A&P II Chapter 22 Wiley Plus Lymphatic System, A&P 2 - Chapter 22 - Immune System, Anatomy and Physiology II- chapter 22, A&P II: Chapter 22
epitope
"A tag" - the part of an antigen molecule to which an antibody attaches itself.
what are functions of cytokines?
(1) serve as a means of communication between the cells; (2) control the development and behavior of effector cells of immunity; (3) regulate the inflammatory response of innate immunity; and (4) function as weapons to destroy cells.
pharynx (and 3 sections)
(food, funnel) digestive and respiratory system 1. nasopharynx- superior portion 2. oropharynx- continuous with the oral cavity 3. laryngopharynx- between the hyoid bone and esophagus
larynx
(language) air passes through glottis to trachea -larynx protects glottis
adaptive immunity
(or acquired immunity) involves specific T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes, which respond to different foreign substances (or antigens) to which we are exposed during our lifetime
innate immunity
(or nonspecific immunity) born with these defenses, Innate immunity includes the barriers of the skin and mucosal membranes that prevent entry.- DO NOT require previous exposure to a foreign substance, AND respond immediately to any potentially harmful agent.
first line of defense
(or outside defence system) includes physical and chemical barriers that are always ready and prepared to defend the body from infection. These include your skin, tears, mucus, cilia, stomach acid, urine flow, 'friendly' bacteria and white blood cells called neutrophils.
colony-stimulating factor (CSF)
- Destroys tumor cells; may have other functions as well
tumor necrosis factor (TNF)
- Destroys tumor cells; may have other functions as well
interleukin (IL)
- Regulates immune cells
interferon (IFN)
- Three classes: IFN-α and IFN-β are antiviral agents, and IFN-γ is a pro-inflammatory agent
expiration
-inspiratory muscles relax and rib cage descends (gravity) - thoracic cavity volume decreases -elastic lungs recoil -intrapulmomary volume decreases -intrapulmonary pressure rises above atmospheric pressure *when high pressure in lungs it flows to atmos (vice versa)
adjustment if ventilation is less than perfusion
-slow down perfusion (vasoconstrict) -speed up ventilation (brachiodialate)
adjustment if ventilation is greater than perfusion
-speed up blood flow (vasodialate) -slow air flow (brachioconstrict)
Three physical factors that influence pulmonary ventilation are:
1) Airway resistance 2) Alveolar Surface tension 3) Lung compliance
What are the 3 major functions of the larynx?
1) Contains vocal cords 2) Patent Airway 3) Switching mechanism to route food and air into proper channels.
Alveoli contains more CO2 and water vapor than atmospheric pressure due to:
1) Gas exchange in lungs 2) Humidification of air 3) Mixing of alveolar gas that occurs with each breath
5 Steps of expiration in order?
1) Inspiratory muscles relax 2) Thoracic cavity volume decreases 3) Elastic lungs recoil and intrapulmonary volume decreases 4) Ppul rises 5) Air flows out of the lungs down it's pressure gradient until Ppul=0 ****Passive Process (unless it is forced)
The 5 steps of inspiration in order:
1) Inspiratory muslces contract 2) Thoracic volume increases 3) Lungs are stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases 4) Intrapulmonary pressure drops 5) Air flows into its lungs down it's pressure gradient until Ppul=Patm ***Active process
The three layers of the trachea wall are the:
1) Mucosa 2) Submucosa 3) Adventitia
What are the 3 divisions of the pharynx?
1) Nasopharynx 2) Oropharynx 3) Laryngopharynx
Spirometry is used to distinguish between:
1) Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (increased airway resistance) 2) Restrictive Disorders (reduction in total lung capacity due to structural or functional lung changes)
3 factors that influence the rate of external respiration?
1) Partial pressure gradients 2) Ventilation-perfusion coupling (amount of air and blood reaching alveoli) 3) Structural characteristics of respiratory membrane
What are the four processes of respiration?
1) Pulmonary ventilation 2) External Respiration 3) Transport of respiratory gases in the blood 4) Internal Respiration
Factors that may diminish lung compliance:
1)Deformities of thorax 2) Ossification of costal cartilage 3) Paralysis of intercostal muscle 4) Severe fibrosis which occurs with chemo
What are the 5 stages of phagocyte function?
1- Chemotaxis - attraction 2- Adherence 3- Ingestion 4- Digestion / killing 5- Exocytosis / vomit non digestible things
amount of oxygen hemoglobin can carry is dependent on what 3 things?
1. P oxygen- exercie so low so cells low so take from hemoglobin = low oxyhemoglobin 2. pH- exercise so low pH (acid) so cells take from hemoglobin= low oxyhemoglobin 3. temperature- exercise so high so cells take from hemoglobin= low oxyhemoglobin
3 ways to transport carbon dioxide
1. bicarbonate ion in plasma (solute, electrolyte) 2. chemically bound in hemoglobin (carried on amine group) 3. dissolved in plasma
4 respiratory reflexes
1. chemoreceptors- level of CO2 2. baroreceptors- monitor concentrations of gases 3. hering-breuer- prevents overinflation 4. protective- gag reflex, sneeze, cough
5 respiratory pathologies
1. chronis obstructive pulmonary disease(COPD) 2. asthma- obstructive 3. tuberculosis- restrictive 4. pneumonia- restrictive 5. lung cancer- restictive
pitch depends on 3 conditions of vocal folds
1. diameter 2. length 3. tension * deep voice= thick, long, saggy
gas exchange across respiratory membrane is efficient due to what 5 factors?
