A2 Sociology - Religion

What are criticisms to Malinowski's theories on religion?

Tambiah (1990) describes how the research Malinowski claimed proved his theories could in fact be falsified. She described how a ritual Malinowski claimed regarding the taro and yams, promoted unity was in fact simply a matter of prestige.

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RELIGION AND SOCIAL GROUPS

1. Class - 2. Gender - 3 Ethnicity -

Describe Durkheim's theory of totemism.

- A TOTEM is a natural object that is believed by a particular society to have spiritual significance. - TOTEMISM is defined as a system of belief in which humans are said to have kinship with a totem. - According to Durkheim totems represent the most basic form of religion. Where these symbols simplify the complexity of both god and society. - Durkheim developed this theory on the basis of his research of the Australian Aborigines.

Describe Karen Armstrong's theory on religion and the origins of gender inequality.

- According to Armstrong (1933) religion did not always promote the subordinate status of women. - She cites symbols of the Great Mother Goddess (pictured as a naked pregnant women who represented fertility and life) from the early civilisations in the Middle East, Asia and Europe, to argue that in early history, women were 'considered central to the spiritual quest.' - These early societies where goddesses were worshipped also meant that female priests existed, portraying a higher status of women than today. - Armstrong claims that the subordinate status of women was enforced by religion after the coming of monotheistic religions, where Abraham, Moses, Jesus and Mohammed would be the spiritual fathers of their followers and goddesses disregarded in favour of one deity.

Describe Weber's theory on Capitalism and Calvinist Protestantism.

- According to Calvinist Protestants, god decided who would go to heaven before they were even born, and that a human being's actions on Earth had no impact on their fate in the afterlife. - Weber argued that Calvinism and the values its beliefs produced, contributed to the shift in 16th century England, from an agrarian/feudal economy to a capitalist one. - It appears as though Calvinism would not promote hard-work, morality or success if one's actions or position on Earth did not matter. However, Weber argued that Calvinists had the problem of not knowing whether they were 'the elect' or not. Hence they came to believe that those who were the elect had to be able to live a good, successful life on earth. - Hence, according to Weber the spread of these values of aspiring toward monetary success, handwork and modesty were what allowed Calvinists to become the first capitalists.

Describe Durkheim's theory of religion and the collective conscience.

- According to Durkheim society needs a COLLECTIVE CONSCIENCE or a shared system of beliefs and values in order to function. - Religion reinforces these values through the following ways: 1. Religion has the power to direct human action and promote conformity to value systems. 2. Collective worship through communal religious rituals that promote unity.

Describe Malinowski's theory of religion and the prevention of emotional stress regarding social disruption.

- According to Malinowski disruptions such as life crises (birth, death, puberty, marriage) tend to cause stress and anxiety. Similarly so do undertakings that cannot be fully controlled predicted by practical means. - Religion steps in here and serves the purpose of providing rituals that allow people to deal with the stress and anxiety. For example funerals serve as a ritual to help people move on from death, they also allow for communal mourning that leads to unity. - Malinowski developed the aspect of prediction and control on the basis of his research of tribes in the Trobriand Islands. Where there were communal rituals before one went fishing in dangerous waters.

Describe Otto Maduro's theory on the relative autonomy of religion.

- According to neo-Marxist, Maduro (1982) religion has a degree of independence or 'relative autonomy' from the economic system of the bourgeoise, also stating that it is not always a conservative force but can instigate social revolution. - Maduro believes members of the clergy can develop revolutionary potential where oppressed members of society can have priests take up their cause. Hence theological differences in the Church can provide an alternative interpretation that is critical of the rich and powerful. - Maduro used his research of Catholicism in Latin America to develop this notion. He describes how until recently the Catholic Church supported the bourgeoise, Catholic priests always demonstrated autonomy from the ruling class, criticising them and acting against them.

Describe Marx and Engles' theory on religion and social control.

- According to the Marxist perspective, religion is also a means of oppression in itself. - It acts as a MECHANISM OF SOCIAL CONTROL by maintaining the existing system of class exploitation. - By providing explanations and hope for social issues, religion distorts reality and helps promote the FALSE CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS that keeps the proletariat blind to their suffering. - Religion also helps justify social inequality to the bourgeoise or ruling class themselves. It is hence also directly supported by the ruling class and used to further their interests.

