A&P Test 1, A&P 1 Exam 2 Pedrozo, Anatomy Test #3, A and P test 4
dorsiflexion vs plantar flexion (foot)
Dorsiflexion: bending foot towards shin Plantar flexion: pointing toes
-Four steps of tissue progression in fractures
Hematoma formation Fibrocartilaginous callus formation Bony callus formation Bone remodeling
Internal intercostals
depress ribs, forced exhalation O: superior border of rib below I: Inferior border of rib above
depressor anguli oris
depresses corner of mouth O: Body of mandible I:Skin and muscle below zygomaticus
Superior oblique
depresses eye and turns it laterally O: Body of sphenoid above tendinous ring I: Post/superior quadrant of sclera behind equator of eyeball
Inferior rectus
depresses eye and turns it medially
depressor labii inferioris
depresses lower lip (pout) O: Body of mandible at midline I: Skin and muscle of lower lip
peripheral connective tissue sheath
derived from dermis, forms the external layer of follicle wall
epithelial root sheath
derived from epidermis external root sheath - direct continuation of epidermis internal root sheath - derived from matrix cells
functions of skin: blood reservoir
dermis has so many blood vessels that it can hold about 8-10% of total blood flow while at rest
mast cells
detect foreign microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory response
What are the types of bones of the hand?
carpus, metacarpus, phalanges
functions of skin: cutaneous sensations
tactile sensations - touch, pressure, vibration, tickle thermal sensations - hot, cold pain
Psoas minor
flexes trunk
Joint
Contact point between cartilage and bone, teeth and bone, or two or more bones
-Fontanels
Gaps between a baby's skull that slowly close up during the first 18 months of life
Pelvic brim
where the abdomen meets the pelvic cavity divides superior and inferior portions of the pelvis
trochlear notch
wraps around the trochlea of the humerus to make elbow joint
corrugator supercilii
wrinkles brow O: arch of frontal bone above nasal bone I: Skin of eyebrow
Mentalis
wrinkles chin O: Mandible below incisors I: Skin of chin
carotene
yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products
phomelanin
yellow to red
-Regional Anatomy
-Divided into Axial region (head, neck, and trunk) and appendicular region (limbs)
-Regional Terms: Coxal
-Hip
-isotonic vs hypertonic vs hypotonic
-Isotonic: Unchanged volume -Hypertonic: Higher osmal, cell shrivels -Hypotonic: lower Osmal, cell explodes
-Transport Across Plasma Membrane
-Passive: Does not require energy -Active: Does require energy
-Regional Terms: Pelvic
-Pelvis
Sagittal suture
between parietal bones
eumelanin
brown to black hair
-Facet
smooth, nearly flat articular surface
Number of skull muscles
22 8 cranial 14 facial 3 ear
Abduction
movement along frontal plane, away from the midline
-Concentration Gradient
- Difference in concentration of chemicals between sides of plasma membrane
Resting Membrane Potential
An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.
Phalanges (foot)
Arranged like those of the hand Big toe (Hallux) has proximal and distal phalanx
What are myofilaments? What are the two types and what do they contain?
Arrangement of actin and myosin within sarcomere ACTIN MYOFILAMENTS: THIN! Across I band, anchored to z disc MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS: THICK!!! Across A band, Connected at M line
What are periosteal arteries/veins?
Arteries with nerves that enter bone diaphysis thru canals
Glenoid cavity
Articulating point of scalpula w/humerus: glenohumeral joint
What are the regulatory muscle proteins? What do they do?
TROPOMYOSIN and TROPONIN: Regulatory proteins bound to actin
isotonic contraction vs. isometric
Tension is constant while muscle length changes (concentric: when its shortened. Eccentric: when its lengthened) isometric: muscle contracts but does not change length
Iliac fossa
The broad, slightly concave inner surface of the ilium.
Surgical neck
The neck of the humerus that is prone to fractures.
Basic pattern of CNS?
central cavity surrounded by gray matter, with white matter external to gray matter
medulla
central core, consists of large cells and air spaces. contains soft keratin, absent in fine hairs
Jugular notch
central indentation in superior border of manubrium
metaphase
centromeres of chromosomes line up in the middle
anaphase
centromeres of chromosomes split and sister chromatids move towards opposite poles of cell
Four Brain regions
cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum
keratinocytes
chief role is to produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties most epidermal cells are keratinocytes, are tied together by desmosomes and some by tight junctions millions slough off every day
prophase
chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane disappears, centrosomes move to opposite poles
cytokenesis
cleavage furrow forms and eventually cytoplasm splits begins during late anaphase
Masseter
closes jaw O:Zygomatic arch and bone I: Angle/ramus of manidble
Nuclei
clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia
clusters of cell bodies in the PNS
terminal hair
coarser, longer hair of eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp
anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments
continuous bands down the front and back of the spine from the neck to the sacrum that support and prevent hyperextension/flexion
thin (hairy) skin
covers all body regions except palms, digits, and soles
thick skin
covers areas for abrasion - palms, fingertips, and soles of feet 5 layers - stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
thick (hairless) skin
covers the palms, palmer surfaces of digits, soles
what are crucial to cell's ability to complete S phase and enter mitosis?