1. differences in partial pressure (dalton's law) 2. coordination of bloodflow (perfusion) and airflow (external respiration) 3. small diffusion distance 4. lipid soluble gases 5. large surface area of all alveoli
lung compliance: determined by what 2 things?
1. distensibility of lung tissue and surrounding 2. surface tension of alveoli
4 problems with respiratory system when aging
1. efficiency decreases 2. elastic tissue deteriorates causing lower lung compliance and vital capacity 3. chest movements are restricted by arthritic changes 4. emphysema
1. oxygen enters and leaves from there? 2. carbon dioxide enters and leaves from where?
1. enter lungs, leaves from tissue 2. enters tissue, leaves from lungs
4 voluntary control of respiration
1. exercise 2. conscious and unconscious thought 3. emotional state 4. anticipation
during first breath
1. inhaled air enters respiratory passages for first time 2. bronchial tree and most of alveoli are inflated 3. subsequent breaths complete inflation of alveoli
2 phases of pulmonary ventilation
1. inspiration (inhale)= oxygen in 2. expiration (exhale)= CO2 out
control respiration: local respiration
1. lung perfusion: alveolar capillaries constrict in low oxygen 2. alveolar ventilation: bronchioles dilate in high carbon dioxide
spirometer can distinguish between what 2 diseases?
1. obstructive disease (partially closed): increases TLV, FRC, RV ex- emphazema, bronchitis, asthma 2. restrictive disease (completely closed): reduction in VC, TLC, FRC, RV ex-pneumonia, lung cancer
movement of air depends on what 2 things?
1. pressure relationship in thoracic cavity 2. Boyle's law
3 other functions of respiratory system
1. protection of respiratory surfaces 2. production of sound (larynx) 3. provision for olfactory sensations (nose)
steps of respiration
1. pulmonary ventilation: exchange of gases between atmosphere and lungs 2. external respiration: exchange of gases between lungs (alveoli) and blood (pulmonary capillaries) 3. transport: carrying gases to and from pulmonary capillaries and tissue capillaries 4. internal respiration: exchange of gases between tissue capillaries and cells
control respiration: neural regulation
1. respiratory centers 2. voluntary control
4 factors that diminish lung compliance (state either distensibility or surface tension)
1. scar tissue or fibrosis that reduces natural resilience of lungs (distensibility) 2. blockage of smaller respiratory passages with mucus or fluid (surface tension) 3. reduced production of surfactant (surface tension) 4. decreased flexibility of the thoracic cage or its decreased ability to expand (distensibility)
The primary response will peak how long after an exposure?
10-17 days
alveoli
300 million account for most of lungs volume provide tremendous surface area for gas exchange
partial pressure oxygen of venous blood is____ and alveoli is ____. this allows what?
40mmHg 104mmHg -allows oxygen partial pressure to rapidly reach equilibrium by diffusing from alveoli to capillary blood
How do we transport oxygen?
98.5% is transported via Hemoglobin (4 O2 per Hb)
cytotoxic t-cell
A T cell that is antigen-specific and is able to search out and kill specific types of virus-infected cells
co-recepter
A cell surface receptor that binds a signaling molecule in addition to a primary receptor in order to facilitate ligand recognition and initiate a biological process, such as entry of a pathogen into a host cell
antigen presenting cell
A cell that can "present" antigen in a form that T cells can recognize it.
CD8
A glycoprotein that is found on the surface of certain T cells, especially cytotoxic T lymphocytes, and that functions to bind the T cell to molecules on the surface of the target cell that is to be killed.
Lung compliance is defined as:
A measure of hte change in lung volume that occurs with a given change in transpulmonary pressure
hapten
A substance that is capable of reacting with a specific antibody but cannot induce the formation of antibodies unless bound to a carrier protein or other molecule. Also called incomplete antigen, partial antigen.
helper t-cell
A type of T cell that provides help to other cells in the immune response by recognizing foreign antigens and secreting substances called cytokines that activate T and B cells
b-cell
A type of white blood cell and, specifically, a type of lymphocyte. Many B cells mature into what are called plasma cells that produce antibodies (proteins) necessary to fight off infections while other B cells mature into memory B cells. ... which mature largely in the bone marrow
A.) How do antibodies act on pathogens B.) what role does the Fc region play?
A.) They neutralize them, by recognizing a unique molecule of harmful agents called antigens B.) They bind to the antigens via lock and key mech
A.) What are MHC I molecules? B.) Where are they found?
A.) are glycoproteins; they are genetically determined and are unique to each individual - they are present on almost every cell in the body, acting to present endogenous antigens that originate from the cytoplasm. These antigens include not only self-proteins, but also foreign proteins produced within the cell, such as viral proteins that take over the cell's machinery in order to replicate the virus. B.) on the surface of all nucleated cells
A.) What are MHC II molecules? B.) Where are they found?
A.) like the MHC class I molecule, is a glycoprotein continuously synthesized by the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), modified by the endomembrane system, and then embedded within the plasma membrane B.) on the surface of antigen presenting cells such as macrophages, B-cells, dendritic cells etc.
A.) how are plasma cells formed B.) and what role do they play in the adaptive immune system
A.)First, the B cells have to encounter a foreign antigen, and are then required to be activated by T helper cells before they differentiate to specific cells. B.) producing large volumes of antibodies.
A.) How are T-cells tested for immunocompetence B.) Where are T-cells tested for immunocompetence
A.)T-lymphocytes bind with thymic epithelial cells that have MHC molecules AND by thymic dendritic cells presenting self-antigens with MHC class I and II molecules. B.) thymus
what are the stages of inflammation
Acute -swelling stage. (release of various chemicals from affected area - i.e. histamine) Sub-acute - regenerative stage. (Released chemicals cause a variety of responses in local blood vessels, including vasodilation, increase in capillary permeability, and stimulation of the capillary endothelium to provide molecules for leukocyte adhesion) Chronic - scar tissue maturation and remodelling stage. (recruitment of leukocytes. Leukocytes make their way from the blood to the infected tissue through the following processes: margination, diapedesis chemotaxis)
The respiratory membrane is barrier between what?