What is the Neo-Marxist Perspective on Religion and Social Change?

- According to the Neo-Marxist perspective, while religion largely serves to maintain the exploitative social system and does not cause large-scale economic/political change, it can cause CULTURAL TRANSITIONS. - Cultural transitions are defined as the Neo-marxist concept of relatively small-scale changes in the lives and positions in society of people and groups within a society. - An example cited for cultural transitions promoted by religion, is the Civil Rights Movement for Black Americans in the 1950s and 1960s. Where black churches were largely involved in the protests that supported the actions of Rosa Parks, and were even led by Dr. Martin Luther King, a Baptist minister. Modern day examples include the work of some Catholic priests in Brazil who are aligned with revolutionaries. - Furthermore Bruneau and Hewitt state that 'the theology of liberation is the only way to understand the church', claiming that it is the church's mission to liberate the poor and oppressed.

Describe Weber's theory of the Spirit of Capitalism.

- An economic system built on the basis of calculated risk, constant reinvestment and the 'pursuit of profit and forever renewed profit' has its foundations in the Spirit of Capitalism. - Which Weber argued was not simply a way of making money but a way of life. He claimed that ascetic Protestantism was vital in its creation as 'making money now became both religious and a business ethic' (Haralambos and Holborn).

CONCLUSIONS FOR SECULARISATION

- Different definitions of secularisation. - Interpreting the evidence on participation. - Types of secularisation. - The Kendal Project and subjectivisation. - Methods of measuring religiosity. - Postmodernism - secularisation as a metanarrative + competing narratives.

What is the Functionalist Perspective on Religion and Social Change?

- Durkheim's argument that through religion people are worshipping society sums up the functionalist perspective on religion as a conservative force that maintains social order. - Durkheim's ideas are echoed by Bental (2004) who stated that religion involved creating "a strong attachment to society" through moral codes, religious rituals and collective ceremonies. - According to Parsons the key functions of religion are to maintain value consensus and social order, once again portraying the functionalist perspective as one that considers religion not as an agent of social change but social order. - Malinowski and Alpert similarly state that religion allows for tension management and the prevention of the dysfunctional from causing chaos and promoting harmony or euphony. - With respect to the fact that religion has somewhat lost its hold over society in the modern world, functionalist sociologists such as Bellah (1967) and Wimberly and Swatos (1998) claim that while religion may not be as overt, Civil Religions perform the same role as religion. - Civil religions can be defined as a set of fundamental beliefs shared by the majority of society, these beliefs may be wholly secular, or religion or a combination of the two.

Describe evidence that supports Marxist claims regarding religion.

- Hinduism in traditional India justified the caste system. - Christianity was used by American slave owners as a 'controlling and gentling' influence on the slaves. - During the industrial revolution in England, it is argued that employers used religion as a means to control workers and encourage them to work hard. - Religion has been used as a form of power politics in recent years. Bruce (1988) discusses how President Reagan (1984) and President George W. Bush (2004), both staunch right-wing republicans, drew support from the equally conservative New Christian Right. - Bruce describes the New Christian Right as supporting an 'aggressive anti-communist policy', 'less welfare spending and fewer restraints on the free market'. He does emphasise that while they have not had a large influence on American politics, their intention has been to use religion to defend the interests of the rich and powerful at the expense of other groups in the population.

Describe Marx and Engles' theory on religion as the opiate of the masses.

- In Marx's words, 'religion is the opiate of the masses'. It is used both to cushion the effects of oppression by the ruling class and dilute demands for change. - Religion dulls the pain of oppression by: 1. Promising paradise as the "salvation from bondage and misery" in the afterlife. 2. Often make bearing oppression a virtue. 3. Offers the hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems. (Jehovah's Witnesses). 4. Justifies class structure. Victorian hymn - "the rich man in his castle, the poor man at his gate, God made them high and lowly, and ordered their estate".

Describe Gidden's theory of High Modernity and Religious Revival.