cyclins and cdks
What is the sarcoplasm? what does it contain?
cytoplasm of muscle cell contains GLYCOSOMES for storage and MYOGLOBIN for oxygen storage
first degree
damaged epidermis (3-6 days to heal)
second degree
damaged epidermis and dermis, no damage to accessory organs (3-4 weeks to heal)
what is hair composed of?
dead, keratinized epidermal cells (pili)
Fissures
deep grooves longitudinal, transverse
reticular lamina
deep to basal lamina consists of a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers
intracapsular ligaments
deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane
subcutaneous tissue
deep to the skin superficial to the tough connective tissue, not part of skin but shares some of skin's protective functions adipose and areolar
Bones of the hip
ilium, ischium, pubis
Fatigue
inability to maintain force of contraction after prolonged activity Can be due to Inadequate Ca, depeletion of Oxygen source, build up of lactic acid/ADP, or insufficient Ach Ex. Heavy breathing after exercising
Hyperplasia
increase in cell number due to endurance training
Hypertrophy
increase in muscle size due to sarcomere increase
Extension
increases the angle of a joint
True pelvis
inferior to pelvic brim; almost entirely surrounded by bone; inlet and outlet are critical to delivery of a baby
steps in wound healing
inflammation organization regeneration
Bursitis
inflammation of a bursa
arthritis
inflammation of a joint
Tendonitis
inflammation of tendon sheaths
steps of tissue repair
inflammation, organization, permanent repair via regeneration fibrosis
4 cell types of epidermis
keratinocytes melanocytes dendritic cells tactile epithelial cells
Ulnar head
knob-shaped; articulates with a notch on the radius and a wrist bone
macrophages
large irregularly shaped cells that devour a broad variety of foreign materials also dispose of dead tissue cells
Obturator foramen
large opening formed by rami and body
Radius
lateral bone of the forearm Head, radial tuberosity to anchor biceps, ulnar notch, radial styloid process to anchor ligaments
Gluteal surface
lateral surface of the fan-shaped portion of the ilium Posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines
Piriformis
laterally rotates and abducts thigh O: Anterior sacrum I: Superior border of greater trochanter of femur
Intercondylar fossa
lies between condyles
Ulnar styloid process
ligament attachment
mucous membranes
line all body cavities that open to the outside of the body (hollow organs of digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts)
cell adhesion proteins
serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach to the ECM
stratum spinosum (prickly layer)
several cell layers thick spinelike extensions of keratinocytes, however these spines do not exist in living cells - they are artifacts created during tissue preparation
Main parts of rib
shaft: flat bone making up most of rib, COSTAL GROOVE houses nerves Head: articulates w/facets Neck: constricted portion beyond head Tubercule: knoblike structure lateral to neck
Sulci
shallow grooves
Spinous process
sharp, slender projection
epithelial tissue
sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity
Plane joint
short slipping or gliding movements; i.e. carpals nonaxial
Reflexes
simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response Occur due to REFLEX ARCS
simple epithelia
single cell layer
-Endocrine
-Hormone secreting glands that regulate
-Regional Terms: Oral
-Mouth
Fibula
Doesn't bear weight
Temporalis
closes jaw O: Temporal Fossa I: Coronoid process
lanugo hair
cover the fetus
Colle's fracture
distal radius is broken by falling onto an outstretched hand
Pubic arch
formed by the convergence of the ischium and pubis on either side, below the pubic symphysis
Gyri
ridges
Tubercle
small rounded projection
Opposition
thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping)
skeletal muscle
voluntary control
Greater tubercule
(Humerus), large bony protuberance on the lateral surface on the proximal end Separated from lesser tubercule by intertubercular sulcus
Organismal
- All total structures, working together for life
-What are the bones of the appendicular skeleton?
- Limbs (appendages) - Pectoral Girdle - Pelvic Girdle -126 bones
How many vertebrae are there?
-26
How many coccygeal vertebrae are there?
-3-5
Epicondyle
-: Usually roughened projection on a condyle
-Endoplasmic Reticulum
-A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another. -Protein Synthesis, protein sorting, transport
-DNA
-A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. -A+T, C+G -Double helix made of sugars and phosphates
-Proteasomes
-A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.
-Cytoskeleton
-A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement
-Endomembrane System
-A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles -Er, golgi, secretory vesicles, lysosomes
-RNA
-A single-stranded nucleic acid that passes along genetic messages -AGGU
Golgi apparatus
-A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell -Stacked cisterns, directs cell traffic
-Organelles
-A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell
Homeostatic Control: afferent vs efferent
-AFFERENT approaches, EFFERENT exits
-Directional Terms: Superior
-Above
primary active transport
-Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP. -Na K pump
-Osteomalacia
-Adult ricketts, soft bones
-Metabolism
-All chemical reactions in body are called metabolism
-Resting Membrane Potential
-An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell. - -3NA and +2K -Voltage: difference in charge on membrane surface -ONLY IN EXCITABLE CELLS
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
-An endomembrane system where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.
