first-violin part in NAM 18 starts in a low register, but climbs to a high register in bars 135-137.

Colotomic

A structure found in gamelan music (such as NAM 59) in which nested patterns of beats are terminated by different types of sound. For example, a small gong might be struck after every four beats, a larger one after every eight beats and the largest of all after a cycle of 16 beats.

Ritornello form

A structure used for large-scale movements in the late-Baroque period, such as NAM 1. An opening instrumental section (called the ritornello) introduces the main musical ideas. It is followed by a contrasting texture, although usually based on similar material, that features one or more soloists. Sections of the ritornello, often in different keys, then alternate with solo textures until the complete ritornello (or most ofit) returns at the end in the tonic key. The fragmentary nature of most of the ritornello sections gives the form its name ritornello, means a 'little return'.

Verse-and-chorus form

A structure used in many popular songs in which verses (that have similar music but different words) alternate with choruses (in which both the music and the words are usually the same on each appearance). There may also be an introduction at the start, a coda at the end, and instrumental sections in the middle to provide variety.

Rhythm and blues

A style of popular music that first developed among African-Americans in the late 1940s. It combined driving rhythms from jazz with the slow blues and, as it came to be used as dance music, louder instruments were introduced, including electric guitars, saxophones and drum kits. Rhythm and blues was an important element in the development of rock and roll in the 1950s and its influence on rock music continued for some years to come. NAM 51 is a rhythm-and-blues song, and can be compared with NAM 52, which is an example of early rock and roll from the same period.

Impressionism

A style particularly associated with late 19th- and early 20th-century French music. Just as Impressionist paintings often blur objects and explore the effects of light, so Impressionist music frequently blurs tonality, using chords primarily for the atmosphere they create rather than as functional harmony, and exploring unusual and delicate tone colours. NAM 5 is typical of the Impressionist style in music.

Pedal (or 'pedal point')

A sustained or repeated note against which changing harmonies are heard. A pedal on the dominant (NAM 16, bars 16-28) tends to create excitement and the feeling that the tension must be resolved by moving to the tonic. A pedal on the tonic anchors the music to its key note (NAM 16, bars 107-1111) . A pedal on both tonic and dominant (a double pedal) is used at the start of NAM 3. If a pedal occurs in an upper part, rather than the bass, it is called an inverted pedal.

Verticalisation

A technique used in serial music, in which adjacent notes of a tone row are sounded simultaneously, as occurs in some bars of the piano part of NAM 8.

Phasing

A technique used in some minimalist music, in which repeating patterns gradually move between being in phase (when their rhythms coincide) and out of phase (when their rhythms do not coincide). See the example on page 59.

Classical

A term often used for any sort of art music, but more specifically referring to music written in styles typical of the period 1750-1825, such as NAM 16, 17 and 22. Coda. The final section of a movement. In tonal music the coda will often consist of material to confirm the tonic key. For example, the coda of NAM 2 (bars 122-133) contains three perfect cadences in the tonic key of D major.

Polarised texture

A term referring to Baroque music in which there is a wide gap between the bass part and the melody line(s), as in NAM 15. In performance, this is filled by improvised chords played on a continuo instrument such as an organ, harpsichord or lute.

Renaissance

A term referring to music written in styles typical of the period 1400-1600, such as NAM 26 (c.1528) and NAM 34 (published 1598). Retrograde. Moving backwards. In movement 3 of NAM 10, the left-hand pitches of bars 19-21 are repeated in reverse (or retrograde) order, starting on the last note (F) of bar 21.

Romantic

A term referring to music written in styles typical of the period 1825-1900, such as NAM 3, 18, 23, 30, 38 and 39.

Similar motion

A term to describe simultaneous melodic lines that move in the same direction. In bars 67-70 of NAM 3 the two clarinet parts move in the same direction. See also Contrary motion, Oblique motion and Parallel motion.