Air & blood
Which of the following is a function of the lymphatic system?
All of these are functions of the lymphatic system
Alveolar dead space is caused by:
Alveoli that ceases to act in gas exchange due to collapse or obstruction
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
Amount of air forced into the lungs beyond the TV (Male: 3100 Female: 1900ml
Functional Residual Capacity
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after a tidal expiration FRC=ERV+RV
Residual Volume (RV)
Amount of air remaining in the lungs after forceful expiration (prevents lung collapse) (Male: 1200ml Female: 1100ml)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
Amount of air that can be forcibly evacuated from the lungs beyond the normal TV (Male: 1200ml Female: 700ml)
What does the nasopharynx function as?
An air conduit.
neutralization
An antibody physically covers an antigenic determinant of a pathogen to make it ineffective in establishing an infection or causing harm. For example, neutralization occurs when an antibody covers the region of a virus used to bind to a cell receptor, preventing entry of the virus into a cell. A similar process neutralizes toxins.
precipitation
Antibody can cross-link soluble, circulating antigens such as viral particles (not whole cells) to form an antigen-antibody complex. These complexes become insoluble and precipitate out of body fluids. The precipitated complexes are then engulfed and eliminated by phagocytic cells such as macrophages.
agglutinization
Antibody cross-links antigens of foreign cells, causing them to agglutinate or "clump." This is especially effective against bacterial cells and mismatched erythrocytes in a blood transfusion
Which of the following induces the production of a specific antibody?
Antigen
Which class of cells includes macrophages, B cells and dendritic cells?
Antigen presenting cells
Genetic recombination generates diversity in what specific part of the immune system?
Antigen receptors
Lung collapse is also know as
Atelectasis.
The relationship between the pressure and volume of a gas is given by which law?
Boyle's Law
Pulmonary ventilation is also know as
Breathing
CD4
CD4 definition, a protein on the surface of T cells and other cells, functioning as a receptor for the AIDS virus antigen.
Internal respiration is the exchange of gas where?
Capillaries of body tissues
immune complex elimination
Complement links immune (antigen-antibody) complexes to erythrocytes so they may be transported to the liver and spleen. Erythrocytes are stripped of these complexes by macrophages within these organs, and the erythrocytes then continue circulating in the blood.
Which anti-microbial substances promote cytolysis, phagocytosis and inflammation?
Complement proteins
What are the functional divisions of the respiratory system referred to as?
Conducting and Respiratory Zone Structures
Which of the following is a small hormone that can stimulate or inhibit many normal cell functions?
Cytokine
Which of the following is an INCORRECT matching of immune system cells and their functions? Macrophage - process and presentation of foreign antigens to T cells Dendritic cell - processes and presents antigen to T and B cells B cells - process and presents antigen to helper T cells Plasma cell - produces and secretes antibodies All of these are correct matching of the cells and their functions
Dendritic cell - processes and presents antigen to T and B cells
Which two muscles must contract during inspiration?
Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles.
Vestibular Folds are also known as
False vocal cords
Which of the following intensifies the effect of interferons and promotes the rate of repair?
Fever
A.) Identify the 3 significant events that occur in the lifetime of a lymphocyte... B.) ...and where each occurs for each cell type
Formation of lymphocytes. The formation and maturation of lymphocytes occur within primary lymphatic structures (red bone marrow and the thymus). Here T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes become able to recognize only one specific foreign antigen. Activation of lymphocytes. Following their formation, lymphocytes then migrate to secondary lymphatic structures (e.g., lymph nodes, the spleen, tonsils, MALT) where they are housed. Typically, these locations are where lymphocytes have their first exposure to the antigen that they bind, and thus become activated. In response to activation, lymphocytes replicate to form many identical lymphocytes. Effector response. The effector response is the specific action of the T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes to help eliminate the antigen at the site of infection. T-lymphocytes leave the secondary lymphatic structures, migrating to the site of infection. B-lymphocytes (as differentiated plasma cells) primarily remain within the secondary lymphatic structures, synthesizing and releasing large quantities of antibodies against the antigen. The antibodies enter the blood and lymph and are transported to the site of infection
Where are the respiratory zone structures located?
From the respiratory bronchioles to alveoli
Where are the conducting zone structures located?
From the trachea to the right and left primary bronchi
Very little N2 dissolves in this substance and CO2 is 20 times more soluble in it than O2:
H2O
Which of the following stimulates an immune response ONLY when it is attached to a larger carrier molecule?
Hapten
Which cells display CD4 proteins and interact with MHC Class II antigens?
Helper T Cells
Which cell must be activated in order to achieve virtually all cell mediated immune responses?
Helper T cells
How are T-cells activated?
Helper T cells become activated when they are presented with peptide antigens by MHC class II molecules, which are expressed on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Once activated, they divide rapidly and secrete small proteins called cytokines that regulate or assist in the active immune response.
compare the role of helper T-cells and cytotoxic T-cells in the immune responses
Helper T-cells help other cells and tell them what to do Cytotoxic T-cells kill the abnormal cells
When does the respiratory membrane thicken?
If lungs become waterlogged and edematous
Which antibody is found in mucous membranes?
IgA
Which class of antibodies is mainly found in sweat, tears, breast milk and GI secretions?