-Lysosomes
-An organelle containing digestive enzymes
-Anions vs. Cations
-Anions: Negative charge, gains electron -Cations: Positive charge, loses electrons
-Regional Terms: Tarsal
-Ankle
-Directional Terms: Ventral
-Anterior
-Regional Terms: Antecubital
-Anterior surface of the elbow
-Regional Terms: Brachial
-Arm (upper portion of upper limb)
-Regional Terms: Axillary
-Armpit
-Directional Terms: Deep
-Away from body surface
-Directional Terms: Lateral
-Away from the midline
-Directional Terms: Posterior
-Back
-Regional Terms: Olecranial
-Back of elbow
-Regional Terms: Occipital
-Back of head
-Regional Terms: Popliteal
-Back of knee
-Cervical vertebrae
-Balance head, fine movements and lg range of motion C1-C7
-Proteins
-Basic structure material of body w/many vital functions -Enzymes, hemoglobin, contractile muscle proteins, cell signaling/structure
-Endochondral ossification
-Begins @ 2 month in utero -Uses previous hyaline cartilage -Happens in Primary ossification center in shaft:blood vessels convert perichondrium into periosteum
-Directional Terms: Inferior
-Below
-Cardiovasculat System
-Blood vessels transport blood, carries oxygen and CO2
-Nervous System
-Body control system, activates muscles and glands w/electrical currents thru nerves
-What tissues is a bone made up out of?
-Bone -Cartilage -Dense connective -Adipose -Nervous tissue
-Osteoblasts
-Bone forming cells that secrete bone matrix made of collagen and binding proteins (osteoid) -Actively mitotic
-What is a long bone? What are its parts?
-Bone with a shaft and two ends, longer than it is wide -Diaphysis, Epiphyseal line, epiphyses, metaphyses, articular cartilage, medullary cavity
-Regional Terms: Orbital
-Boney eye socket
-Digestive System
-Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.
-Regional Terms: Mammary
-Breast
-Regional Terms: Sternal
-Breastbone
-Regional Terms: Gluteal
-Buttocks
Atlas
-C1 articulates against the head -Nodding -No body or spinous process
-Why is water the most abundant inorganic compound?
-High heat capacity, High vaporization, Polar solvent, Reactivity
-Regional Terms: Sural
-Calf
-Perforating/Volkmann's canals
-Canals lined with endosteum at right angles to central canal -Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal
Homeostatic Control: Effector
-Carries out response to stimulus and either shuts off or inhabited
Organic components of bone
-Cells -Osteoid: Secreted by osteoblasts. Made of ground substance and collagen fibers -SACRIFICIAL BONDS stretch/break collagen to prevent fractures
-Osteoclasts
-Cells that break down bone (resorption) -located in RESORPTION BAYS when active -Ruffled border
-Passive:Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion
-Channels are transmembrane proteins that transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other.
-Regional Terms: Buccal
-Cheek
body organization
-Chemical (atoms, molecules) -Cellular (one cell) -Tissue (group of cells) -Organ -Organ System -Organismal
-Buffers
-Chemical substance that minimizes changes in ph by releasing or binding H ions, usually weak acid+weak base -Try to stay near 7.4 pH -BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM: Maintains blood pH
-Forms of Energy
-Chemical: Form stored in bonds of chemical substances (ATP) -Electrical Energy: Movement of Charged Particles -Mechanical energy: Energy directly involved in moving matter -Some energy supply is always lost to environment as heat
-Regional Terms: Thoracic
-Chest
Ricketts
-Children with soft bones due to Vitamin D deficiency
-Lipids: Steroids
-Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone. Carbon atoms arranged in four rings Functions: physiological regulators and component of cell membranes -Hydrophobic
What is Interstitial growth?
-Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within
What is cartilage made out of?
-Chondrocytes enclosed in small lacunae cavities inside E.M
The pectoral girdle is made up of what?
-Clavicle, scalpula, sternoclavicular joint
-Bone remodeling (for fracture)
-Compact bone laid down to reconstruct shaft walls
Organs
-Composed of 2-4 tissue types and performs specific body function
Ligamentum flavum
-Connects adjacent vertebrae
-Cell Junctions: Gap Junctions
-Connexions form tunnels that small molecules can pass through cell-to-cell
-Peroxisomes
-Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals -Free radicals must be destroyed
-Body Cavities: Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
-Covered by a thin, double-layered membrane lining the cavity walls (Visceral Serosa) -Membranes separated by SEROUS FLUID allows organs to slide across cavity walls
-Nucleic Acids
-DNA and RNA
Homeostatic Control: control center
-Determines set point at which a variable can be contained, analyzes input, and then sends info thru EFFERENT PATHWAY to EFFECTOR
-Diaphysis vs. metaphysis vs. epiphysis
-Diaphysis: shaft of bone, separated from epi by epi. line -Metaphyses: regions between dia and epi, two -Epiphyses: Ends of bone
-Electrical Gradient
-Difference in concentration of ions
-Isotopes
-Different atomic forms of same element, # of neutrons vary
-Osmosis
-Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from high to low concentration -WATER FOLLOWS SOLUTE
-Neutralization
-Displacement reaction, mixing an acid with a base to make water and salt
-Acids
-Dissolve in metals, releases hydrogen ions, proton donor, dissociates in water to release protons and anions -HCl= H+ + Cl-
Body Cavities: Abdominopelvic Cavity
-Divided into Abdominal and pelvic cavities
-Body Cavities: Dorsal
-Divided into cranial and spinal cavity
-Body Cavities: Ventral
-Divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic
-Sagittal plane
-Divides body into left and right -Directly down the middle: MIDSAGITTAL
What is the periosteum of the bone? What does it contain?