Enharmonic

A term to describe the same pitch notated in two different ways. The final note of NAM 9 could have been written as Ab, but it is enharmonically notated as G# because it functions as a link to the next movement, which is in a sharp key and therefore uses G# rather than Ab.

Unison

A term to describe two or more people performing the same note or melody at the same pitch. In NAM 2 the bassoon plays in unison with the cellos for the first eight bars. In a wind part, the instruction 'a 2' (seen in bar 1 of the oboe part in the same score) means that both instrumentalists should play the same notes in unison. The term is also often used to describe women and men (or boys and men) singing the same melody, as in bars 11, 13 and 14 of NAM 32, although this is more accurately described as singing in octaves.

Pitch bend

A term used in pop and jazz for an expressive short slide in pitch to or from a note, particularly a blue note. In NAM 51 pitch bends are indicated by curved lines in the score, for example in bars 9-10 of the lead-guitar part.

Fill

A term used in pop music to indicate that a passage which is embellished or filled out in performance is not notated in full in the score, as occurs in bar 44 of NAM 54 or in the section starting at bar 17 in NAM 51. The term is also used for a brief improvised flourish (often on drums) to fill the gap between one section of a pop song and the next.

Postmodernism

A term used to describe musical styles of the late 20th and early 21st centuries that have features such as familiar scales and modes, and that often avoid extreme dissonance, unlike the earlier atonal styles of modernism. Examples include NAM 32 and NAM 46. Many people regard minimalism (as seen in NAM 12) as a type of postmodernism.

Modernism

A term used to describe styles of the 20th-century century that are experimental and/or atonal, such as NAM 8. See also Postmodernism.

Harmonic rhythm

A term used to describe the rate at which chords change. There are two chords (I and V7) in bar 1 of NAM 16, but in bars 9-12 the harmonic rhythm is much slower - chord V lasts for two bars and then chord I lasts for two bars.

Oblique motion

A term used to describe the relationship between a melodic part that remains on a single pitch while another part either moves away from it (as at the start of the third piece in NAM 23 , where the melody remains on B while the bass moves down chromatically) or towards it (as at the start of NAM 30, where the bass remains on C and the soprano moves down towards it). See also Contrary motion, Parallel motion and Similar motion.

Polyrhythmic

A texture based on the simultaneous use of two or more conflicting rhythms, as occurs throughout most of NAM 62.

Dialogue

A texture in which motifs pass between different parts. In NAM 35, the falling 3rd in bar 1 is exchanged in dialogue between pairs of parts throughout the first four bars. This is not imitation, because there is no overlap between these motifs.

Heterophony

A texture in which simple and elaborated versions of the same melody are heard together, as in bars 26-39 of NAM 2, where the oboe melody is accompanied by a decorated version of the same tune in the first-violin part.

Monophonic

A texture that consists of a single unaccompanied melody, as in the first phrase of NAM 32.

Contrapuntal

A texture that uses counterpoint.

Triad

A three-note chord formed by two superimposed intervals of a 3rd, such as A-C-E.

Ternary form

A three-part structure consisting of a middle section flanked by two identical or very similar passages. The form can be represented by the letters ABA or, if there are differences in the A section when it returns, ABAl. NAM 18, 19, 25 (prelude only) and 30 all make use of ternary structures. See also Rounded binary form.

Cadential 6/4

A triad in second inversion is called a 6/4 chord because its upper notes form intervals of a 6th and a 4th above its bass note. A cadential 6/4 refers to chord Ic used before a perfect cadence (Ic-V(7)-I) or as the first chord of an imperfect cadence (Ie-V). It is one of the most characteristic sounds of the Classical style and can be found in NAM 22, where a perfect cadence in F major is formed by the progression Ie-V7 -I in bars 57-59.

Fugue

A type of composition based on a melody that initially enters in succession in each of several parts. This is called the subject (or the answer if it is transposed). While each subsequent part introduces the subject, the previous part continues with a new idea called the countersubject that fits in counterpoint with the subject. The first part of a fugue, known as the exposition, ends after each part has introduced the subject or answer. Further entries of the subject are separated by sections called episodes, usually based on similar material, and towards the end there may be a stretto.

