A&P Chapter 1-3 exam
8 fundamental characteristic functions necessary to maintain life in humans (3 M, 2 R, GED)
1. Maintain boundaries 2.Movement 3. Metabolism 4.Reproduction 5. Responsiveness 6. Growth 7. Excretion 8. Digestion
The 5 survival needs of the body
1. Nutrients 2.Oxygen 3. Water 4. Normal body temp (98.6) 5. Appropriate atmospheric pressure
Name and describe the membranes that line the body cavities and suspend the organs within
1. Pericardium membrane: heart 2. Pleura: lungs 3. Peritoneum: abdominopelvic cavity
Solution
2 or more components that are physically intermixed
How many pathways are in final transport?
3 Pathway A,B, and C
ion
A charged atom regulates things in the body
phospholipid bilayer
A double layer of phospholipids that makes up plasma and organelle membranes. The head is hydrophyllic polar and the tail is hydrophobic nonpolar
carbon dioxide
A gas that is expelled from the body by the respiratory system.
Solvent
A liquid substance capable of dissolving other substances
anion
A negatively charged ion
Sagittal
A plane that divides the body into right and left portions.
cation
A positively charged ion
Neutralization
A reaction of an acid with a base, yielding a solution that is not as acidic or basic as the starting solutions were.
Solute
A substance that is dissolved in a solution.
Transverse
Divides body into upper and lower parts
List the major cavities of the body and the organs found in each:
Dorsal cavity- cranial( head ) and vertebral (spine) Ventral- Thoracic (heart and brain) Abdominal (stomach, liver, spleen, gallbladder, large intestine, small intestine, pancreas, kidneys and adrenal glands), Pelvic (reproductive organs, the urinary bladder, the pelvic colon, and the rectum)
What is the nuclear envelope and what's it's function?
Double membrane barrier that encloses jellylike fluid (nucleoplasm) Nuclear pores allow substances to pass in and out of nucleus
What is the endomembrane system composed of?
ER, Golgi apparatus, sectory vesicles, and lysosomes, nuclear and plasma membranes Functions: produce, degrade, store and export biological molecules and degraded potentially harmful substances
What are the types of vesicular transport?
Endocytosis- into the cell Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor-mediated endocytosis Exocytosis- out of the cell
Positive feedback
Feedback that tends to magnify a process or increase its output. Ex. blood clotting
Lipids (functions, types & structures, saturated, unsaturated)
Function- insulation and energy storage triglyceride- 3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecules phospholipids- head: polar hydrophyllic tail: nonpolar hydrophobic steroids (cholesterol) (LDL vs HDL) unsaturated- double bonds between carbons, liquids saturated- cant bond anymore at body temp, solid
Amino
H-N-H found within amino acids, the building blocks of proteins
Bicarbonate
HCO3 charge -1
hypertonic
Having a higher concentration of solute than another solution. (shriken)
hypotonic
Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution (O)
What is the nucleus and what's it's function?
It's the largest organelle Contains genetic library (DNA & RNA) of blueprints for synthesis of nearly all cellular proteins
What is the plasma membrane made of?
Lipid bilayer 75% phospholipids -head polar hydrophilic -tail nonpolar hydrophobic 5% glycolipids 20% cholesterol
Describe the monomers, general structures, and biological functions of proteins
Made from 20 types of amino acids that contain an amine group and an acid group shape and function is due to 4 levels (primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary)
Describe an atom and its structure
Made up of protons (+) neutrons (n/a) and electrons (-) Protons and neutrons each have a molecular weight of 1 amu and electrons have such a tiny weight they classify it is as 0
What do membranes do and which organelles are nonmebranous?
Membranes are used to compartmentalize Ribosomes, centrioles, and the cytoskeleton are nonmebranous
What is the cytoskeleton and what's it's function?
Network of rods that run throughout cytoskeleton and it places a role in movement of cell shape 3 types Microfilaments Intermediate filaments Microtubules
Carboxyl
O=C-OH found within fatty acids, amino acids, and many other acids
Hydroxide
OH charge -1
Phosphate
PO4 charge 3-
Interphase (G1, S, G2)
Period of the cell cycle where a cell is not dividing. The cell grows and duplicates DNA and organelles to prepare for division. G1- proteins enzyme S- DNA doubles G2- proteins, enzymes
What are peroxisomes and what do they do?
Peroxisomes are vesicles that produce and break down hydrogen peroxide which have several different functions in different cell types, including de-toxification and breakdown of fatty acid chains. The 2 mentioned are oxidase and catalase
What are the 3 types of endocytosis and what are their functions?
Phagocytosis- cell eating Pinocytosis- cell drinking Receptor-mediated
What are the 4 basic parts of human cells?
Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and organelles
What are the 4 levels of proteins and describe them
Primary: sequence of a chain of a amino acids Secondary: sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds (sheets) Tertiary: Alpha helixes and pleated sheets occur Quaternary: Protein of more than one amino acid chains
What is transcription and its factors?