-Double-layered membrane that covers outside of bone -Contains FIBROUS layer (dense irregular sharpey's fibers securing bone to matrix) and OSTEOGENIC layer (Inner layer that contains osteogenic cells) -Contains BLOOD VESSELS and NERVE FIBERS
-When does ossification/osteogenesis occur?
-During fetal development -Child bone growth -Bone remodeling -Healing fractures
-Regional Terms: Otic
-Ear
Carpus
-Eight wrist bones in two rows Proximal row: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform (these form wrist joint) Distal row: Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate
-Carbon as an organic compound
-Electroneutral, apolar -Carboxyl, Hydroxyl, Sulfhydral, Phosphate
-Atoms/Atom structure
-Elements composed to essentially identical particles -Nucleus, protons, Neutrons, Electrons, Orbitals
-Colloids
-Emulsions, heterogenous. Composition is dissimilar in diff. arreas of mixture -Cytosol
-Active Transport
-Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference -Primary, Secondary, Vesicular Transport
-Active Transport
-Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference -Primary/Secondary transport, Vesicular transport
-Homeostatic Control: Positive Feedback Mechanisms
-Enhances stimulus, same direction as initial change -infrequent
Nutrient artery
-Enters center of diaphysis through NUTRIENT FORAMEN -Nutrient veins will exist the same canal
Cephalization
-Evolutionary development of rostral (anterior) portion of CNS -Resulted in increased number of neurons -Highest level reached in human brain
Exergonic/Endergonic Reactions
-Exergonic: Reaction that RELEASES ENERGY, oxidative -Endergonic: Reaction that ABSORBS ENERGY, anabolic
-Molarity
-Express concentration thru % of solute
-Integumentary System
-External Body covering, protects deeper tissues, makes Vitamin D, sweat/oil, pain receptors and temp regulation -Hair, Skin, nails
-Directional Terms: Distal
-Farther from another body part/trunk
-Lipids: Triglycerides
-Fats/oils. Storage of energy, made of fatty acid CH chains and glycerol -Sat fats: only single bonds -Unsat Fats: kinked double bonds
-Regional Terms: Digital
-Fingers or toes
-Bone-lining cells
-Flat cells on bone surfaces; help maintain matrix w/osteocytes Periosteal: EXTERNAL BONE -Endosteal: INTERNAL BONE
-Cytosol
-Fluid portion of cytoplasm
-Regional Terms: Pedal
-Foot
Markings of Occipital bone
-Foramen magnum: large hole where brain connects w/ spinal crd -Hypoglossal canal: allows cranial nerve xii to pass -External occipital protuberance -External occipital crest -Superior/inferior nuchal lines
-Regional Terms: Frontal
-Forehead
Zygomatic bones
-Form cheekbones -Articulate w/ zygomatic process of temporal, frontal, maxillary bones
-Secondary Active Transport
-Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. -Antiport: Cross membrane in opposite directions -Symport: Move in same directions
-Directional Terms: Anterior
-Front
-What bones are made from intramembranous ossification?
-Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, clavicle
Physiology
-Functions of the body; how body parts work to carry out life
-Sulcus
-Furrow on a bone for passage of blood vessel, nerve or tendon
-Regional Terms: Pubic
-Genital
-Regional Terms: Inguinal
-Groin
Tissues
-Groups of cells with a common structure and function. -Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous
Epiphyseal plate
-Growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies via Endochondral ossificatio
-Canaliculi
-Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal
-Regional Terms: Manus
-Hand
-Regional Terms: Cephalic
-Head
-Regional Terms: Calcaneal
-Heel of foot
-Foramen
-Hole for blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments
-Control of bone remodeling
-Hormonal or response of mechanical stress -Hormonal: Parathyroid hormone released when blood calcium is low -Calcitonin (negligible effects) -Mechanical stress: remodeling by producing electrical signals when bone is deformed -Hormonal controls determine whether and when remodeling occurs in response to changing blood calcium levels, but mechanical stress determines where it occurs
-Lymphatic System
-Houses white blood cells, immune response, manages fluids
-Denaturation
-Hydrogen bonds in globular proteins are broken w/ pH change, proteins unfold and cannot perform role
-Hydrolisis/dehydration
-Hydrolisis: Water is added to break bonds -Dehydration: Water is removed to make bonds
-Lipids
-Hydrophobic org. compound of C, H, and O -Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids, EicoSanoids
-Inorganic vs. Organic
-Inorganic: Lack carbon, simple (water/salts) -Organic: Always contain C and H, always covalent
-Cell Structure: Integral Proteins vs Peripheral Proteins
-Integral Proteins: Have channel, firm and hydrophobic/philic -Peripheral Proteins: No channel, loosely attaches
-What are the two forms of ossification/osteogenesis?