- In his book, Modernity and Self-Identity (1991), Giddens describes High Modernity as a phase that develops out of modernity but is different from it. - He argues that as tradition loses its grip on society, people become increasingly conscious about their sense of self and identity. Even as scientific rationality continues to dominate within each sphere there are competing theories a constant need to chose what one agrees with or believes in. - Secondly he claims that high modernity is characterised by existential questions that question the existence/behaviour of mankind and the universe, however in the high modern society, these questions regarding life after death, sanity, sexuality and creation are often kept separate from everyday life, leaving people in a moral vacuum. - As a result, Giddens argues that there is a revival or religion as people seek to fill the void of personal meaninglessness, and chose a sect, denomination, cult, NRM or NAM to follow. Giddens also sees the rise of fundamentalism as a worrying aspect of this religious revival.

Outline the theories of neo-functionalist sociologists on religion.

- In the postmodern world people are not as religious in terms of attending communal rituals etc. hence according to neo-functionalists, traditional functionalist views are not invalid but need to be reevaluated. - Luhmann (1977) - Religion can be described as functional to specific groups rather than all of society due to the diversity of religion in postmodern societies. - Kung (1990) - Religion still serves the same purpose but its functions are more closely related to personal identity rather than organised institution. - Neo-functionalists admit that religion can cause social disruption for example being a divisive force (Bruce, 1995) and is hence not always functional. - Hence neo-functionalists focus more on the small-scale functionality of religion. For example, Perry and Perry (1973) stated that 'few phenomena are functional or dysfunctional for society as a whole' hence the functionality of religion can be seen on smaller levels of promoting clear moral guidelines, and satisfying psychological and spiritual needs, which are very important in the rapidly changing postmodern world.

How did Weber believe materialism contributed to the rise of capitalism?

- It must be stressed that Weber did not believe the rise of capitalism was solely due the religious beliefs of ascetic Protestants, he claimed that this proved a weakness in Marx's materialism/economic determinism. - He simply argued that Calvinist Protestantism was one of the factors that led to the rise of capitalism, others being technological advancement and modernity. - "It is, of course, not my aim to substitute for a one-sided materialistic an equally one-sided spiritualistic causal interpretation of culture and of history". (Weber, 1905)

Describe Jean Holm's theory on inequality in major religions.

- Jean Holm (1994) cites the existence of gender inequality and female subordination in all major religions. - In Christianity, the most influential teachings were decided by men in the early centuries of the Church's history, and significant developments in the history of the Church including the Reformation were also male dominated. Christian beliefs also promote female subservience, stemming from the belief that Eve was created for Adam's spare rib. - In Islam, men are in charge of most legal and public activities. During menstruation women are not allowed to touch the holy book, enter a mosque or pray. - In Hinduism only men can become Brahmanic priests or priests of the highest order. Pregnant or menstruating women are also not allowed to approach family shrines.

Describe instances of female resistance to religion oppression

- Jean Holm (1994) sees signs of hope emerging in the position of women with regard to religion. - Rita Gross (1994) argues that there are signs of post patriarchal Buddhism emerging in the West. - Leila Badawi (1994) argues that some aspects of Islam are more liberating for women than other religions. For example Muslim women can keep their own family name when they get married, they also have considerable freedom to chose the Islamic school of thought to follow, where many schools are more liberal than others. - Some Christian religions particularly Quakerism have never been oppressive towards women. - Kaur-Singh (1994) points out how Sikh gurus pleaded the cause of oppressed women in India and did their best to improve their conditions. - Helen Watson (1994) argues that the female veil in Islam can be seen as beneficial and even liberating to women, by examining closely the opinions of three Muslim women. (Counter - made no effort to find Muslim women who were against the veil, only studied three women's opinions in the first place).

Describe Parson's theory on religion and social order.

- Like Malinowski, Parsons sees religion as something that addresses problems in society that could disrupt social order. - These problems can be divided into two categories: 1. Events that humans cannot force or prepare for, such as death and particularly premature death. In this case religion serves as a mechanism to allow one to adjust and normalise after such an event. 2. Uncertainty in general, particularly regarding the outcome of something or whether something will be successful. For example the effect of weather on a good harvest. In this case religion offers rituals that act as a 'tonic to self confidence' and offer a slight sense of control.