Process of transferring code held in DNA gene base sequence to complementary base sequence of mRNA Factors are proteins that activate transcription by -loosening DNA - binding to special sequences of genes - mediating binding of RNA polymerase
Mitosis (prophase, metaphase,
Prophase- chromosomes appear metaphase- line up in middle spindle fibers appear anaphase- spindle fibers attach to chromosomes and pull them to separate sides of the cell telophase- two bubbles appear with chromosomes in each
What does the RNA do and what are the 3 types?
RNA is the "go between" molecule that links DNA to proteins Messenger RNA- sequence of mRNA is translated to make proteins Ribosomal RNA- forms peptides bonds between amino acids to make proteins Transfer RNA- carrier of amino acid to the growing protein strand
4 quadrants
RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, LLQ
What is the endoplasmic reticulum and what does it do?
Rough ER -has ribosomes -proteins, plasma membrane, phospholipid synthesis Smooth ER -network of looped tubules continuous with rough ER -function: lipid metabolism, detoxification of drugs, converting glycogen to free glucose, and storage and release of calcium
What is the Golgi Apparatus and what does it do?
Series of flattned membrane and takes protiens from Rough Endoplasmic, modifys package and sends the protien where it needs to go
What are ribosomes and what is their function?
Site of protein synthesis Made up of proteins and rRNA 2 types Free: floating Membrane bound: attached to ER
What are lysosomes and what do they do?
The breakdown and recycling centers Spherical membrane bags containing digestive enzymes Functions: break down and release glycogen; break down and release Ca from bones
Describe the monomers, general structures, and biological functions of nucleic acids
The monomers are nucleotides and has a nitrogen base, a sugar, and a phosphate group 2 classes DNA- without oxygen function: holds genetic blueprint for the synthesis of all proteins RNA- with oxygen function: molecules implicated in various biological roles in coding, decoding, regulation, and expression
What is the mitochondria and what does it do?
The powerhouse of the cell Provides most of the cells energy ATP via aerobic cellular respiration Enclosed Double membrane and the inside membrane has folds called cristae
What are the types of active transport? Describe
The use of pumps (sodium phosphate pump is an example) in order to move large items from low concentration to high concentration
What are the 3 ways cells can be bound together and what are their functions?
Tight junctions- prevent leaks Gap junctions- allows communication Desmosomes- cement cells together
What are the functions of the plasma membrane proteins?
Transport Receptors for signal transduction Attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix Enzymatic activity Intercellular joining Cell to cell recognition
What is contact inhabitation?
When cells have contact with each other they know to stop growing
covalent bond
a bond formed by sharing electrons
Cadaver
a dead body, esp. a human body to be dissected
Homeostatic imbalance
a disturbance in homeostasis resulting in disease
Negative feedback
a mechanism of response in which a stimulus initiates reactions that REDUCE the stimulus ex. body cools down
decomposition reaction/ exergonic rx
a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more simpler substances
displacement reaction/ exchange rx
a reaction in which one element replaces a similar element in a compound
Isotope
atom that has lost or gained molecules
hydrogen bond
attractive force between positive hydrogen of one molecule and a negative atom of another molecule
Lateral
away from the midline/ towards the side
Posterior
back of the body
Dorsal
back side
6 levels of structural organization
chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal
Thoracic region
chest area
Describe the monomers, general structures, and biological functions of lipids
contains C, H, and O Insoluble in water 3 types- triglycerides that are made of three fatty acids bonded to a glycerol molecule and used for storage, insulation, and protection 2)Phospholipids that are a glycerol, 2 fatty acids plus a phosphorus head and these are important in the cell membrane structure 3) steroids that consist of 4 interlocking ring structures and is also important in cell plasma membrane structure (cholesterol is a major one)
Frontal
divides the body into anterior and posterior sections
Describe enzymes including substrate, active site, and coenzyme
enzymes are biological catalyst found In living things that are recycled substrates- lock and key model that binds the enzyme (ends in -ase) Active site- where the enzyme binds to substrate and reaction occurs Coenzyme- An organic substance that reversibly combines with a specific protein, the apoenzyme, and with a substrate to form an active enzyme system
isotonic
equal amount of solute leaving and entering the cell
Distal
farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
viscera
fleshy organs
Anterior
front of the body
Ventral
front/ belly side
Principle of Complementarity
function always reflects structure; what a structure can do depends on its specific form
Proteins (functions, amino acids, types & structures, denaturation)
functions: structural, enzymes, contractions in muscles and protection 20 different type of amino acids (amino group and acid group) shape and function due to 4 structural levels primary- sequence of a chain of amino acids secondary- sequence of amino acids are linked by hydrogen bonds (sheets) tertiary- alpha helixes and pleated sheets occur quaternary- protein of more than one amino acid chains denaturation-is a process in which proteins or nucleic acids lose the tertiary structure and secondary structure which is present in their native state, by application of some external stress or compound such as a strong acid or base, a concentrated inorganic salt, an organic solvent, or heat.