Homorhythmic

A type of homophonic texture in which all of the parts move in the same rhythm, such as in the first four bars of NAM 38 or bars 79-81 of NAM 9.

Phrygian cadence

A type of imperfect cadence used in minor keys. It consists of the progression IVb-V, as in bars 154-16 of NAM 33.

Concerto grosso

A type of instrumental music in several movements that was popular in the late Baroque period and which features a group of soloists (called the concertino) who share musical material with a larger group (called the ripieno). NAM 1 is the first movement of such a concerto.

Recitative

A type of music for one or more solo voices that usually has minimal accompaniment and in which the object is to convey the words in a style approaching the natural rhythms of speech, rather than to create the formal melodies of song. Recitative was common in opera and church music of the Baroque and Classical periods. The second movement of NAM 28 is a recitative.

Parallel motion

A type of similar motion in which the parts move in the same direction and maintain the same or similar vertical intervals between notes, as in the opening of NAM 24 and in the parts for women's voices in bars 26-29 of NAM 41. See also Contrary motion, Oblique motion and Similar motion.

Chromatic

A word meaning 'coloured', used to describe notes outside the current key or mode. They are added for colour and do not cause a change of key. Accidentals are not necessarily chromatic. Bars 1-8 of NAM 15 are in D major and the G# in bar 4 is chromatic because it does not belong to that key - Gq returns in the very next bar. However, the G# in bar 9 has a different effect. It is part of a modulation to A major which, unlike the previous example, is confirmed by a cadence in this new key in the next bar. The music from here until bar 19 is in A major and the G#s used in this section are not chromatic, they are diatonic notes in the new key of A major. See also Tonality.

Continuo

Abbreviation of basso continuo. A continuous bass part of the Baroque period played on one or more bass instruments. It also provides the foundation for improvising harmonies on chordal instruments such as the harpsichord, organ and lute. Such improviation was done in accordance with the conventions of the time, guided by any figured bass given in the part (see NAM 15). The term is also used to mean the instrumental group that plays the continuo part.

Swing quavers

Also known as swung quavers. In jazz and pop music the division of the beat into a pair of notes in which the first is longer than the second. Swing quavers may be notated as quavers or dotted quavers but are closer to a triplet split into a crotchet and a quaver in both cases. They are indicated by instructions above the time signature at the start of NAM 51 and NAM 52, but in NAM 41 the quaver rhythms are swung on the recording to reflect the style of the song, even though there is no specific instruction in the score. If pairs of quavers are to be played evenly in places where they might otherwise be swung, they are described as straight quavers.

Neoclassical

An early 20th-century style that combined forms and techniques from the 18th century with a more modern approach to elements such as rhythm, harmony and instrumentation. NAM 7 and NAM 19 both show the influence of Neoclassicism.

Pizzicato

An instruction to a player of a bowed string instrument to pluck the strings instead of bowing them, as seen in the violin and cello parts at bar 32 in NAM 3. See also Arco.

Inversion Interval

An interval is inverted when its lower note is transposed up an octave while the other note remains the same (or vice versa).

Tritone

An interval of three tones, such as B to the F above, as occurs between the outer parts on the last beat of bar 16 in NAM 34. Other examples occur at the ends of bars 10 and 13 in this piece.

Mordent

An ornament consisting of a rapid move from a main pitch to an adjacent note and back again, as in bar 1 of NAM 21.

Slide

An ornament consisting of two or more short notes, printed in small type, that rise rapidly to the main note, as shown in bar 15 of NAM 37.

Trill

An ornament, indicated by a cfir sign, that consists of rapid alternation of two notes a step apart, as seen in bar 37 of NAM 22. The _same symbol is also used for a roll on a percussion instrument, even though this doesn't involve different pitches, as can be seen in bars 74-76 of the timpani part in NAM 4.

