A&P Final Cumulative Info
Explain the "negative" in negative feedback.
"Negative" refers to the system responding to a stimulus and lowering/stabilizing the system
Know the basic gross anatomical descriptors of bones discussed in class, (i.e., diaphysis, epiphysis, epiphyseal plate, epiphyseal line, bone marrow (two types—what are their basic functions, where do they occur), cortical bone, compact bone, spongy bone, cancellous bone, trabecula(e), periosteum, endosteum.
+ medullary cavity- the hollowed out core of long bones; the inner surface is lined with spongy bone; the soft tissue in it is bone marrow (at first it's red bone marrow, but as you age it changes to yellow marrow (adipose tissue) + epiphysis- the very tip of bone, mostly made of spongy bone + diaphysis- the shaft of long bone; walls = compact bone + epiphyseal line- when epiphyseal plate starts thinning into welded epiphysis then you have an epiphyseal line (means you can't grow anymore) + epiphyseal plate- what allows us to grow; made up of hyaline cartilage + spongy bone: [AKA trabecular bone/woven bone/cancellous bone] contains trabeculae and bone marrow + compact bone: [AKA cortical bone] The outer hard portion of bone
For the appendicular, know whether it is part of girdle or appendage.
- Appendicular includes head of humerus, digits in hands, prox. Femur, toes, hip girdle, shoulder girdle (bones connecting appendicular to axial). -Shoulder girdle clavicle & scapula -Hip girdle Anything involved in hip complex outside of sacrum Ischium, ilium, pubic bones
How do the lymphatic system and cardiovascular system compare in terms of circulating fluid (what type of fluid)?
- Cardiovascular: transports blood throughout the body. Arteries takes blood away from heart, veins takes blood to the heart. - Lymphatic: transports (and deposits) fats and lymph. Movements from vessels and skeletal system move lymph in body, moves very slowly.
How does gross anatomy differ from histology and be able to define each.
- Gross anatomy: subcategory or anatomy and it is the study of large body structures + Gross anatomy is anatomy that you can study without the aid of a microscope. You can physically hold the structure in your hand and see it with the naked eye. - Histology is the study of tissues and it requires the use of light and electron microscopes in order to see the tissues structures + Microtome used to slice tissues
Know the plural vs. the singular where appropriate.
- Lacuna, Lacunae - Trabecula, trabeculae - Lamella, lamellae - Epiphysis, epiphyses - canaliculus (singular) ,Canaliculi (plural)
Know, from a gross anatomical perspective, where compact and spongey bone are found in both long bones and flat bones
- Long bones: compact bone out outside, spongy bone on inside - Short bones: like a sandwich with compact as top and bottom and spongy bone in the middle
Define the regional and systemic approaches to gross anatomy
- Regional anatomy: all systems in a region through; region by region - Systemic anatomy:systems of grouped structures (Ex. skeletal system )
What are the basic functions and main locations of: Pacinian corpuscles
- deep touch located in dermis, onion looking - detect pressure
What are the basic functions and main locations of: Merkel cells
- detect light touch - located: in stratum basale
What are the basic functions and main locations of: Dendritic cells
- looks like neurons, modified type of immune cell similar to macrophages - located: in stratum spinosum
Know the definition of a long bone, flat bone, sesamoid bone, or short bone.
-Long bones: longer than they are wide, lengths associated with cylindrical like portion (diaphysis), it has at least one epiphysis; Ex: Humerus, Femur (has 3 epiphyses), Phalanges -Flat: flattened, they can be curved as long as aspect of geometry. Ex: ribs, pelvis, nasal/lacrimal,sternum, scapulae, parietal skull bone -Irregular bones: just weirdly shaped Ex: Vertebrae, sphenoid bone, facial -Short Bones: short bone, kind of boxy (carpals/tarsals) -Sesamoid bones: sesamoid are seed shaped (patellar) -also there are small sesamoid bones involved where phalanges join each other -Clavicle: has developmental properties of flat and long bones, but more in long bone category
How is our course an "integrative" approach?
-taking them and forming them together; Relating structure and function together - you can't study structure without function
Know how anatomy and physiology can be investigated from atoms, molecules, cells,.....all the way to the organism itself.