Oxygen
gas that enters the blood through the lungs and travels to the heart to be pumped via arteries to all body cells
Water
heat capacity, heat of vaporization, polar properties, reactivity, and cushioning
Anatomy
identification and description of the structures of living things
X-rays
images dense structures (bones) hollow organs appear black best used for hard bones and abnormally dense (TB, Tumors)
salts
ionic compound that when placed in liquid It dissolves into separate ions
acids
ionizes in water, proton donors, release hydrogen ions lowers pH
pH
logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution
Carbohydrates function, types and structures
main source of energy for the body Monosaccarides- one sugar Polysaccarides- many sugars Disaccarides- two sugars
Homeostasis
maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment
Synthesis rx/ endergonic rx
making something
What are the functions of the plasma membrane?
mechanical barrier- separates , selective permeability- determines what enters and exits electrochemical gradient- required for muscle and neuron functions communication- allows cell to cell recognition cell signaling- proteins interacting with specific chemicals and relays to the cell interior
What are the 3 types of cytoskeleton?
microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments
nonpolar molecule
nonopposite/ equal sharing of atoms
Systemic
of or pertaining to the entire body; relating to a system or systems
Ionic bond
one atom loses electrons and another picks it up
polar molecule
opposite/ nonequal sharing of atoms
Visceral membranes covers what?
organs
Parietal membrane covers what?
organs, visceral membrane, and serous fluid
4 most abundant elements in the body
oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen
What is apoptosis?
programmed cell death
subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, electrons
MRI
quality images of soft tissues maps "water" in the body
What is the function of serous fluid?
reduces frictions
bases
releases OH ions, absorb H+ ions raises pH
Where does translation occur?
ribosomes in the cytoplasm
nine abdominopelvic regions
right hypochondriac epigastric left hypochondriac right lumbar umbilical left lumbar right iliac hypo gastric left iliac
Ultrasound
safer method of viewing inside the body without cutting that uses soundwaves
Buffers
something that resists changes in pH
serous cavity
space between the parietal and visceral layers that contains serous fluid
matastasize
spreading somewhere else in the body
Anatomical position
standard method of observing the body Position Standing Feet together Arms at side Head and eyes forward Palms forward When describing organs, everything is mirror imaged (if it is your left, it is classified as right)
Abdominal region
stomach area
Cytology
study of cells
Pathology
study of disease
Embroyology
study of embryos and their development
Physiology
study of the function of the body's machinery
Histology
study of tissues
Describe the monomers, general structures, and biological functions of carbohydrates
sugars and starches contain C, H, and O Monomer- Monosaccharides 3 classes Monosaccharides- 1 sugar Disaccharides- 2 sugars Polysaccharides- many sugars
Factors affecting reaction rates
temperature, concentration ,particle size, and the use of a catalyst
What is cancer
the disease caused by an uncontrolled division of abnormal cells in a part of the body.
Autopsy
the examination of a corpse to determine the cause of death
atomic number
the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
What is autophagy?
the process by which entire worn-out organelles are digested
Describe nucleic acids including general structure and types and functions
they are made up of nucleotides classes DNA- without oxygen (ATCG) double stranded RNA- with oxygen(AUCG) single stranded function: gene expression and intermediate roles
Inferior
towards the feet/ below
Superior
towards the head/ above
Medial
towards the midline/ middle
What are the 2 steps of protein synthesis?
transcription- DNA info coded in mRNA and translation- mRNA decoded to assemble polypeptides
PET
uses radioisotopes of glucose labels most metabolically active cells Heart and Brain
tracer
when a radioisotope is used to find or keep track of molecules in an organism
Hydroxyl
-O-H polar involved in dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions
Be able to read the periodic table
....c'mon
Cytokinesis
Begins at anaphase, division of the cytoplasm
Carbonyl
C=O
Carbonate
CO3 charge 2-
What is the glycocalyx and whats it function
Carbohydrates sticking out of the cell surface Functions are specific biological markers for cell to cell recognition
Proximal
Closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
CAT
Computerized axial tomography produces cross sectional images of specific areas of a scanned object virtual "slices" using x-rays and a computer to put images together
What is chromatin and what's it's function?
Condenses DNA into a compact structure to fit inside the cell
What is the nucleoli and it's function?
Dark staining spherical bodies within nucleus that are involved in ribosomal RNA synthesis and ribosome subunit assembly
What are the types of passive transport? Describe them
Diffusion- extremely small particles (gases) go through high to low Facilitated diffusion- through the use of protein carriers specific per item Osmosis- passage of water through selective permeable plasma membrane Reverse Osmosis
Explain DNA replication
A. unwinding double helix -helicase controls unwinding of coiled DNA B. separation of strands by helicase-helicase separates complementary strands of DNA, producing a replication fork single strand binding proteins keep the two strands of DNA separate C. formation of complementary strands by DNA polymerase-DNA polymerase uses a single parent strand of DNA as a template, adding free nucleotides from solution to the parent/template strand according to the complementary base pairing rules (A=T, G=C)
Explain the role of ATP in cell metabolism
ATP is a source of energy that cells can immediately use. It is the primary energy-transferring molecule in cells.
What are the 2 ways substances cross the membranes?
Active and passive transport Active- uses ATP to go against gradient (low to high concentration) Passive- doesn't use ATP, goes high to low
Radioisotopes
An isotope that has an unstable nucleus and undergoes radioactive decay we use these as tracers