-Intramembranous Ossification: Occurs in flat bones when conn. tissue membrane is replaced w/bone -Endochondral ossification: replaces cartilage w/bone in fetus
-Types of Chemical Bonds
-Ionic Bonds: Atoms formed by the transfer of 1+ electrons 1 atom to another, Attraction between 2 oppositely-charged ions, medium strength -Covalent Bonds: Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms, polar (not equally shared) or nonpolar (equally shared), strongest -Hydrogen Bonds: H atom covalent to Nitrogen, Oxygen, attracted by another electron-hungry atom, dipole
-Salt
-Ionic compound w/cations (metal and nonmetal) dissolved in water -Electrolytes: Salts, disassociate in water
-Radioisotopes
-Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior -Used in radiology
-Cell Junctions: Desmosomes
-Junction formed w/linker proteins (cadherins) that interlock w/cells, cadherin anchored w/ PLAQUES -Allow give between cells to reduce tearing
-Respiratory System
-Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
-Types of Energy
-Kinetic: Energy in action -Potential Energy: Stored/inactive energy
-Regional Terms: Patellar
-Kneecap
-Vesicular Transport
-Large Particle/macro transport across membrane via vesicles -Phagocytosis: cell engulfs lg material -Transcytosis: Endo+Exo, used to move substances out of cell
-Spongy Bone
-Layer of bone tissue that has many small spaces and is found just inside the layer of compact bone. -Trabeculae make strength
-Perichondrium
-Layer of dense connective tissue surrounding skeletal cartilage -Contains blood vessels and reinforcement
-Regional Terms: Crural
-Leg
Lipids: Eicosanoids
-Lipids on 20-c Fatty acid, found in prostaglandins which senses pain, blood clotting, inflammation
-Regional Terms: Abdominal
-Located below the ribs and above the hips
-Classification of bone shapes
-Long -Short (cube shaped) -Flat (thin layers of parallel plates) -Irregular (Complex shapes) -Sesamoid (sesame seed)
-Peptide Bonds
-Long amino acid chains that make up proteins, joined by dehydration
-Regional Terms: Lumbar
-Lower back
Mandible
-Lower jaw -ONLY MOVABLE SKULL BONE
Osteopenia
-Lower than normal bone mass, pre-osteoporosis
-Muscular System
-Manipulation of environment/locomotion/posture and heat production
-Cytoplasm
-Material between plasma membrane and nucleus -Cytosol, cytoskeleton, organelles
-Osteocytes
-Mature bone cells, no longer dividing -Maintain bone matrix, sense stress on bones to communicate if new bone needs to be formed
-Lipids: Phospholipids
-Modified tris w/2 fatty acid chains -Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) -Used in cell membrane construction
-Molecules vs Compounds vs Mixtures
-Molecules: Combo of 2+ atoms held together w/chem bonds -Compound: When 2+ different kinds of atoms bind -Mixtures: Composed of 2+ components that are physically mixed -Solutions (Mixtures:) Homogenous, solvent vs solutes
-Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides
-Monosaccharides - simple sugar containing between 3-7 carbon atoms (Pentose, Hexose) Ex: glucose, galactose, fructose -Disaccharides - 2 simple sugars joined by dehyd. synthesis. Must be hydrolized for transport Ex: Sucrose, lactose, maltose -polysaccharides: Polymers of simple sugars, linked by dehydration Ex: Starch, Glycogen
-Fissure
-Narrow slit between bones for passage of blood vessels or nerves
Bones of the nasal cavity
-Nasal bones (nose bridge) -Lacrimal bones and fossa -Inferior nasal conchae -Palatine bones w/horizontal and perpendicular plate -Maxilla -vomer
-Regional Terms: Umbilical
-Navel
-Directional Terms: Proximal
-Nearer to another body part/trunk
-Regional Terms: Cervical
-Neck
-Ribosome
-Nonmembrous, made of protein and rRNA -Free vs membrane bound
-Regional Terms: Nasal
-Nose
-Interstitial Lamellae
-Not part of osteon, fill gaps between osteons
-What is the anatomy of vertebrae?
-One body, one foramen, and seven processes
Organ system
-Organs working together for common purpose -11 organ systems
-Resorption
-Osteoclasts create pits to break down matrix, then phagocytize dead matrix and undergo apoptosis
-Homeostatic Control: Negative Feedback Mechanisms
-Output will shut off or reduce the original effect, goal is to prevent severe changes in body
What is Fibrocartilage? Where is it?
-Parallel rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers -Great tensile strength -Knee Menisci, Vertebral dics
-Directional Terms: Dorsal
-Posterior
-Regional Terms: Sacral
-Posterior region between the hip bones
-Protein Structural Levels
-Primary: Linear Sequence of Polypeptides -Secondary: Primary chain is bend and spiraled to form ALPHA HELIX (H bond stabilized) and BETA PLEATED SHEET (Zig zag, hydrophobic and H bonds) -Tertiary: Alpha helix+beta pleated sheet fold in on each other -Quaternary: 2+ tertiary polypep. chains
-What are three types of bone markings?