Periodic phrasing

Balanced phrases of regular lengths (usually two, four or eight bars) - a style particularly associated with music of the Classical period. The introduction to NAM 37 consists of a four-bar statement ending on the dominant, balanced by a four-bar answer ending on the tonic.

Plagal cadence

Chords IV and I at the end of a phrase. For example the last two chords of NAM 38 are IVc-I in B minor, with a major 3rd in the final tonic chord that creates a tierce de Picardie.

Perfect cadence

Chords V and I at the end of a phrase, as in the last two chords of NAM 15.

Quartal harmony

Chords built from superimposed 4ths, rather than on 3rds as they are in triads. The use of quartal harmony can be seen in bars 23-28 of NAM 24.

Chamber music

Ensemble music intended for only one performer per part, such as NAM 16. The term originally referred to music that was suitable to be played in a room (or chamber) of a private house.

Sprechgesang

German for 'speech-song'. A type of vocal production halfway between singing and speaking, used in NAM 40.

Consonance

Harmonious sound, lacking tension. The opposite of dissonance.

Imitation

If a motif in one part is immediately taken up by another part while the first part continues with other music, the motif is said to be treated in imitation. The imitation is usually not exact - some intervals may be modified, but the basic melodic shape and rhythm of the opening should be audible. The imitative entry often starts at a different pitch from the original. NAM 15 begins with imitation in all three parts. If the parts continue in exact imitation for a number of bars, they will form a canon.

Comping

Improvising a jazz accompaniment, as in bars 7-42 of the piano part of NAM 48.

Straight quavers (or straight eights)

In jazz and pop music, quavers that are played evenly rather than being played as swing quavers.

Changes

In jazz, a chord progression used as the basis for improvisation. The changes in NAM 49 are based on the 12-bar blues. See also Head.

Chorus

In jazz, a complete unit of music that is restated a number of times in succession, each time with improvised variations. The start of each chorus is marked in the score of NAM 50.

Rim shot

In pop and jazz, an accented note produced by striking the rim and the head of a snare drum simultaneously, or by positioning one stick with its tip on the drum head and its shaft on the rim, and then striking it with another stick.

Turnaround

In popular music, a short passage at the end of a section designed to lead the music back to the tonic key for a repeat of an earlier section. For that reason, it usually ends on chord V7 of the home key, as in bars 33-34 of NAM 53.

Fugal

In the style of a fugue, as in the opening of NAM 15.

Cori spezzati

Italian for 'divided choirs'. A term used to describe the spatially separated groups of performers in polychoral music such as NAM 14 and NAM 27.

Parallel major and parallel minor

Keys that share the same tonic, such as D major and D minor are known as parallel keys. The two keys can also be described as the tonic major and tonic minor. The main key of NAM 2 is D minor, but at bar 100 it moves to the parallel major key (D major) for its final section.

Disjunct

Melodic movement by leaps rather than steps between adjacent notes, as in NAM 8. The opposite of disjunct is conjunct.

Conjunct

Movement to an adjacent note (a tone or a semitone away) in a melody, also known as stepwise motion. In the first 12 bars of NAM 13 the top part is entirely conjunct. The opposite of conjunct is disjunct.

Retrograde

Moving backwards. A process in which a new melody is formed by playing the pitches of a previous melody in reverse order. Used in serial music (such as NAM 8) and in styles based on serialism (such as NAM 44). If the intervals of the original melody are inverted in addition to the pitches being played in reverse order, the result is known as retrograde inversion.

Pentatonic

Music based on a scale of five pitches. You can find one such scale by playing the five black notes on a music keyboard. In NAM 57 the vocal melody in bars 5-12 is pentatonic because it uses only the pitches C, D, E, G and A. However, the accompaniment to this tune is not pentatonic because it includes the other two pitches of C major (F and B). See also Hexatonic.