IgA
Which antibody is on the surface of B-cells?
IgD
Which antibody is produced in response to parasites and allergic reactions?
IgE
Which antibody is most common?
IgG
which antibody is longest lived?
IgG
Which antibody is produced by fetuses?
IgM
Which class of antibodies in the blood and lymph indicates a recent invasion?
IgM
When B and T cells are fully developed and mature, they are described as being
Immunocompetent
Which of the following is NOT an effect of aging on the immune system?
Increased response of T cells to antigens
Pathogenic
Infectious agents that cause harm to the host
Which of the following is an effect of stress on the immune system?
Inhibition of the immune system
Breathing consists of:
Inspiration (gases into lungs) and expiration (gases exit lungs)
What is dead space?
Inspired air that never contributes to gas exchange
Which anti-microbial substances reduce viral replication in uninfected cells?
Interferons
interferon
Interferons (IFNs) are a category of cytokines that include (1) IFN-α and IFN-β produced by leukocytes and virus-infected cells and (2) IFN-γ produced by T-lymphocytes and NK cells. IFNs serve as a nonspecific defense mechanism against the spread of any viral infection.
Which cytokine released by macrophages acts on the hypothalamus to raise the body temperature during fever?
Interleukin-1
Voice production is the result of what?
Intermittent release of expired air while opening and closing the glottis.
Where do the paranasal sinuses drain?
Into the nasal cavities.
Which of the following C3 activation pathways involves antigen-antibody complexes leading to inflammation, enhancement of phagocytosis and lysis of microbes?
Lectin pathway
How does aging alter the immune system?
Less effective, individuals become more susceptible to infection. reduced immune functions such as Tcells and Bcells are less responsive
What causes lymph from the small intestines to appear white?
Lipids
What is the major difference between lymph and interstitial fluid?
Location
The skeletal muscle and respiratory pumps are used in the
Lymphatic, Immune and Cardiovascular systems
Which of the following cells exists in the greatest variety in the immune system?
Lymphocyte
Which chemical released by cytotoxic T cells fragments DNA?
Lymphotoxin
How are cytotoxic T-cells activated?
MHC I / abnormal cells that need to be destroyed
Which does NOT provide a physical or chemical barrier?
Macrophages
Which of these provides a non-specific second line of defense?
Macrophages
Which of the following is NOT a function of the lymphatic and immune system?
Maintaining water homeostasis in the body
Which of the following is NOT a sign of inflammation?
Mucus production
name one autoimmune disorder caused by altered self-antigens
Multiple sclerosis, which results from the destruction of the myelin sheath formed by oligodendrocytes; this destruction occurs by T-lymphocytes
Which of the following organ systems is NOT aided by the MALT (mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue)?
Muscular system
how do NK cells destroy pathogens
NK cells make physical contact with unhealthy cells and destroy them by release of cytotoxic chemicals. These cytotoxic chemicals include perforin, which forms a transmembrane pore in the unwanted cells, and granzymes, which then enter the cell through the transmembrane pore initiating apoptosis. Apoptosis (see section 4.10) is a form of cellular death in which the cell does not lyse, but rather "shrivels"; this helps limit the spread of the infectious agent.
Which of the following cells is part of the body's second line of defense?
Natural killer cells
Exposure to an infectious agent during your day-to-day activities leads to
Naturally acquired active immunity
How does naturally acquired immunity differ from artificially acquired immunity > active VS passive?
Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen, develops the disease, and becomes immune as a result of the primary immune response. Artificially acquired active immunity can be induced by a vaccine, a substance that contains the antigen. >Natural passive - occurs during pregnancy, where certain antibodies pass from mom to baby Artificial passive - Short-term immunization, by injection of antibodies that are not produced by recipient cells
Neutrophils - Macrophages - Basophils/mast cells - NK cells - Eosinophils -
Neutrophils are the "foot soldiers" that are the first to arrive at the site of infection. Macrophages are the "big eaters"—the cleanup crew that arrives at the injured or infected scene late and stays longer. Basophils/mast cells engage in "chemical warfare" that causes inflammation. NK cells serve as "security guards" that "search for and destroy" unwanted cells. Eosinophils are the "heavy artillery" to take on the "big guys" (parasites).
Which type of immunity defends against any type of invader?
Nonspecific
External Respiration is the exchange of what?
O2 and CO2 across the respiratory membrane (O2 enters blood and CO2 exits)
Which complement system action makes microbes more susceptible to phagocytosis?
Opsonization
Which 2 divisions of the pharynx are common passageways for food and air?
Orophopharynx and Laryngopharynx
Which 2 divisions of the pharynx are the tonsils found in?
Orophopharynx and Nasopharynx
Which of the following is NOT considered an organ of the immune system?
Pancreas
Which of these chemicals do NOT induce vasodilation, increased permeability, and increased fluid flow to an infection site?
Perforin
Intrapleural pressure is:
Pressure in the pleural cavity (Pip); always negative
Boyle's law states that:
Pressure varies inversely with volume.
What function does the epiglottis provide?
Prevents food or liquids from entering the respiratory channels during swallowing/
exogenous pathway
Proteins engulfed from out side of the cell
The ability of an antigen to react specifically with the antibodies or cells it has provoked is called
Reactivity
What function does surfactant serve?
Reduces surface tension of the alveolar fluid
What are the physical characteristics of the trachea?
Reinforced by C-shaped cartilage rings allowing it to remain patent and its mucosa are ciliated.
Which of the following is a function of the spleen?
Removes worn out blood cells
Valsalva's maneuver is an example of the vocal cords acting as a what?
Sphincter to prevent air passage.