-Projection: outward bulge of bone -Depression: bowl/groove that can serve as passageways -Opening: hole or canal that serves as passageways
Skull bone functions
-Protect the brain Inner markings: -stabilize the brain, vessels and nerves Outer markings: attachment sites for movement Protect and support the special senses organs
-Skeletal
-Protects/supports organs and provides framework
-Cell Junctions: Tight Junctions
-Proteins of cells fuse to form impermeable junction that prevents fluids/molecules from moving between cells
Bases
-Proton acceptors, dissociate in water, capable of binding w/hydrogen ions -Bicarbonate ion, Amonnia
-What is hyaline cartilage? Where is it?
-Provides support, flexibility, and resilience -Only collagen fibers -Joints, Costal/ribs, respiratory, tip of nose
-Three phases of fracture repair
-Reactive: early inflammation -Repairative phase: Formation of fibro and bony callus -Bone remodeling: Bony callus is remodeled
-What is Hematopoietic tissue? Where is it in newborns/adults?
-Red bone marrow inside long bone cavities and DIPLOE of flat bones -Newborns: medullary cavities and spongy bone contain RM -Adults: RM in femur/humerus heads and diploe of flat bones
-pH Unit
-Relative concentration of H ions in bodily fluids -MORE H IONS= MORE ACIDIC! -MORE HYDROXYL IONS: MORE BASIC -14: Most Basic -0: Most Acidic
-Abdominalpelvic Regions
-Right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right inguinal or iliac, epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, left hypochondriac, left lumbar, left inguinal or iliac.
-Condyle
-Rounded projection w/ smooth articular surface
-Fossa
-Shallow depression
-Regional Terms: Scapular
-Shoulder blade
-Regional Terms: Fibular (peroneal)
-Side of leg
-What are bone markings?
-Sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment -Areas involved in joint formation -Conduits for blood vessels and nerves
-What are the bones of the axial skeleton?
-Skull, ribs, sternum, spine, sacrum, cocci -80 bones
-Regional Terms: Plantar
-Sole of foot
Purpose of the vertebral column?
-Spinal cord protection -Transmits weight of head and trunk to lower limbs -Supports structures forming thoracic/abdominopelvic cavities
-Regional Terms: Vertebral
-Spine
-Osteogenic/progenitor cells
-Stem cells in periosteum/endosteum that will turn into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells when stimulated -Actively mitotic
Thoracic Vertebrae
-Stronger, heart shaped body -Circular foramen -Giraffe head -Costal facets: articulate against ribs, support ribs -T1-T10
Developmental Anatomy
-Structural changes occuring throughout the lifespan -Embryology: development before birth/in utero
-Nucleotides
-Structures of nucleic acids, have N base, pentose sugar and a phosphate group
Microscopic Anatomy
-Structures too small to be seen by the nakes eye -Cytology: Study of cells -Histology: Study of Tissues
Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy
-Study of large body structures; can be seen with naked eye -Regional: Structures in one particular region in the body -Systemic: Structures studied by system (e.g Cardiovascular -Surface: Structures as they relate to overlying skin surface
Anatomy
-Study of the structure of body parts in relation to others
-Functions of the skeletal system
-Support -Protection of organs -Body Movements -Mineral Homeostasis -Blood Cell Formation (Hemopoiesis) -Storage of triglycerides/yellow marrow -Hormone production: osteocalcin for insulin and glucose
-Sutures and sutural bones
-Sutural bones: Small bones located within cranial sutures -Sutures: Jointed areas where flat bones come together
-Types of Chemical Reactions
-Synthesis/Combustion Reaction: More complex atoms/molecules ate formed from simpler ones, anabolic: A+B=AB -Decomposition Reactions: Molecule is broken down, catabolic: AB=A+B -Exchange/Displacement Reactions: Synthesis and Decomposition: AB+C=AC+B, AB+CD=AD+CB -Redox Reactions: Decomp Reactions, oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons), used w/ ATP production
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
-System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm
-Homeostasis
-The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions, even though outside world changes continuously -Interstitial fluid must be regulated to provide cells w/ideal conditions
-Electrochemical Gradient
-The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential.
-Glycocalyx
-The external surface of sugars of a plasma membrane that is important for cell-to-cell communication -Glycolipids and Glycoproteins
-Membrane Potential
-The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane -Chemical+Electrical Gradient
-Regional Terms: Femoral
-Thigh
-What is the endosteum of the bone?
-Thin membrane lining medullary cavity/inner bone structures -Osteogenic cells
-Regional Terms: Pollex
-Thumb
-Directional Terms: Medial
-Toward the midline
-Directional Terms: Cephalad/Cranial
-Towards the head -Synonymous w/anterior
-Directional Terms: Superficial
-Towards the surface
-Directional Terms: Caudal
-Towards the tail -Synonymous w/posterior
-Passive: Facilitated Diffusion
-Transported substance binds to carrier proteins or moves thru channel proteins -Carrier-Mediated and Channel Mediated
-Meatus
-Tube like opening
What are the intervertebral discs made up of?
-Used as shock absorbers Nucleus pulposes (elasticity and compressibility) Anulus Fibrosus (Limits expansion of NP)
Tuberosity
-Variably sized projection with rough, bumpy surface
-Regional Terms: Carpal
-Wrist
-Passive:Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion
-a carrier moves a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane
Coracoid process
-anterior projection that anchors bicep muscle of arm
-Regional Terms: Hallux
-big toe
-Hematoma Formation
-blood vessels break, releasing blood that clots -Step 1
-Intramembranous Ossification
-bone develops from a fibrous membrane formed by MESENCHYMAL CELLS
Open/Compound fracture
-broken bone penetrates through the skin
-Amino Acids
-building blocks of proteins, 20 common types -Amine and carboxyl/acid group -R group differentiates types
What is Appositional Growth?
