A Working Vocabulary of Fundamental Terms

declarative sentence

a basic statement or an assertion; the most common type of sentence

aphorism

a brief statement of an opinion or elemental truth

independent clause

a clause that can stand alone as a sentence; it must have a noun and a verb (subject and predicate)

compound-complex sentence

a combination of a compound and a complex sentence

imperative sentence

a command

subordinate conjunction

a conjunction that makes an independent clause into a dependent clause

simile

a crucial figure of speech in an argument when what is unknown is compared to something that is known using the word "like," or "as," or "than" in order to better perceive its importance

fallacy

a failure of logical reasoning

metaphor

a figure of speech in which what is unknown is compared to something that is known in order to better gauge its importance

inductive

a form of logical argumentation that requires the use of examples

deductive

a form of logical argumentation that uses claims or premises, where the author assumes that you will accept the claims as true and that you will then deduce the correct conclusion from the accepted premises at the outset

repetition

a fundamental form of rhetorical stress that calls the reader's attention to a particular word, phrase, or image for emphasis of meaning

phrase

a grouping of words that define or clarity; a group of words that is not a sentence because there is no verb

paradox

a major figure of speech in rhetorical analysis that seeks to create a mental discontinuity, which then forces the reader to pause and seek clarity

zeugma

a minor device in which two or more elements in a sentence are tied together by the same verb or noun; these are especially acute if the noun or verb does not have the exact same meaning in both parts of the sentence

epistrophe

a minor device, this is the ending of a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words

synecdoche

a minor figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole

onomatopoeia

a minor figure of speech in which a sound imitates the thing or action associated with it

metonymy

a minor figure of speech in which the name of one thing is substituted for another with which it is closely associated

predicate nominative

a noun or pronoun that uses a linking verb to unite, describe, or rename the noun in the subject of the sentence

object

a noun toward which thought, feeling, or action is directed

jargon

a pattern of speech and vocabulary associated with a particular group of people

parallel syntax (or parallelism)

a pattern of speech or language that creates a rhythm of repetition often combined with some other language of repetition

poisoning the well

a person or character is introduced with language that suggests that he is not at all reliable before the listener/reader knows anything about him

pun

a play on words; in an argument, this usually calls humorous attention to a particular point

distractor

a possible answer that seems to be correct, but is either wrong or is not as good as other answers

interrogative sentence

a question

rhetorical question

a question whose answer is assumed, this is designed to force the reader to respond in a predetermined manner and is a significant tool in the study of rhetoric

allusion

a reference that recalls another work, another time in history, another famous person, and so forth

dialect

a regional speech pattern; the way people talk in different parts of the world

compound sentence

a sentence structure made up of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction

complex sentence

a sentence structure that is a combination of a dependent clause and an independent clause

exclamatory sentence

a sentence that conveys excitement or force

periodic sentence

a sentence with several dependent clauses that precede the independent clause

tricolon

a sentence with three equally distinct and equally long parts

analogy

a term that signifies a relational comparison of or similarity between two objects or ideas

gerund

a verb ending in "ing" that serves as a noun

participle

a verbal (expressing action or a state of being) that is used as an adjective and most often ends in -ing or -ed

malapropism

a wonderful form of word play in which one word is mistakenly substituted for another that sounds similar

anadiplosis

a wonderful technique of repetition in which the last word of the clause begins the next clause, creating a connection of ideas important to the author's purpose in some way

appositive

also called a noun phrase, this modifies the noun next to it

bandwagon

also called vox populi, this argument is the "everyone's doing it" fallacy

false dilemma

also known as an either/or fallacy; the suggestion is made in the argument that the problem or debate only has two solutions; can also be called the fallacy of the excluded middle

predicate adjective

an adjective that follows a linking verb and modifies the subject of the sentence

pathos

an appeal to emotion; one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle

logos

an appeal to reason; one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle

argument from ignorance

an argument stating that something is true because it has never been proven false

red herring

an argument that distracts the reader by raising issues irrelevant to the case

false analogy

an argument using an inappropriate metaphor

ad hominem

an attack on the person rather than the issues at hand (a common fallacy)