1. Chemical level: atoms combined to form molecules 2. Cell level: those molecules form organelles (such as nucleus & mitochondria) that make up cells in our body 3. Tissue level: similar cells & surrounding material make up tissue (such as smooth muscle tissue) 4. Organ level: different tissues combine to form organs, like the urinary bladder -Organ- structure that's composed of at least 2 tissues and has a specific function. Ex → urinary bladder has epithelial tissue (innermost), connective tissue (to provide rigidity), and smooth muscle tissue 5. Organ system level: organs (urinary bladder) make up organ system - Urinary system consists of the bladder, kidney, ureter, urethra and they all have a specific function to help excrete urine. 6. Organism level: organ systems make up an organism
Know all body cavities and know which organs exist in each cavity to the extent discussed in class.
1. Mediastinum: Consists of esophagus, trachea, blood vessels, thymus, and heart. Divides the thoracic cavity. 2. Pericardial cavity: a space within the mediastinum where the heart is located. Surrounds the heart. Peri: running around. 3. Superior mediastinum: is an artificially divided wedge-shaped compartment of the mediastinum located between the thoracic plane inferiorly and the thoracic inlet superiorly. - Directly from lecture: "Superior to the pericardial cavity and medial to the superior portion of the pleural cavity." in simpler terms; superior the heart, medial to superior portion of the lungs. 4. Pleural cavity: Pleurae (plural): cavity where lungs are. Left lung has a cardiac notch to accommodate the heart 5. Thoracic cavity: superior mediastinum is a component of the thoracic cavity, surrounded by rib cage. Contains pericardial cavity, 2 pleural cavities, diaphragm abdominopelvic cavity: Has been eviscerated (Viscera/Visceral: refers to organs specifically enclosed in the trunk of the body) and consists of abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. It bends posterior as it moves from anterior to posterior because of the curve of the spine. Sigmoid Curve; an elongated S 6. Abdominal cavity: larger than the pelvic cavity. Contains, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas (GI tract) pelvic cavity: contains all internal reproductive organs: ovaries, uterus, prostate gland, urinary bladder, rectum and sigmoid colon. 7. Diaphragm: Muscle that allows you to breathe. It's pulled down when contracting to take air into lungs and when exhaling, muscle relaxes. 8. Anatomical landmark: wall separating the thoracic cavity from abdominal pelvic cavity.
Know the common anatomy of all serous membranes and what general function they all have in common and the basic anatomical characteristics they all share.
1. Pericardium: "Peri" means around: Surrounds the heart. 2. Parietal pericardium; outermost sac 3. Visceral pericardium; innermost sac; very close to the right (ex; tight glove 4. Pleurae: surrounds the lungs (2 sets) contains parietal and visceral pleura and a pleural cavity. 5. Peritoneum: surrounds abdominopelvic cavity. 3 parts; parietal and visceral peritoneum and mesenteries (a fusion of the parietal layer and visceral layer and serves to interconnect the different portions of the small intestine direct/indirect with each other.) 6. Pericarditis- inflammation of the pericardium which can then lead to cardiac tamponade (correct) 7. Peritonitis; bacteria in the peritoneum, can lead to sepsis - you get it from a stab wound or puncture wound or when the appendix gets infected and burst (correct) 8. Pleurisy; inability to expand lungs. An inflammation of the pleurae, which impairs their lubricating function and causes pain when breathing. (correct) 9. Pleuritis; plural term of pleurisy (correct; they aren't 2 different diseases: (He has been known to ask what the plural term is for words!!) 10. Cardiac tamponade; compression of the heart by an accumulation of fluid in the pericardial sac. This fluid doesn't allow the heart to expand to the amount it needs in order to make another contraction because the sac is constricting it. (correct) → directly from lecture 11. Hemothorax; blood in the pleural cavity (correct) 12. Pneumothorax; air in the pleural cavity (correct). Collapsed lung.
For the positive feedback integral for the human female to give birth, what is (are) the signal, the controller, effector, the receptor(s).
1. Signal- first contractions of childbirth????? 2. Controller- brain (deciding to send a message to increase levels) 3. Effector- smooth muscles of the uterus 4. Receptor-oxytocin
What are the 4 components that all negative feedback systems have?
1. Signal; a change in the variable 2. Receptor; reports the state of the variable 3. Control center; the decider 4. Effector; the muscle of the operation
Know the three muscle tissue types and where they are found to the extent discussed in class.