Hexatonic

Music based on a scale of six pitches. The vocal melody of the chorus in NAM 57 (bars 25-32) is hexatonic - it contains six of the seven pitches in C major, but avoids the leading note (B). The accompaniment to this tune, though, is not hexatonic. See also Pentatonic.

Serial music

Music based on manipulations of a chosen order for the 12 degrees of a chromatic scale, as in NAM 8. Other musical elements, such as note lengths and dynamics, are occasionally treated in a similar way.

Canon

Music in which a melody in one part fits with the same melody in another part even though the latter starts a few beats later. The device occurs in the type of song known as a round. In NAM 34, the entire first soprano part in bars 43 3-50 is sung in canon by the second soprano three beats later. See also Counterpoint.

Polychoral

Music intended for at least two groups of performers who are usually placed in separate parts of a building. Polychoral music was developed at St Mark's, Venice, in the late Renaissance and was popular until the early years of the Baroque period. NAM 14 and NAM 27 contain examples of the style. See also Cori spezzati.

Figured bass

Numbers and other symbols below a basso continuo part to indicate the harmonies to be improvised by chordal instruments, as in NAM 15.

Syncopation

Off-beat accents or accents on weak beats. In bar 1 of NAM 33 the note on the word 'fall' is syncopated by a leap to a high note on the weak fourth beat and by the suppression of the next strong beat through the use of a tie.

Harmonic

On string instruments (including the harp and guitar), a very high and pure sound produced by placing a finger lightly on a string before plucking or bowing. Harmonics are indicated by small circles above the harp notes in bars 108-109 of NAM 5.

Diatonic

Pitches of the prevailing key and music which contains only those pitches. The first two complete bars of NAM 37 are purely diatonic. Bars 3 and 6 are not diatonic as they contain chromatic notes which colour the harmony but do not establish a new key. The D#s in bars 15-21 are diatonic because the music is in E major here, and D# is part of that key.

Functional harmony

Progressions of chords, particularly V(7)-I, that define the key(s) of a piece of music. In NAM 1, the progression I-V-I is heard four times in the first 12 bars, firmly establishing G major as the tonic key.

Pick-up

See Anacrusis.

Concertino

See Concerto grosso.

Stepwise movement

See Conjunct.

Discord

See Dissonance.

Countersubject

See Fugue.

Melody-dominated homophony

See Homophonic.

Riff

See Ostinato.

Tonic major and tonic minor

See Parallel major and Parallel minor.

Balanced phrasing

See Periodic phrasing.

Bend

See Pitch bend.

Recapitulation

See Sonata form.

Concord

See consonance.

Melisma

Several notes sung to one syllable, as in bar 22 of NAM 39.

Vocalising

Singing to vowel sounds rather than real words, as in the parts for women's voices, starting at bar 26 in NAM 41.

Vibrato

Small but fast fluctuations in the pitch of a note to add warmth and expression. The technique is not possible on instruments that produce notes affixed pitch, such as the piano or harp, but is used by most other instrumentalists and trained singers. The speed and width of vibrato depends on the context and style - in Baroque times, vibrato was regarded as a type of ornament to be used with discretion, while in Romantic music it was often used as frequently as possible. The clarinet solo in NAM 48 and the saxophone solo in NAM 49 both show how a wide vibrato was a standard technique in early jazz.

Melodie

The French for melody, used more specifically to refer to 19th-century settings of French poetry for solo voice and piano, such as NAM 39. Its German counterpart is the Lied.

Lied (plural Lieder)

The German for song, used more specifically to refer to 19th-century settings of German poetry for solo voice and piano, such as NAM 38. Its French counterpart is the melodie.

Doubling

The assignment of a melody to two or more instruments or voices that perform it together. In NAM 17, the clarinet melody starting at the end of bar 111 is doubled in unison by violin, and in octaves by viola, cello and bassoon.

Development

The central section of sonata form. The term is also used more generally to describe the manipulation and transformation of motifs and themes in any sort of music.