Describe the Neo-Functionalist interpretation of Retreat & Reinvention of religion in modern times.

- Luhmann (1977) and Bettinger (1996) argue that while early modernity does lead to a retreat from religion and the rise of secularisation, late modernity is characterised by the revival and reinvention of religion, as religion becomes specialised on their core spiritual and psychological functions. - Lambert (1999) provides a similar analysis describing how modernity produces to processes with regard to religion. First, decline as fewer people overtly participate in religious rituals, more people identifying as atheist or agnostic, loss of religious influence in politics. However, this is followed by a later, adaptation and reinterpretation as religions adapt to their changed roles and functions. Lambert further uses the example of the Religious Right in the US and Islamic fundamentalists to illustrate this point.

What are other criticisms of Weber's theories on religion?

- Many critics such as Viner (1978) disputed Weber's claims by outlining how in countries such as Switzerland, Scotland and Hungary Calvinism was strong but capitalism did not develop until much later. (Counter - A defender of Weberian theory, Gordon Marshall (1982) emphasised on how Weber did not claim Calvinism was the sole cause of capitalism. In his own study of Scotland, Marshall found that while capitalist mentality was present, the Scots were held back by lack of skilled labour and technology.) - Tawney (1926) argued that capitalism came into being through technological developments. (Counter - Weber never claimed this was not true). - Fanfani (2003) argued that capitalism developed also in countries where Calvinism was not a religious force.

What is the Marxist Perspective on Religion and Social Change?

- Marxist concepts regarding religion as an agent of social control, that promotes false class consciousness and prevents the revolution of the proletariat (Marx) or as an Ideological State Apparatus (Althusser, 1970), all support the notion that religion is a conservative force that seeks to maintain the status quo. - The Marxist definition of social change purely as one where the economic structure must change (Historical Materialism), allows for instances of social change due to religion for example the Iranian Revolution (1979) to be refuted. As Azad (1995) points out the Iranian economy was capitalist in 1979 and was still so in 1995.

Describe the three interpretations of the relationship between religion and modernity.

- Modernity is considered to consist of developmental change in the form of: industrial forms of production, various forms of democracy, a new, powerful belief system centred around science. - With regard to the relationship between modernity and religion, there are three interpretations; either that religion will Disappear, Decline or be Reinvented.

Describe Nawaal el Saadawi's theory on patriarchy and Islam.

- Nawaal el Saadawi, in her book, The Hidden Face of Eve (1980), discusses patriarchy, Islam and the limited role of religion. - She argues that while religion is often distorted to help justify or legitimise the oppression of women, to a great extent it does not create the oppression. - She uses the example of the horrifying and oppressive practice of female circumcision which has been attributed to Islam to illustrate this point. Arguing that female circumcision has been practiced in other cultures, was practiced in the Arab world well before the teachings of Islam became widespread, and is opposed by authentic religion beliefs. - Saadawi further argues that religion started to become patriarchal through the distortion of teachings. For example the Old Testament's account of Eve being 'gifted with knowledge, intelligence and superior mental capabilities' was distorted to Eve being portrayed as a temptress who was created from nothing more than Adam's spare rib. - Furthermore she argues that all monotheistic religions including Christianity, Judaism and Islam drew inspiration from the patriarchal framework of the societies to which they were born, and became used as instruments to further said patriarchy.

What are criticisms to the Marxist theories of religion?

- Over-generalises the oppressive nature of religion. Religion is shown not always to justify oppression but rather even be an agent of social change. (See Points ... ). This too can however be countered through examination of Engels' later works (See Points 17/18). - According to Hamilton (1995), Marxism outlines merely a way in which religion is used rather than explaining why religion exists at all. - Marx's idea that religion would disappear when class equality and communism took over has also been proven wrong. Greeley (1994) notes that in the USSR, the communist state abolished all religion, but in 1991 when the USSR collapsed it was shown that 47% of Russians still believed in God and religion. Although this too can be countered as it is debatable whether the USSR was ever truly communist the way Marx envisaged, but only ever Leninist or Stalinist. - Turner (1990) if religiosity is measured in terms of church attendance and active membership of religious groups

Describe Parson's theory on religion and value consensus.