1. Smooth muscle - has spindle-shaped, non striated, uninucleated fibers - occurs in walls of internal organs -involuntary 2. Cardiac muscle - has striated, branched, uninucleated fibers - occurs in walls of the heart - involuntary 3. Skeletal muscle - has striated, tubular, multinucleate fibers - usually attached to skeleton - voluntary
Define tissues (What are the four major categories?).
A tissue is a group of cells, in close proximity, organized to perform one or more specific functions. The four major categories are epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous
What is a hair follicle and what is its function?
A tubelike invagination of epidermis that extends into the dermis. It houses the hair so that it can grow and develop.
Define an organ and an organ system.
An organ system is a group of organs that work together as a biological system to perform one or more functions. Each organ does a particular job in the body, and is made up of distinct tissues
Understand how anatomy and physiology are different subjects, but are "joined at the hip"
Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body One word definition: Structure Physiology is the study of the function of the body One word definition: Function You cannot have anatomy without physiology and vice versa
What is the function of this apoptosis?
Apoptosis is a process of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. It is a highly regulated and controlled process that occurs normally during development and aging as a homeostatic mechanism to maintain cell populations in tissues
Are these two systems physiologically connected? Anatomically connected?
Blood vessels move lymph fluid throughout the body
How are keratinized hair cells similar yet different from cells of the epidermis?
Both are rapidly growing, and have a zone that is undergoing rapid mitosis. Hair contains hard and soft keratin, while the epidermis cells only have soft keratin
What elements are among the major categories of macromolecules?
C, O, H, N
Know the four major categories of macromolecules. Is this an oversimplification (hint: molecules in the extracellular matrix of bone)?
Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
Is this circulation directly under the direction of a pump for these system(s)? Explain.
Cardiovascular system requires a pump (the heart) to move blood throughout the body. The lymphatic system requires the movement of skeletal system and vessels to move lymph throughout the body, therefore does not require a pump.
What system(s) eliminate wastes?
Cardiovascular, urinary and digestive
Do oil and sweat have other functions aside from evaporative cooling and lubrication, respectively?
Eccrine sweat glands also produce chemicals that can be hard on bacteria to protect our skin
System-wise, which system(s) is (are) famous for being behind negative feedback?
Endocrine & nervous
What is a hormone and which system makes hormones?
Endocrine system makes hormones(chemical messengers secreted into blood to act on target tissue to produce a specific response.)
What are the layers and relative position of layers that make up terminal hair?
From deep to superficial: Medulla > Cortex > Cuticle > Epidermal/Internal Epithelia follicle > Dermal/External Epithelial follicle
What layer do the cells commit apoptosis?
Granulosum
In humans, how does the: (1) distribution and (2) thickness of terminal hair compare with other familiar mammals?
In humans, its not located over the entire body and it is less thick
Is this gas and this ion chemically linked? (Hint: Carbon dioxide +water gives ??? which then can decompose back to carbon dioxide and water or ??? and ???
In the lungs, carbonic anhydrase reverses the reaction, turning the carbonic acid back into CO2 to be exhaled. This process also maintains blood pH by controlling the amount of bicarbonate ions and protons dissolved in the blood.
What is (are) its function and clinical significance?
Intervening layer between the cutaneous membrane and everything under, it is like a cushion to help absorb impact.
Why and how is the skin so important (e.g., thermoregulation, protection, homeostasis, etc)?
It holds body fluids in, preventing dehydration , and keeps harmful microbes out—without it, we would get infections. Your skin is full of nerve endings that help you feel things like heat, cold, and pain. - Protection: physical barrier to bacteria; secretions diminish bacterial growth; melanin shields uv; skin hosts immune cells [dendritic cells] that destroy invaders - Homeostasis: restricts unregulated exchange with environment - Thermoregulation: crucial partnership with circulatory system for thermoregulation - Endocrine: initiation of calcitriol synthesis [vitamin D hormone] - Sensory: touch; temperature; pain; pressure
What main cell type comprises the epidermis?
Keratinocytes: protective, has desmosomes, water resistant, interstitial fluid isn't easily dissolved stratum granulosum. lamellar bodies from inside them.
Know the overall functions of the skeleton you have learned about in class.