Texture

The effect resulting from the relationship between the various simultaneous lines in a piece of music. Specific textures include monophonic, homophonic, homorhythmic, polyphonic (or contrapuntal), heterophonic and polyrhythmic.

Neapolitan 6th

The first inversion of the triad on the flattened second degree of a scale. In the key of E minor, this is a chord of F major in first inversion, as on the first beat of bar 155 in NAM 1.

Exposition

The first section in sonata form or in a fugue.

Sequence

The immediate repetition at a different pitch of a phrase or motif in a continuous melodic line. A series of such repetitions is frequently used in the spinning-out of Baroque melodic lines, as in bars 69-75 of NAM 1 (where recorders perform an ascending sequence based on the initial three note figure).

Cadence

The last notes of a phrase, suggesting a point of repose. If harmonised, the chords can define the degree of completion more exactly. See Perfect cadence, Imperfect cadence, Interrupted cadence, Plagal cadence and Phrygian cadence.

Subject (2)

The melody upon which a passage of imitation is based, such as the opening of the cello part in NAM 9.

Sonata form

The most common structure for the first movement (and also often other movements) of sonatas, symphonies, concertos and chamber music in the Classical period and later. The essence of sonata form is the use of two contrasting tonal centres (tonic and either the dominant or another closely related key such as the relative major) in a first section called the exposition; the use of a wider range of keys to create tension and excitement in a central section called the development; and a recapitulation in which the music from the exposition is repeated in the tonic key. See NAM 22 and see also Subject.

Word-painting

The musical illustration of the meaning or emotion associated with particular words or phrases, such as the use of the highest note in the song for 'Hap pie' in NAM 33.

Transcription

The notation of music that was previously not written down or that existed in some other type of notation. The scores of popular music, jazz and world music in NAM are all transcriptions from recordings. The term is also used in the sense of 'arrangement' to describe music that has been adapted for different performing resources. In NAM 20, bars 1-16, 33-48 and 82 - 98 are free transcriptions of the three eight-bar phrases in NAM 33.

Metre

The organisation of a regular pulse into patterns of strong and weak beats. For example, alternate strong and weak beats are known as duple metre, while the recurring pattern 'strong-weak-weak' is known as triple metre.

Tessitura

The part of the pitch range in which a passage of music mainly lies. For example, the lead vocal in NAM 55 is entirely in a high tessitura, especially obvious in bars 25 and 43.

Double-stopping

The performance of a two-note chord on a string instrument, as occurs in the first-violin part of NAM 16 at bar 41.

Modulation

The process by which music changes from one key to another. NAM 1 begins in the key of G major. The introduction of C~s from bar 15 onwards indicates the start of a modulation to the dominant key of D major. This new key is then confirmed by a succession of I-V-I progressions in D major, starting in bar 23.

Transposition

The process of writing or performing music at a higher or lower pitch than the original.

Tremolo

The rapid and continuous repetition of a single note, as in the violin and cymbal parts of the last four bars on page 385 ofNAM, or the rapid and continuous alternation of two pitches, as in the ED clarinet part in the same bars. The same page shows how these two types of tremolo are normally notated. Further examples can be seen in the string parts on page 116 of NAM.

Counterpoint

The simultaneous combination of two or more melodies with independent rhythms. There may be some imitation between the parts but counterpoint can also be non-imitative. A whole movement may be contrapuntal, such as the gigue in NAM 21, or the music may alternate between contrapuntal and other textures, as in NAM 18, where a section of fugal counterpoint begins at bar 67. The term is often used interchangeably with polyphony.

False relation

The simultaneous or adjacent occurrence in different parts of a note in its normal form and in a chromatically altered form. In NAM 35 a false relation occurs in bar 56 between the F# and the F natural. In NAM 41 an example of a simultaneous false relation between E natural and E# occurs on the third beat of bar 14.

Polyphony

The simultaneous use of two or more melodies. The opening of NAM 26 is polyphonic. Nowadays, the term is often used interchangeably with counterpoint, although it is more common to use polyphony when referring to Renaissance music.