Total lung capacity
Sum of all lung volumes TLC=TV+IRV+ERV+RV
Lack of resistance is also known as:
Susceptibility
The lungs receive blood via
Systemic circulation
To become activated, which of the following requires being bound to a foreign antigen AND simultaneous costimulation?
T cell
what type of receptors do cytotoxic t-cells present?
T-cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize a specific antigen
thymic selection
T-lymphocytes complete their maturation in the thymus to form naive T-lymphocytes that are immunocompetent. The process of thymic selection of T-lymphocytes includes (1) positive selection, (2) negative selection, and (3) the selective loss of either CD4 or CD8 proteins
complement fixation
The Fc region of certain classes of antibodies (IgG and IgM) can bind specific complement proteins to cause activation of complement by the classical pathway
activation of NK cells
The Fc region of certain classes of antibodies (IgG) bind to specific receptors on NK cells (much like phagocytes). This induces NK cells to destroy abnormal cells by the release of cytotoxic chemicals that cause apoptosis of the cell.
naive T-lymphocyte
The T-cells that leave the thymus are immunocompetent cells. However, each of these T-cells have not yet been exposed to the specific foreign antigen it recognizes HENCE naive
positive selection
The TCR embedded in the plasma membrane of a T-lymphocyte must be able to recognize and bind an MHC molecule. This is "tested" by having T-lymphocytes bind with thymic epithelial cells that have MHC molecules. Those T-lymphocytes that can bind MHC survive, and those that cannot are eliminated.
Anatomical dead space is the volume of what space?
The conducting zone conduits
If Pip=Ppul the result is:
The lungs collapse.
negative selection
The newly formed T-lymphocyte must also not bind to any self-antigens that are presented within an MHC molecule. This is "tested" by thymic dendritic cells presenting self-antigens with MHC class I and II molecules. If the T-lymphocyte does bind to the self-antigen, then it is destroyed.
Tidal volume (TV)
The normal amount of air moved in and out of the lungs during a normal breath (Male: 500 Female: 500ml)
Atmospheric pressure is
The pressure exerted by the air surrounding the body (760 mm Hg at sea level)
Intrapulmonary pressure is:
The pressure of the alveoli Ppul; eventually equalizes with Patm
What is a common reference term for the larynx?
The voice box.
why are memory cells important in adaptive immunity
They speed up the reaction time to antigens that have previously infected the body or that they have previously come into contact with
third line of immune defense
This system relies on antigens, which are specific substances found in foreign microbes. Most antigens are proteins that serve as the stimulus to produce an immune response AKA adaptive immunity
The left subclavian vein receives lymph from the
Thoracic duct
In which part of the thymus are T cells thought to die?
Thymic (Hassall's) corpuscles
Which organ produces a hormone that promotes maturation of T cells?
Thymus
What is the function of the respiratory zone structures?
To facilitate gas exchange.
What is the function of the conducting zone structures?
To filter, warm and moisten incoming air.
Inspiratory Capacity
Total Volume that can be inspired after a tidal expiration IC=TV+IRV
Vital Capacity
Total amount of exchangeable air VC=TV+IRV+ERV
Daltons law of Partial Pressures is defined as
Total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures exerted by each gas
Naturally acquired passive immunity is associated with which of the following?
Transfer of IgG from mother to fetus
Ppul-Pip=
Transpulmonary pressure: keeps the airways open.
Vocal ligaments also known as
True vocal cords: form the core of the vocal folds.
Which type of allergic reaction is the most common type?
Type I (anaphylactic) reaction
The alveolar walls consist of which to cell types?
Type I Squamous epithelium and Type II cuboidal cell (surfactant secreting)
how does inflammation increase fluid movement?
Vasodilation - which allows more blood into the infected area Increased capillary permeability - as endothelial cells lining the blood vessel wall contract, which causes larger openings between the endothelial cells and allows more fluid to move from the blood into the interstitial fluid Loss of plasma protein - which decreases capillary osmotic pressure, resulting in less fluid being retained in the blood and reabsorbed back into the blood during capillary exchange
What is the function of the nose and paranasal sinuses?
Warm, moisten & cleanse incoming air; houses olfactory receptors.
Henry's Law states that:
When a mixture of gases is in contact with a liquid, each gas will dissolve in the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure
The trachea consists of these 4 major structures:
Windpipe, wall, trachealis muscle, carina
antibody
a blood protein produced in response to and counteracting a specific antigen. Antibodies combine chemically with substances that the body recognizes as alien, such as bacteria, viruses, and foreign substances in the blood.
inflammation
a localized physical condition in which part of the body becomes reddened, swollen, hot, and often painful, especially as a reaction to injury or infection.
exudate
a mass of cells and fluid that has seeped out of blood vessels or an organ, especially in inflammation
primary response
a response occurs when an antigen comes in contact to the immune system for the first time. During this time the immune system has to learn to recognize antigen and how to make antibody against it and eventually produce memory lymphocytes.
secondary response
a response occurs when the second time (3rd, 4th, etc.) the person is exposed to the same antigen. At this point immunological memory has been established and the immune system can start making antibodies immediately.
abscess
a swollen area within body tissue, containing an accumulation of pus.
antigen
a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
transpulmonary pressure
across lungs Ppulmonary- Pipleural
how do acute and chronic inflammatory responses differ?
acute inflammation, your immune response is your friend. It is actively repairing an injury. Chronic inflammation is a state where the immune system won't shut off. It keeps trying to fix something when nothing acute is wrong.