-cartilage-forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue -New matrix is laid down on cartilage surface
-Regional Terms: Mental
-chin
-Gradients Across Plasma Membrane
-concentration (different molecule numbers) and electrochemical (different *charged ions) -Formed due to membrane compartments
-Cell Junctions
-connections between cells that hold the cells together as a unit -Tight, Desmosomes, Gap Junctions
-What is compact bone?
-dense outer layer of bone -OSTEONS+ -CANALS AND CANALICULI+ -INTERSTITIAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE
-Frontal Plane
-divides the body into anterior and posterior portions, vertical
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
-energy-carrying biological molecule, which, when broken down, drives cellular activities -Energy released during glucose catabolism is coupled w/ ATP synth ADP: Breaking ATP phosphate bond
-Regional Terms: Antebrachial
-forearm
-Enzymes
-globular proteins that act as biological catalysts
-Transverse Plane
-horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions
-What are the three types of cartilage?
-hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
11 Organ Systems
-integumentary -skeletal -muscular -nervous -endocrine -cardiovascular -lymphatic -respiratory -digestive -urinary -reproductive
-Polymers
-large compound formed from combinations of many monomers, made by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS (water is removed) and broken apart by HYDROLoSIS (water is added)
Trochantar
-large projection ONLY IN FEMUR
-Circumferential lamellae
-located deep to periosteum and superficial to endosteum and extend around entire circumference of the diaphysis - resist twisting of long bone
-Skeletal Cartilage
-made of some variety of cartilage tissue molded to fit its body location and function
Requirements for life
-maintaining boundaries: integumentary, plasma membrane to separate intra/extracellular fluid -movement: Muscular and skeletal system -responsiveness: Senses change in environment and responds accordingly -digestion: Breaking down of food -metabolism: All chemical reactions occurring in body cells (anabolism and catabolism) -excretion: Removing waste (urinary, digestive) -reproduction: Cells must be able to divide for body growth and repair -growth: Constructive activities must occur faster than destructive ones
Organizational levels of skeletal muscle
-muscle -fascicle -muscle fiber -myofibril -sarcomere -filament
-Passive: Simple DIffusion
-no energy requirement, movement of molecules from high to low concentration
-Survival needs
-nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure
Greenstick fracture
-one in which the bone is bent and only partially broken
-Bone remodeling
-ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue -Consists of BONE DEPOSIT and BONE RESORPTION
Bony callus formation
-osteoblasts begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae joining portions of the original bone fragments -3rd stage
-Remodeling units
-packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process
-Regional Terms: Palmar
-palm of hand
-Basic Cell structure
-plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm
-Regional Terms: Acromial
-point of shoulder
Central (Haversian) canal
-runs through core of osteon Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers
Parallel after-discharge circuit
-signal stimulates neurons arranged in parallel arrays that eventually converge on a single output cell
-What is elastic cartilage? Where is it?
-similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix -External ear, epiglottis
Sensory (afferent) divisions (2)
-somatic sensory fibers: convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, joints to CNS visceral sensory nerve fibers:convey impulses from visceral organs to CNS
-What is an osteon?
-structural unit of compact bone -Osteon cylinder contains LAMELLAE
-Factors influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions
-temperature, concentration, particle size, catalysts
-Tonicity
-the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water -Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic
-Passive Transport
-the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell -Facilitated/Simple Diffusion, Osmosis
-Cell Structure: Plasma Membrane
-the outer membrane of the cell that separates the inside of the cell from the outside (forms a barrier) -Selectively permeable to small NP molecules -Made of lipids, proteins, carbs
-Osmolarity
-total concentration of all solute particles in a solution -More solute, less water concentration
-Functions of Membrane Proteins
-transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
False ribs
-vertebrochondral -Ribs 8-10, attached indirectly to sternum by costal cartilages
True ribs
-vertebrosternal -ribs 1-7, attach directly to sternum thru costal cartilage
Principle of Complementary Structure and Function
-what a structure can do depends on its specific form
Radioulnar joint
Articulation between the radius and ulna and their proximal ends. Produces supination and pronation.
-Steps of intramembranous ossification
1. development of ossification center via mesenchymal cells becoming osteoblasts 2. osteoid is secreted, then calcified 3. formation of trabeculae via osteoid being laid down around blood vessles 4. lamellar bone replaces woven bone, red marrow appears
many theories of aging
1. genetically programmed cessation of cell division, 2. glucose addition to proteins (glycation), 3. free radical reactions (ROS & others) 4. excessive immune responses
steps of translation
1. initiator tRNA attaches to start codon 2. large/small ribosomal subunits join to form ribosome and initiator tRNA fits to P site 3. anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs w/next mRNA at A site 4. amino acid on tRNA at P forms peptide bond w/amino acid at A 5. two peptide protein created from formation of bond becomes attached to tRNA at A site 6. ribosome shifts by 1 codon; tRNA at P enters E and is released from ribosome, tRNA at A is now at P
functions of epithelium
1. protection 2. absorption 3. filtration 4. excretion 5. secretion 6. sensory reception
What are the steps at the neuromuscular junction to produce muscle action?