Stretto

The telescoping of imitative parts so that entries come closer to each other than they originally did. At the start of NAM 15, the first-violin melody is imitated by the second violin two bars later, and the bass joins in after a gap of a further two-and-a-half bars. When the inverted form of this melody appears in bar 20, it is treated in stretto, each of the lower parts entering after a gap of only one bar.

Tonality

The use of major and minor keys in music and the ways in which these are related. Not all music is tonal - some is modal (based on one or more modes) and some (like NAM 59) is based on non-western scales. Western music that uses neither keys nor modes, such as NAM 8, is described as atonal (without tonality). Tone row (or note row). In serial music, the order of 12 pitches on which a composition is based. The original order of notes is called the prime order. This can be used backwards (retrograde order), or in inversion or retrograde inversion. All four of these forms of the row can be transposed to start on any of the 12 semitones in an octave, giving 48 possible versions of the row in total. NAM 8 is a serial composition based on a note row. See also verticalisation.

Modes

These are usually taken to mean seven note scales other than the modern major and minor scales (although some people refer to the latter as the major mode and minor mode). For example, the aeolian mode starting on A consists of the notes A-B-C-D-E-F- G-A. It differs from A minor in having G natural rather than G# as its seventh degree. All of the notes in the last four bars of NAM 32 belong to the aeolian mode transposed down a 4th to start on E (E-F#-G-A- B-C-D-E).

Timbre (pronounced tam-bruh)

Tone colour. The clarinet has a different timbre from the trumpet, but it also has different timbres in various parts of its range. The timbre of an instrument can also be affected by the way it is played, for example by using a mute or plucking a string instead of using the bow.

Interrupted cadence

Two chords at the end of a phrase, the first of which is the dominant and the second being any chord other than the tonic (most often chord VI, as in bar 26 of the third movement of NAM 23, where the cadence is V7 -VI in the key of E minor).

Imperfect cadence

Two chords at the end of a phrase, the second of which is the dominant, as in NAM 37, bars 3 (beat 6) - 4.

Dissonance

Two or more sounds that clash, producing a discord. The perception of what sounds discordant has varied over time. Before the 20th century it was normal for the tension produced by on-beat discords to be 'resolved' by means of the dissonant notes moving to a concord. In the final bar of NAM 22 the left hand outlines notes of the tonic chord of Bb major, but Eb and C in the right hand clash with this. This dissonance is resolved when these two right-hand notes drop to notes of the tonic chord in the second half of the bar. Since about 1900 dissonance has often been used as an effect in its own right.

Contrary motion

Used to describe simultaneous melodic lines that move in opposite directions. In the first piece in NAM 23, the melody and bass move in contrary motion throughout the first six bars - when the melody rises, the bass falls, and vice versa. See also Oblique motion, Parallel motion and Similar motion.

Syllabic

Vocal writing in which all (or most) of the syllables are set to single notes, as in NAM 34.

Augmented 6th chord

What is the name for a chromatic chord based on the sixth degree of the scale (the flattened sixth degree if the key is major) and the note an augmented 6th above it. The chord also contains a major 3rd above the root and may include a perfect 5th or augmented 4th above the root.

Appoggiatura

What is the name for a dissonant non-chord note, often approached by a leap, that resolves by moving to a chord note. It is like a suspension but without the preparation.

Auxiliary note

What is the name for a non chord note that occurs between two harmony notes of the same pitch.

Anticipation

What is the name for a note played immediately before the chord to which it belongs.

Backbeat

What is the name for a term used in pop music to describe accenting normally weak beats (e.g. beats 2 and 4 in 4/4 time).

Binary form

What is the name for a two-part musical structure, usually with each section repeated.

Aria

What is the name for an Italian for a song, but used mainly to describe an extended vocal solo in opera and church music of the Baroque and Classical periods.