respiratory volumes: residual volume (RV)
air left to keep alveoli inflated *non-exchangeable air*
respiratory capacities: vital capacity (VC)
air lived off of *exchangeable air* TV+IRV+ERV
how sound production occurs
air passes through glottis vibrates the vocal folds producing sound waves
functional: conducting zone
air transported through tract -nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea
respiratory capacities: inspiratory capacity (IC)
all air the lungs can hold that breathed in IRV+TV
respiratory capacities: total lung capacity (TLC)
all volumes of air ~6000mL in males ~4200mL in females
Antigens that induce an allergic reaction are called
allergens
why is it good to let a fever "run its course"?
allows the body to naturally fight the foreign pathogen, if you reduce the fever with medication, you prolong or stop the process either masking the symptoms or prolonging the body's natural reaction
respiratory bronchioles lead to what?
alveolar ducts, then to terminal clusters of alveolar sacs composed of alveoli
external respiration
alveoli to blood
respiratory volumes: expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
amount of air exhaled past tidal volume ~1000-1200mL
respiratory volumes: inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
amount of air inhaled past tidal volume ~2100-3200mL
alveolar ventilation rate (AVR)/ respiratory rate
amount of air reaching the alveoli each minute frequency x (TV-dead space)
fever
an abnormally high body temperature, usually accompanied by shivering, headache, and in severe instances, delirium.
spirometer
an instrument consisting of a hollow bell inverted over water, used to evaluate respiratory function
An acute (Type I) allergic response can lead to:
anaphylactic shock
bronchial veins linked to what?
anastomose (linked) with pulmonary veins
The development of self-tolerance through B cell and T cell inactivation after antigen recognition without the second costimulation signal involves which process?
anergy
name one autoimmune disorder caused by cross-reactivity
antigens of Streptococcus bacteria are similar to certain heart proteins, and immune cells damage the bicuspid (mitral) and aortic valves, resulting in rheumatic heart disease.
immunoglobulin
any of a class of proteins present in the serum and cells of the immune system, that function as antibodies.
memory cells
any small, long-lived lymphocyte that has previously encountered a given antigen and that on re-exposure to the same antigen rapidly initiates the immune response (memory T cell) or proliferates and produces large amounts of specific antibody (memory B cell) the agent of lasting immunity.
NK cell
are a type of lymphocyte (a white blood cell) and a component of innate immune system. NK cells form holes in their targeted cells, causing them to apoptosis (cell destruction from within-out) destroy a wide variety of unwanted cells, including virus-infected cells, bacteria-infected cells, tumor cells, and cells of transplanted tissue (figure 22.3c). NK cells are formed in the bone marrow, circulate in the blood, and accumulate in secondary lymphatic structures of the lymph node, spleen, and tonsils. NK cells patrol the body in an effort to detect unhealthy cells, a process referred to as immune surveillance.
dendritic cell
are antigen-presenting cells (also known as accessory cells) of the immune system. Their main function is to process antigen material and present it on the cell surface to the T cells of the immune system. They act as messengers between the innate and the adaptive immune systems.
what is the roles of basophil and mast cells in the innate immune response?
are both proinflammatory chemical-secreting cells - Substances secreted by basophils and mast cells increase fluid movement from the blood to an injured tissue. They also serve as chemotactic chemicals, which are chemicals that attract immune cells as part of the inflammatory response
endogenous protein
are the compounds that have been generated within the body due to normal cell metabolisms or due to an intracellular bacterial or a viral infection
plasma cell
are white blood cells that secrete large volumes of antibodies - develop from B cells that have been activated
Which type of adaptive immunity will result from intravenous injection of immunoglobulins?
artificially acquired passive immunity
respiratory pressure always in relation to what?
atmospheric pressure
What are the five major categories of infectious agents?
bacteria viruses fungi protozoans multicellular parasites
How are B-cells activated?
binding of pathogen, immunogen or antigen, with helper T-cell stimulation
oxygen transport
carried mainly by red blood cells bound to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin)
pulmonary veins
carry most venous blood back to heart
what are the risks of a high fever?
changes in metabolic pathways and denaturation of body proteins
how does the classical pathway DIFFER from the alternative pathway of the complementary system?
classical pathway: in which a complement protein binds to an antibody that has previously attached to a foreign substance (e.g., a portion of a bacterium) alternative pathway: in which surface polysaccharides of certain bacterial and fungal cell walls bind directly with a complement protein. Note that antibody is required for the activation by the classical pathway, but not for activation by the alternative pathway.
inspiration
diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract, rib cage rises -lungs stretched and intrapulmonary volume increases -intrapulmonary pressure drops below atmospheric pressure -air flow into lungs, down pressure gradient UNTIL intrapulmonary pressure= atmospheric pressure
Henry's law
diffusion between gases and liquid -amount of gas in solution is *directly* proportional to their partial pressure - the amount of gas that will dissolve in liquid also depends upon its solubility -----oxygen can not, CO2 more soluble
pleura
each lung covered by one 1. parietal: attaches to wall of pleural cavity 2. visceral: adheres to surface of lungs *pleural fluid
how do dendritic cells destroy pathogens
engulf unwanted substances such as infectious agents and cellular debris through phagocytosis - destroy infectious agents and then present fragments of the microbe on its cell surface to T-lymphocytes—a process called antigen presentation, which is necessary for initiating adaptive immunity
how do neutrophils and macrophages destroy pathogens?
engulf unwanted substances such as infectious agents and cellular debris through phagocytosis - following phagocytosis, N's & M's destroy infectious agents through a process that involves a lysosome and a respiratory burst
nostrils
entrance for air (some filtration)
Zero respiratory pressure is:
equal to Patm
quiet breathing (and what type of volume)
eupnea (tidal volume) -just use diaphragm and external and internal intercostals muscles
what type of receptors do helper t-cells present?