Maintain body shape, posture, allows movement
What are the basic functions and main locations of: Melanocytes
Melanocyte is a highly differentiated cell that produces a pigment melanin inside melanosomes. This cell is dark and dendritic in shape. Melanin production is the basic function of melanocyte, melanocytes are present in the epidermis and hair follicles. They help from radiological damage
How do nails grow and what makes them so hard?
Nails are hard due to keratin and grow from the nail matrix
How does it tend to differ from negative feedback both in how it works and its purpose?
Negative feedback is lessening a stimulus back to normal, where the positive feedback is continuing to increase and increase until there is sudden collapse causing the cycle to break
What is the relationship between homeostasis and negative feedback?
Negative feedback occurs when the body is not at homeostasis, so the body performs actions to get the body back into homeostasis; Homeostasis related to negative feedback in order to "bring back to set point"
Which systems above all others enforce and maintain regulation of the other systems?
Nervous and endocrine system
Is the epidermis innervated and/or vascularized?
No
How and why is it that the skin is so vital for survival?
Not only does the skin hold everything in, it also plays a crucial role in providing an airtight, watertight and flexible barrier between the outside world and the highly regulated systems within the body. It also helps with temperature regulation, immune defence, vitamin production, and sensation.
What is the follicles relationship with oil glands?
Oil glands attach to the hair follicle and lubricate the hair shaft inside the follicle.
What role does oxytocin and afferent nerves play?
Oxytocin causes the uterine smooth muscles to contract
What is their relative location and thicknesses?
Papillary is superficial to reticular layer, and reticular layer is thicker; papillary layer makes up about 20% of the dermis and reticular layer makes up about 80%
What is vellus hair and how does it compare with terminal hair?
Peach fuzz, widely distributed and unlike terminal hair, it is not pigmented and doesn't have a medulla
Define positive feedback
Positive feedback is when an unusual event occurs, in which you want the variable to keep changing more and more to achieve goal - Ex: giving birth→ the uterus will gradually contract while in labor and it will get stronger and more frequent as it goes on until you finally give birth, then the force of contraction will die down.
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: hair follicles
Produce hairs that protect skull . Produce hairs that provide delicate touch sensations on general body surface.
What is the role of keratin?
Provides structure and firmness and protection, water resistant
Which systems most directly impact(s) pH...and if so is this regulating the presence of an ion (what ion?) or through regulating the presence of a gas(What gas)?
Respiratory and urinary, kidney regulates hydronium and bicarbonate ions to maintain pH. and CO2
What is a major function of hair in humans (hint: relationship with the nervous system)
Sensory (sense a mosquito that bends the hair which stimulates nerve fibers that send to brain
What is the relationship between the skeletal muscle system and the nervous system?
Skeletal muscle is under voluntary, somatic nervous system control and is found in the muscles that move bones. Stimulation of these cells by somatic motor neurons signals the cells to contract.
What is the function of skin pigment?
Skin pigment is responsible for the production of a specialized pigment substance that gives color to the skin & protect from UV radiation
What else is it (hypodermis) referred to?
Subcutaneous tissue/layer
Compare the degree of vascularization and innervation between the epidermis and dermis? Also, how do these compare in term of relative thickness?
The dermis is vascularized and innervated and the epidermis is not vascularized nor innervated The dermis is way thicker
Any other functions of hair in humans?
The functions of hair include protection, regulation of body temperature, and facilitation of evaporation of perspiration
What is the hypodermis?
The hypodermis is deep to the dermis and is not a part of the cutaneous membrane. It is mainly composed of adipose tissue.
What popularly underappreciated system is composed of one huge organ and its associated structures?
The integumentary system
What is a more scientific name for this organ and how does its size compare with other body organs?
The integumentary system and it's the largest organ
What is the function and location of the hair matrix?
The matrix is the part of the hair follicle where matrix keratinocytes proliferate to form the hair shaft of growing hair.
What two types of tissue make up the dermis?
The papillary layer(areolar connective) and reticular layer ( dense irregular connective)
Is the skin an organ? Explain.
The skin is the body's largest organ.
How are nail, hair, and skin cells similar in terms of each generating new cells and or pigmenting these cells?
They are very rapidly growing, they have melanocytes(not in nail-hemoglobin), and keratin(hair: soft/hard, nails: hard , skin:soft)
Know the names of the strata that can exist in the epidermis in thick vs thin skin. Know the layers from superficial to deep and vice versa.