Anacrusis

What is the name for one or more weak-beat notes before the first strong beat of a phrase. Often called a 'pick-up' in jazz and pop music.

Antiphony

What is the name for the alternation of different groups of instruments and/or singers.

Baroque

What is the name for the period 1600-1750

Bitonality

What is the name for the use of two different keys at the same time.

Avant-garde

What is the name given to composers or works seen as breaking new ground, such as the music of NAM 11.

Alberti bass

What is the name of an accompaniment pattern in which the notes of a chord are repeatedly sounded in the order low, high, middle and high again. It is named after an obscure Italian composer who was to the device.

Arco

What is the name of the instruction for string players to resume bowing after using some other technique, such as pizzicato.

Atonal

What is the name of the style of Western music without a note that acts as a home pitch to which all other notes are related.

Augmentation

What is the name of the term which describes a proportionate increase in the note-lengths of a melody.

Articulation

What is the name of the term which describes the degree of separation between notes.

Blue note

What is the name used in jazz and blues-based music for a note (usually the third, fifth or seventh degree of a major scale) that is made more expressive by slightly lowering its pitch.

Break

What is the term used in pop and jazz for an instrumental solo within a song.

Accented passing note

What term describes a dissonant note sounded on the beat and filling the gap between two harmony notes. .

A cappella

What term is Italian for 'in church style'. A term that refers to unaccompanied singing

Resultant melody

When several different parts of similar timbre are heard simultaneously, the highest (or loudest) notes may seem to form a new part, known as a resultant melody. Such melodies are found in some types of world music and in minimalism (e.g. the live clarinet part in bars 25- 26 of NAM 12 is a resultant melody derived from the parts for clarinets 1-3).

Acciaccatura

Which ornament is printed as a small note with a slash through its stem and flag that is either played as short as possible, or is played with the main melodic note and immediately released.

Rubato

literally means 'robbed' and refers to shortening some beats and lengthening others in order to give an expressive, free feel to the pulse. The use of rubato is particularly associated with piano music of the Romantic period, such as NAM 23.

Tutti

'All' - the full ensemble, or a passage of music intended for the full ensemble. In bar 89 of NAM 1 the word 'tutti' signifies the entry of the full orchestra following the violin solo in the previous six bars.

Pointillism

A 20th-century style in which the texture of the music is made up of individual points of sound, as in NAM 8.

Chorale

A German hymn melody, such as the one played in canon by the wind instruments in the opening chorus of NAM 28. The term is also used for four-part harmonisations of such melodies by composers such as Bach, as seen in the third movement of NAM 28.

Klangfarbenmelodie

A German term for a melody in which the instrumental timbre is constantly changing, as in NAM 8. See also Pointillism.

Walking bass

A bass part that maintains the same note-lengths throughout a substantial passage, as in much of NAM 52, starting at bar 14.

Mirror canon

A canon in which the imitative part is an inversion of the main part. The technique has been used by composers such as Bach and Mozart, but it is particularly associated with such serial music as NAM 8.

Genre (pronounced jon-ruh)

A category or type of composition, such as the piano sonata, the string quartet or the madrigal.

Secondary dominant

A chord (with or without a 7th) used as the dominant of a chord (other than I) rather than as the dominant of a key. In NAM 49, the C7 in bar 54, is a secondary dominant because it is the dominant of the chord that follows. There is no modulation to F major because Eb appears almost immediately, turning the second chord into F7 and thus making it another secondary dominant (of the chord of Bb7 in bar 55).

Inverted chord

A chord is inverted when a note other than the root of the chord is sounding in the bass. In NAM 2 the first chord in bars 9-12 is the tonic chord of D minor in root position, but the second chord in each of these bars is the dominant chord in first inversion (A major, with its third, C#, in the bass).

Substitution chord

A chord that functions in a similar way to the simpler chord that it replaces. For example, in NAM 57 Fm7 is substituted for the simpler chord of F in the second half of bars 13, 15 and similar places.