- Parsons (1964) considered religion to be a part of the cultural system that dictates beliefs, values and norms. - Religion provides guidelines for human action and conduct. - For example in the Christian Ten Commandments it says 'thou shalt not kill', according to Parsons this leads to norms regarding how to drive, how to settle an argument and even treatment of the elderly by prohibiting manslaughter, murder and euthanasia. - Hence Parsons states that religious values bring about the norms of the wider cultural system as religion helps provide the value consensus necessary for order and stability.

What are criticisms to Parsons theories on religion?

- Parsons theories and all other functionalist theories on religion emphasise the positive role of religion but are unable to account for when religion is a divisive (Glock and Stark, 1965) or disruptive force. As it gives little consideration to hostility between different religious groups within the same society often the same religion but different sects even. For example, Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland, Shia and Sunni Muslims in Iraq, Muslims and Hindus in India. - Parsons theories regarding religion giving meaning to suffering would be criticised by Marxists as merely promoting false class consciousness and maintaining the exploitation of the proletariat.

ARGUMENTS FOR SECULARISATION

- Predictive Theories (Comte, Weber, Marx). - Statistics for Church Attendance in Britain. - Steve Bruce (2001). - British Social Attitudes Survey (2003) - 41% no religion. - David Martin (1969) - disengagement or withdrawal of the Church from wider society. - Steve Bruce (1995) - Loss of power of state churches in Britain. - Bruce counters Parsons (1995) - differentiation results in religion having less control (modernisation) - Bruce (1995) - societalization (decline of community undermines religion). - Bruce (1992) - religious plurality leads to weak religion as religious beliefs become a choice. - Bruce (1996) - ethnic groups having strong religious conviction is not an argument against secularisation, as religion only serves the purpose of cultural defence/cultural transition for ethnic minorities. - Peter Berger (1970) - growth of sects is a reaction to secularisation as people try to maintain a strong religious commitment as a last refuge in a secular society, hence they are evidence of secularisation. - Bryan Wilson (1982) - similar to Berger, argues that sects are a 'response to situations in which religious values have lost social pre-eminence'. - Bryan Wilson (1982) + Bruce (1996) - NRMs do not portray resacrilisation and have very little religious impact. Wilson even called the movements in the West during the 60s such as Krishna Consciousness 'almost irrelevant' . - Will Herberg (1960) - secularisation in the USA is not found in the decline of participation but in the decline of the religiosity of the churches and denominations themselves. - Heelas and Seel (2003) - successful and popular religion in the USA recently have been those that allow considerable freedom. - Bruce - limited impact of the new Christian Right. - Désacralisation - Weber, Bruce, Wilson.

Describe Parson's theory on religion and meaning.

- Religious beliefs give meaning to life and allow for human beings to 'make sense' of all their experiences. - This includes the experience of suffering. Religion tells people that suffering is a test of faith from God, or a punishment and that suffering with fortitude will bring the reward of heaven. Thus humans are able to rationalise and accept suffering and give it meaning. - This allows for the maintenance of social order as events that would otherwise make people frustrated are rationalised and stability maintained.

Describe Durkheim's theory of the sacred and the profane.

- SACRED AND PROFANE - Elementary Forms of the Religious Life (1912). The world is divided into the sacred and the profane. Sacred things are those which are religious symbols. - "RELIGION IS A SET OF BELIEFS AND PRACTICES RELATED TO SACRED THINGS".

Describe Simone de Beauvoir's theory on religion and The Second Sex.