Thick: Stratum Corneum, Stratum Lucidium, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Basale Thin: Stratum Corneum, Stratum Granulosum, Stratum Spinosum, Stratum Basale
Which of these layers is the thickest and which is the mitotic layer?
Thickest= corneum Mitotic layer= stratum basale
What is the prominence and significance of H20 in the body?
Water is the most abundant molecule in the body and water is about 66% of your body weight.
What is (are) the main purpose(s) of lymphatic fluid?
White blood cells and lymphocytes are carried in the lymph and it transports fat to be deposited or excreted.
What about blending these approaches?
Within each region, all systems are studied simultaneously.
Can set points vary? Explain. If I describe a negative feedback system to you that you have not learned about-you should- based on my description- be able to label the component parts as to whether they are the controller, the signal .the effector, or the receptor.
Yes, set points can be adjusted. For example, if you run on a treadmill, your blood pressure will rise, so receptors will tell your brain which will tell your skeletal muscle that it needs more oxygen and glucose faster, so then your brain will raise the set point to sustain energy during your workout.
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: arrector pili muscle
a smooth muscle that contracts when cold or emotional aroused (goosebumps)
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: apocrine sweat glands
active when hit puberty, mixed with proteins to get body odor in armpit, groin area, and perineum area
the nail matrix, the hair matrix, and the stratum basale
are all actively mitotic
An organ capable of taking up substantially more blood or jettisoning (letting go of) its normal blood supply in order to serve as an effector of thermoregulation
cutaneous membrane
Cells colonizing the epidermis, originally thought to be related to neurons but subsequently shown to be modified white blood cells that engulf foreign invaders
dendritic cells
Which absorbs nutrients?
digestive
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: eccrine sweat glands
evaporative cooling, critical for regulating body temp
structure of the skin that is comprised of both epidermal and dermal layers
hair follicle
Thermostat of the body
hypothalamus
A hormone
is secreted from an endocrine gland; is an organic molecule that travels through the blood; binds cell receptors of a target tissue causing said cells to change their physiology
Compare cells making up the nails with those making up hair and epidermis along the following lines: layer or zone of cell division, degree of pigmentation or lack thereof, degree or possible type of keratinization.
layer or zone of cell division: - Nails: the base of the nail root is the nail matrix which is where the cells are mitotic - Hair: the hair matrix is the mitotic layer - Skin: the stratum basale is the mitotic layer degree of pigmentation or lack thereof: - Nail: not pigmented - Hair: pigmentation in the hair matrix (terminal hair is pigmented & vellus hair isn't) - Skin: melanocytes in stratum basale that produces color on skin degree or possible type of keratinization: - Nail: hard keratin - Hair: hard and soft keratin - Skin: soft keratin
Know the different systems
on other doc
For any bone, know whether it belongs to the axial skeleton or the appendicular skeleton.
on review doc
Know all surface anatomy vocabulary discussed in class and be able to apply the terms correctly. Though there are a lot of names, this is rudimentary anatomical vocabulary you should know from the class.
on review doc; basic vocabulary
What are examples of variables mentioned in class that are homeostatically regulated?
pH of blood, body temp, blood glucose, blood gas, blood pressure
Define "set point" in the context of negative feedback?
physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: oil glands
sebaceous gland, helps with brittle hair, helps lubricate epidermis and fights bacteria
Which systems (hint: tension generator and scaffolding) are partnered in executing movement?
skeletal system and muscular system
Know the anatomical descriptions and physiological significance of the following: Lacunae
small cavity or space in osteon containing osteocyte, provides passageways
During dissolution of NaCl into water, water molecules
surround the sodium and chloride ions such that the partially negative oxygens of water interact most closely with the sodium ions and the partially positive hydrogens interact most closely with the chloride ions
Know the basic structure and function of the following dermal structures: hair
the head hairs cushion the scalp from blows, protect from ultraviolet light, and provide insulation for the skull. The hairs guarding the entrances to the nostrils and external auditory canals help prevent the entry of foreign particles and insects, and eyelashes perform similar functions for the eye. hair on other areas of the body helps with protection, light touch sensitivity, and was previously used for thermoregulation.
Are regional and systemic approaches subcategories of gross? Explain.
yes, regional is studying the body area by area. Systemic is studying the body system by system.