express the surface protein CD4
which molecules are important in tissue matching to minimize rejection?
express the surface protein CD8
functional: respiratory zone
external respiration -bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
blood supply: respiratory zone
external respiration- deoxygenated -receive blood from the arteries of the pulmonary circulation
pyrogen
fever-inducing molecules
internal respiration
from systemic capillaries to cells
Positive respiratory pressure is:
greater than Patm
Which cells of the immune system are the primary targets of the HIV virus?
helper T cells
Systemic circulation is
high pressure, low volume; Blood arises from the aorta and carries oxygenated blood to all lung tissue except the alvioli
MHC
histocompatibility - a specialized transmembrane protein complex. This name refers to the group of genes that code for MHC molecules embedded within plasma membranes.
forced breathing
hyperpnea -accessory muscles 1. inspiration: pectoralis major, surratus anterior (chest) 2. expiration: abdomin, rectus abdominus
humoral immunity
immune response involving B-lymphocytes that develop into plasma cells to synthesize and release antibodies
cell-mediated immunity
immune response involving T-lymphocytes, which differentiate into helper T-lymphocytes and cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
anti-mediated immunity
immunity conferred to an individual through the activity of B cells and their progeny, which produce circulating antibodies in response to the presence of a foreign substance and recognize the substance upon renewed exposure. Also called humoral immunity.
What class of disorders, including AIDS and SCID, involves the destruction of B and T cells resulting in the inability of the immune system to protect the body from pathogens?
immunodeficiency diseases
Ig
immunoglobulin (Ig) - a protein produced against a particular antigen
when is respiratory rate highest?
in newborns (decreases until adulthood)
slow deep breathing____AVR and rapid, shallow breathing____AVR
increases decreases
folds of larnyx
inelastic vestibular folds (false) delicate vocal folds (true)
pons
influence and modify medulla 1. apneustic centers: strong, sustained IC 2. pneumotaxic centers: inhibit apneustic centers
Major cytokines
interleukin (IL) tumor necrosis factor (TNF) colony-stimulating factor (CSF) interferon (IFN)
which 2 pressures fluctuate with the pressures of breathing?
intrapulmonary pressure intrapleural pressure
hypersensitivity
is an abnormal and exaggerated response of the immune system to an antigen.
immunogen
is any antigen that is capable of inducing humoral and/or cell-mediated immune response rather than immunological tolerance. This ability is called immunogenicity. Sometimes the term immunogen is used interchangeably with the term antigen. But only an immunogen can evoke an immune response.
effector response
is any of various types of cell that actively responds to a stimulus and effects some change is the specific action of the T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes to help eliminate the antigen at the site of infection. T-lymphocytes leave the secondary lymphatic structures, migrating to the site of infection. B-lymphocytes (as differentiated plasma cells) primarily remain within the secondary lymphatic structures, synthesizing and releasing large quantities of antibodies against the antigen. The antibodies enter the blood and lymph and are transported to the site of infection.
complement system
is composed of at least 30 plasma proteins that make up approximately 10% of the blood serum proteins. These proteins are collectively referred to as complement. The name is derived from how they complement, or work along with, antibodies
chemotaxis
is migration of cells along a chemical gradient. Chemicals released from damaged cells, dead cells, or invading pathogens diffuse outward and form a chemical gradient that attracts immune cells. Recruited cells also participate in the inflammatory response through the release of specific cytokines, such as granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), that stimulate leukopoiesis within red bone marrow. This helps account for the increase in leukocyte count that occurs during an active infection.
second line of immune defense
is nonspecific resistance that destroys invaders in a generalized way without targeting specific individuals: Phagocytic cells ingest and destroy all microbes that pass into body tissues - all internal, nonspecific means of eliminating a foreign substance AKA innate immunity
passive immunity
is obtained from another individual or animal, and it can also be obtained naturally or artificially. Naturally acquired passive immunity occurs from the transfer of antibodies from the mother to the fetus across the placenta (IgG) or to the baby in the mother's breast milk (IgA, IgM, and IgG). Antibodies to a poisonous snake venom (antivenom) can also be transferred to an individual who has been bitten by that species of snake. The antibodies neutralize the toxin or venom to prevent it from doing harm until the body is able to eliminate it.
structural: lower respiratory system
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
difference between right and left lung
left lung has one less lobe because heart is one that side
Negative respiratory pressure is:
less than Patm
carbon dioxide partial pressure gradient and solubility as compared to oxygen's
lower partial pressure gradient but 20x more soluble in plasma *so diffuse at same rate*
Which cells increase the permeability of blood vessels by releasing histamine?
mast cells
alveolar macrophage
monocyte activation patrol epithelium and engulf foreign particles
heat, humidity, filter, enhance air turbulence, resonate air
nasal sinuses vestibule nasal conchae nasal mucosa *CVSM*
Which type of adaptive immunity will result from mother-to-baby IgA transfer via breast feeding?
naturally acquired passive immunity
structural: upper respiratory system
nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, pharynx
Dalton's law
partial pressure -individual gases in a mixure exert pressure proportional to their abundance Patm=760= Pnitrogen+ Poxygen+ Pwater+ Pcarbon dioxide
intrapulmonary pressure
pressure within alveoli -always eventually equalizes with atmospheric pressure
intrapleural pressure
pressure within pleural cavity - always less than intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric pressure
margination
process by which CAMs (cell-adhesion molecules, or CAMs). on leukocytes adhere to CAMs on the endothelial cells of capillaries within the injured tissue. The result is similar to "cellular Velcro." Neutrophils are generally the first to arrive and are short-lived, followed later by the longer-lived macrophages.