- Similar to the Marxist approach, where religion is seen as a way of oppressing and compensating for said oppression of the proletariat, de Beauvoir (1949) sees religion as playing the same role in the oppression of women at the hands of men. - de Beauvoir explores this explanation of religious endorsement of female exploitation in her book The Second Sex (1953, first published 1949). - "Man enjoys the great advantage of having a god endorse the code he writes". - "For the Jews, Mohammedans and Christians, among others, man is master by divine right; the fear of god will therefore repress any impulse towards revolt in the downtrodden female". - Reinforces the place of the woman as the wife and mother and nothing more, by praising her into believing "she produces a soul for God". Also makes her believe she will be rewarded for her sufferings in heaven.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST SECULARISATION

- Statistics for Membership to other Sects. - Grace Davie - Europe an 'exceptional case' (2002). - Financial Times/Harris Poll (2006) - 70% of people had some sort of belief in god. - 2001 Britain Census - 71.6% stated Christian. - Jose Casanova (1994) - religion becoming prominent in the public sphere in most countries. - Parsons (1965) - structural differentiation not lesser importance of religion. - Slatterly (1985) - Bruce exaggerates the decline of the community. - Brown (1992) - the fact that religion is used by ethnic minorities for purposes of cultural transition and defence does not mean it is evidence for secularisation. There was never a Golden Age when religion was a unifying force, cultural defence is a key function of religion in the modern world, 'religion adapts...it is not static', these changes in functions do not mean secularisation is taking place. - Greeley (1972) - NRMs portray resacrilisation. - Roof and McKinney - The New Christian Right.

What is the Neo-Functionalist Perspective on Religion and Social Change?

- The core ideas of the neo-functionalist perspective are that society is in a state of moving equilibrium. Hence while institutions such as religion promote harmony and maintenance of social solidarity, it is not necessary that they will not contribute to changes in the circumstances in which said solidarity and consensus exists. - According to Alexander (1995) religion is one of society's functional sub-systems, which have a relative degree of autonomy and hence can promote social change. With regard to religion Alexander suggests that it is because religion addresses the past, present and future in its teachings. For e.g. according to Jehovah's witnesses in the past, the world was created by Jehovah or god the Creator, in the present we live in the 'time of the end' and in the future, there will be a 'Second Coming of Christ'. - This notion of change that leads to a form of of collective salvation of mankind at the hand's of god, is referred to as MILLENARIAN MOVEMENTS. Messenger (2012) notes that they may be in the Cataclysmic or Progressive.

Describe Weber's theory of the Protestant Ethic.

- The set of values created as a result of the Calvinist beliefs of predestination were termed the Protestant Work Ethic which in turn created the Spirit of Capitalism. - The Protestant Ethic was a part of but not limited to the Calvinist sect, also known as the Puritan Ethic it developed in 17th century Western Europe; its key ideas being on the basis of ascetic or austere lifestyle. - It encouraged people to be hard-working and attacked laziness, success in one's calling meant that the individual had not lost grace in God's sight, the money accumulated from one's success was to be spent towards God and reinvested not spent on - Weber claimed that these values and the constant reinvestment were the 'cause of capitalism'.

Describe the interpretation of Disappearance of religion in modern times.

- This interpretation is the most extreme and is associated with the positivist school of thought, particularly the teachings of Comte (1830). - According to Comte, religion served only as a means for people in pre-modern societies to explain the inexplicable, such as disease or other natural phenomena. He argued that as society modernised as science advanced to be able to explain everything, religion would lose its purpose and disappear, being solely replaced by science.

What is the Weberian Perspective on Religion and Social Change?

- Unlike Marx, Weber does not believe solely in materialism, wherein changes in the economic structure of a society is the only basis of change. While he does not deny that this can take place, Weber also believes that religion can have an impact on economic practices. - Weber argued that Calvinism and the values its beliefs produced, contributed to the shift in 16th century England, from an agrarian/feudal economy to a capitalist one. - The set of values created as a result of the Calvinist beliefs of predestination were termed the Protestant Work Ethic which in turn created the Spirit of Capitalism. - Bental corroborated Weber's views and stated "Calvinists associated morality and Godliness with hardworking, thriftiness and reinvestment of money. Given Western Europe and America served as a home for these people, should we be surprised capitalism took off in the West?"

What are the basic ideas of Weberian theory on religion?

- Unlike Marx, Weber does not believe solely in materialism, wherein changes in the economic structure of a society is the only basis of change. While he does not deny that this can take place, Weber also believes that religion can have an impact on economic practices. - Weber's Social Action Theory argues that human action is directed by meanings and motives. Action can only be understood by appreciating the Worldview (image of the world held by members of society). Religion is considered an important aspect of that worldview, and can often direct action or changes in society, in particular economically. - In his book, "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism" (1905) Weber outlines his argument that Calvinist Protestantism and its values are what led to England's economy becoming capitalist in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Describe the interpretation of Decline of religion in modern times.