hyperbole

an exaggeration, fairly common in nonfiction prose arguments, that bolsters an argument

loose sentence

an independent clause followed by all sorts of debris, usually dependent clauses

simple sentence

an independent clause; has a subject and a verb, and that's pretty much it

antithesis

an observation or claim that is in opposition to your claim or an author's claim

cause and effect

another fallacy, this is also known as post hoc ergo propter hoc (Latin for "after this, therefore because of this"), and it falls under the general umbrella of a causality fallacy or false cause

premise

another word for a claim; a statement of truth, at least to the person making the argument

imagery

any time one of the five senses (visual, auditory, tactile, olfactory, gustatory) is evoked by what you have read, you have encountered this

personification

giving human attributes to non-human things

prompt

in essay questions, this has two definitions: the correct one and the common one; the correct one is that this is the paragraph or language that defines the essay task (doesn't include the passage itself); the common definition of this is one you will hear teachers and consultants use to refer to any and all parts of an essay question

syllogism

in its basic form, this is a three-part argument construction in which two premises lead to a truth

stem

in the multiple-choice section, this is the question you are asked to complete with the given possible answers

epanalepsis

like chiasmus, this figure repeats the opening word or phrase at the end of the sentence to emphasize a statement or idea, but it is not an ABBA reversal

juxtaposition

making one idea more dramatic by placing it next to its opposite

ethos

one of the fundamental strategies of argumentation identified by Aristotle; basically an appeal to credibility

parentheticals

phrases, sentences, and words inside parentheses ( )

apostrophe

prayer-like, this is a direct address to someone who is not present, to a deity or muse, or to some other power

connotation

the associations or moods that accompany a word

theme

the basic message or meaning conveyed through elements of character and conflict; appears often in literature and is paralleled in nonfiction prose by an argument's thesis

asyndeton

the deliberate omission of conjunctions from a series of related independent clauses

anaphora

the deliberate repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of several successive poetic lines, prose sentences, clauses, or paragraphs

subject

the formal term for the noun that is the basic focus of the sentence; it is who or what is doing the action in the sentence

predicate

the formal term for the verb that conveys the meaning or carries the action of the sentence

passive voice

the opposite of active voice; in this voice, something happens to someone

denotation

the opposite of connotation; quite literally the dictionary meaning of a word

active voice

the opposite of passive voice; essentially any sentence with an active verb

diction

the particular words an author uses in an essay

point of view

the perspective from which the writer chooses to present his or her story (fiction) or essay (nonfiction)

alliteration

the repetition of a phonetic sound at the beginning of several words in a sentence

anastrophe

the reversal of the natural order of words in a sentence or line of poetry

etymology

the study of the origin of words and their historical uses

syntax

the study of the rules of grammar that define the formation of sentences

polysyndeton

the use of consecutive coordinating conjunctions even when they are not needed

irony

the use of words to express something other than and often the opposite of the literal meaning

infinitive

the word "to" plus a verb, usually functioning as a noun, and often as a predicate in a sentence

thesis

the writer's statement of purpose; the focal intent of the essay

begging the question

this argument occurs when the speaker states a claim that includes a word or phrase that needs to be defined before the argument can proceed

dependent clause

this clause contains a noun and a verb but is set up with a subordinate conjunction, which makes the clause an incomplete thought

understatement

this creates exaggeration by showing restraint; it is the opposite of hyperbole

slippery slope (also called domino theory)

this fallacy of argumentation argues that one thing inevitably leads to another

chiasmus

this is an ABBA syntactical structure rather than the more common parallel ABAB structure

non sequitur

this literally means "it does not follow"; this is an argument by misdirection and is logically irrelevant

straw man

this occurs when a person engaging in an argument defines his opponent's position when the opponent is not present and defines it in a manner that is easy to attack

rhetorical shift

this occurs when the author of an essay significantly alters his or her diction, syntax, or both

ellipsis

three dots that indicate words have been left out of a quotation; they also can be used to create suspense

synthesis

to unite or synthesize a variety of sources to achieve a common end

euphemism

to use a safer or nicer word for something others find inappropriate or unappealing

oxymoron

two words that together create a sense of opposition