self-tolerance
process by which cells generally learn to "ignore" molecules of the body or self-antigens
clonal selection
process of forming a clone in response to a specific antigen
respiratory volumes: tidal volume
quiet breathing (only use diaphragm and intercostal muscles) ~500mL
how does the body create a fever, and why?
raises the body temp to try and kill bad cells
what are the cardinal signs of inflammation?
redness, heat, swelling, pain, loss of function
Boyle's Law
relationship between pressure and volume of gases -inverse relationship -Patm Vatm= constant
terminal bronchioles feed into what?
respiratory bronchioles
medullary centers
respiratory rhythmicity centers set pace 1. dorsal respiratory group: controls TV 2. ventral respiratory group: controls IRV, ERV
active immunity
results from a direct encounter with a pathogen or foreign substance that results in the production of memory cells and can be obtained either naturally or artificially. Naturally acquired active immunity occurs when an individual is directly exposed to the antigen of an infectious agent. Artificially acquired active immunity takes place when the exposure occurs through a vaccine. In both cases, memory cells against that specific antigen are formed.
which response is fastest? > first response or second response
second
which response is strongest? > first response or second response
second
left lung
separate into upper and lower lobes by oblique fissure
right lung
separated into three lobes by the oblique and horizontal fissures
alveolar walls: type II
septal cells secrete surfactant (soap)- stops two things from sticking together due to water
alveolar walls: type I cells
simple squamous epithelium -permits gas exchange by simple diffusion
respiratory cycle
single cycle of inhalation and exhalation - -tidal volume (500mL
respiratory membrane
site of gas exchange -air-blood barrier composed of: 1. alveolar walls 2. capillary walls *fused basal lamina
olfactory mucosa
smell receptors
with branching, what happens to smooth muscle and cartilage
smooth muscle: increases cartilage: decrease
Cytokine
specialized hormonelike chemicals that regulate the immune cells - small, soluble proteins produced by cells of both the innate and adaptive immune system to regulate and facilitate immune system activity.
antimicrobial protein
specific types of molecules of the innate immune system that function against microbes. Specifically interferons and complement system
bronchus
split into right and left from trachea branches -enter lung at hilus -subdivide into secondary bronchi- each supplying a lobe of the lungs
immune privilege
structures that prevent or limit access of immune cells an area where immune cells are generally prevented from entering (e.g., the brain, eye, testes, ovaries, and placenta). structures that prevent or limit access of immune cells (e.g., the brain, eye, testes, ovaries, and placenta).
respiration
supply body with oxygen and dispose of carbon dioxide
blood supply all lung tissue except alveoli: conducting zone
systemic- oxygenated -bronchial arteries/ veins supply all lung tissue except the alveoli
what are the role of eosinophils in innate immunity?
target parasites
immunogenicity
the ability of a particular substance, such as an antigen or epitope, to provoke an immune response in the body of a human or animal. In other words, immunogenicity is the ability to induce a humoral and/or cell-mediated immune responses.
immunocompetent
the ability of the body to produce a normal immune response following exposure to an antigen AKA having a normal immune response
opsonization
the binding of a protein to a portion of bacteria or other cell type that enhances phagocytosis. The binding protein is called an opsonin. The binding of complement makes it more likely that a substance is identified and engulfed by a phagocytic cell (e.g., macrophage).
cytolysis
the dissolution or disruption of cells, especially by an external agent. (CAUSES cells to lysis)
lung compliance (and how measured?)
the ease to which lungs can be expanded -measured with a change in lung volume with a change in transpulmomary pressure
Voice pitch is determined by:
the length and tension of the vocal cords
Fc region
the portion of the antibody that determines the biological functions of the antibody
phagocytic
the process by which a cell—often a phagocyte engulfs/ingests harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells.
diapedesis
the process by which cells exit the blood by "squeezing out" between vessel wall cells, usually in the postcapillary venules, and then migrate to the site of infection
what is unique about the pleura for lungs?
they are attached and move together so if one is pulled on, they all move
how is immune privilege related to autoimmunity
they creates a barrier of sorts and keeps things out, but if those barriers become damaged then the body destroys its "self"
What do helper T-cells do?
they help activate cytotoxic T cells and macrophages to attack infected cells, or they stimulate B cells to secrete antibodies.
how do interferons destroy antigens
they release cytokines. example: A virus-infected cell releases IFN-α and IFN-β, which stimulate antiviral changes to neighboring cells to prevent their infection and induce NK cells to both destroy virus-infected cells and release IFN-γ to activate macrophages to destroy virus-infected cells.
cartilages of larynx
thyroid cricoid (c rings) epiglottis (covers glottis so can swallow)
trachea
tough, flexible tube running from larynx to bronchi -held open by C shape tracheal cartilages -protects from overexpansion due to changes in air pressure -open portion is posterior to allow esophagus to expand as food passes through it
for inspiration, what increases first?
volume of lungs
dead space
what is caught in the trachea volume of the conducting respiratory passages (150 mL/breath)
respiratory capacities: functional residual capacity (FRC)
what left in lungs and what can be breathed out RV+ERV
cross-reactivity
when a foreign antigen is similar in structure to a self-antigen, and the immune system is unable to distinguish between the two. For example, antigens of Streptococcus bacteria are similar to certain heart proteins, and immune cells damage the bicuspid (mitral) and aortic valves, resulting in rheumatic heart disease.
autoimmune disorder
when your immune system, which defends your body against disease, decides your healthy cells are foreign. As a result, your immune system attacks healthy cells.