- Wilson (1966) argues that in modern societies religion does not disappear entirely but rather suffers a decline in its power and influence, as it is undermined by the rationality of science and new religions movements. - Scientific rationalism attacks religious ideology by providing explanations for natural phenomena that are more plausible such as the Big Bang Theory or Evolution. - The promise of modernity to create a rational and understandable social existence has not been met and resulted in people feeling confused and alienated. However, people have filled this void using new religious movements, which largely, according to Wilson, appeal to "the naive, the gullible, the oppressed". Hence religion has largely become increasingly marginalised and irrelevant.

How did Kautsky criticise Weber's theories on religion?

-Kautsky (1953) argued that Weber was incorrect in the notion that Calvinism proceeded early capitalism, claiming that it was the other way around. He saw Calvinism as having developed in cities where commerce and early industrialisation had already begun, and the Protestant Ethic was merely used to legitimise what were capitalist practices.

RELIGION AND SOCIAL CHANGE

1. Definitions of Religion. 2. The Sociological Perspectives. 3. Different Perspectives on Religion and Social Order & Change. 4. Religion and Modernity & Postmodernity.

DEBATES ABOUT SECULARISATION

1. Measuring Religiosity. (Indicators + Methods) 2. Secularisation Debate (For & Against) 3. Post-Secularisation and Participation.

What are criticisms to Durkheim's theories on religion?

1. Studied a small number of Aboriginal tribes that were atypical to others in the region and generalised all Aboriginals on that basis as well as all of society as a whole. 2. Overemphasises religion's role in promoting unity and could not account for 'the emergence of religious pluralism and diversity' (Hamilton, 1995). 3. Hamilton also argues that Durkheim ignores how often people's religious values are at odds with the values of wider society.

What is McGuire's theory on measuring religiosity?

According to McGuire, religion has a 'dual character' and requires measurement across two aspects, individual indicators and social indicators. Individual indicators are defined as whether someone has religious beliefs, and whether they are orthodox or unorthodox. Social indicators are defined as religious participation or formal membership.

Weberian Perspective on Religion

Capitalism and Protestantism. The Protestant Work Ethic. The Spirit of Capitalism. Materialism. Religion, Modernity and Rationality. Evaluation.

RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS.

Churches. Sects. Denominations. Cults. New Religious Movements (NRMs).

What is Cornwall et al.'s theory on measuring religiosity?

Cornwall et al. (1986) suggest that there are three broad spheres that together represent an individual's level of religiosity. They are: - Knowing (belief) - having faith in religious teachings and accepting them as true. - Doing (participation) - practicing religious rituals and being an active member of said religion. - Commitment - the extent to which one feels as though they belong.

Modernity and Religion.

Disappearance, Decline and Reinvention of Religion.

The Functionalist Perspective on Religion

Durkheim. Malinowski. Parsons.

SOCIAL STABILITY AND RELIGION

Functionalist, Marxist and Feminist Perspectives.

Describe Engles' later theories of religion as a radical force.

In Engles' book On the History of Early Christianity (1957), he stated how some early Christian sects opposed the Roman rule, for communist and socialist political movements. Toole (1984) commented that beginning with Engles works, Marxists have come to recognise religion as an agent of social change as well.

Measuring Religiosity

Individual and Social Indicators (McGuire, 2002). Belief, Participation and Commitment (Cornwall et al., 1986). The Kendal Project. Operationalising.

THE FEMINIST PERSPECTIVE ON RELIGION

Karen Armstrong. Jean Holm. Simone de Beauvoir. Nawal el Saadawi.

THE MARXIST PERSPECTIVE ON RELIGION

Marx. Engels. Otto Maduro.

RELIGION AND MODERNITY AND POSTMODERNITY

Modernity and Religion. Postmodernity and Religion. Postmodern Religion. Fundamentalism.

SOCIAL CHANGE AND RELIGION

Neo-Functionalist, Neo-Marxist and Weberian perspectives.