1: Neuron arrives from axon 2: voltage gated Ca channels open and cause influx of Ca 3: High Ca concentration causes exocytosis of Neurorans into synaptic cleft, depolarizing the muscle cell 4: depolarized muscle cell makes Ca2+ release, elevating Ca levels and causing binding of actin and myosin to make a muscle move
How many thoracic vertebrae are there?
12
-Cell Theory
1: The cell is the unit of life 2: Every cell comes from another cell 3:Functions of organisms reside in cells 4:Structure/Function relationship
How many lumbar vertebrae are there?
5 (L1-L5)
How many sacral vertebrae are there?
5 fused
Metatarsal bones
5, labeled 1-5 ends articulate w/ cuneiforms and cuboid
How many cervial vertebrae are there?
7
Tarsal bones
7 Talus, Calaneus, Navicular, 3 Cuneiforms, Cuboid
reticular dermis
80% thickness of the dermis is coarse, denser irregular connective tissue ECM of this layer contains thick bundles of collagen fibers
growth stage
85% of hair is in this stage cells in hair matrix are dividing, adding cells to hair medula 2-6 years
-Strong Base
A base that dissociates completely into ions in solution.
-Weak base
A base that does not dissociate completely into ions in solution.
Squamous suture
Between parietal and temporal bones
inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
A hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potential Decreases likelihood of fire of AP
Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)
A ligament in the knee that attaches to the anterior aspect of the tibial plateau. restricting anterior movement of the tibia on the femur (no sliding forward)
Reverberating circuit
A neural circuit in which a single impulse is transmitted over and over
Acetylcholine
A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction
-Nitrogen Bases
Adenine, Guanine,(Purines), Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil (Pyrimidines)
Action vs. Graded potentials
AP: allow communication over short and long distances GP: allow communication over short distances only Both require resting membrane potential and existence of certain ion channels
What are some small molecule neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine Amino acids Biogenic amines ATP and other purines Nitric oxide Carbon monoxide
Neuroglia of CNS Neurons
Astrocytes Microglial cells Ependymal Cells Oligodendrocytes
Anterograde
Away from cell body miitochondria, cytoskeletal elements
Hip joint
Ball and socket, head of femur art. w/ acetabulum supported by iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, ligamentum teres
Bone's role in Calcium homeostasis
Bone is the body's major calcium reservoir Levels of calcium in the blood are maintained by controlling the rates of calcium resorption from bone into blood and of calcium deposition from blood into bone
Osteoporosis
Bone thinning/low bone density in older people and sedentary individuals -Bone resorption drugs, hormones
Metacarpus
Bones of the palm of the hand -I-V Articulates w/carpals and phalanges
-Parietal bones
Bones that form the sides and top of the cranium.
Exemptions to CNS pattern
Brain stem, spinal cord, cerebral cortex
Dendrites
Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. Contain dendritic spikes
Bursae/tendon sheaths
Bursa: sac-like synovial fluid filled structures for cushioning movement Tendon sheaths: tube-like bursa for tendons to resist friciton
Axis
C2 articulates against the atlas -Rotation ("no") -Knoblike dens differentiate from other vertebrae
Motor (efferent) divisions
CNS to effectors Somatic and Autonomic nervous system
What does the contraction cycle require?
Ca++ to bind to Troponin ATP is consumed
Ligaments stabilizing knee joint
Capsular and extracapsular ligaments Help prevent hyperextension of knee Fibular and tibial collateral ligaments (resists rotation) Oblique popliteal ligament (stabilizes) Arcuate popliteal ligament (reinforces)
types of cancers
Carcinomas arise from epithelial cells, 80 to 90 percent of all cancer. Melanomas are cancerous growths of melanocytes. Sarcomas arise from connective tissues. Myeloma cancers arising from plasma cells in the bone marrow
Symphyses
Cartilaginous joint Fibrocartilage, somemovement, slightly movable Ex. Pubic symphysis, IV joints
Synchondrosis
Cartilaginous joint Hyaline cartilage that unites bones, mostly immovable (ex. epiphyseal plate)
When can PNS possibly repair itself?
Cell body is intact, schwann cells are functional, low scar tissue formation Chromatolysis, wallerian degernation, new axon formation
-Urinary System
Cleanses the blood. Rids the body of wastes. Maintains salt and water balance.
Orbicularis Oculi
Closes eyelids; used in blinking, winking, and squinting O:Frontal/maxillary bones and ligaments I: Tissue of eyelid
Orbicularis oris
Closes/pouts lips O: Maxilla and mandible I: Muscles and skin at anchors of mouth
External oblique
Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column O: Lower 8th rib I: Iliac and pubic crest, rectus sheath
Four considerations of cerebral cortex
Contains three types of functional areas: Morot, sensory, association Each hemisphere is concerned with contralateral (opposite) side of body Lateralization (specialization) of cortical function can occur in only one hemisphere Conscious behavior involves entire cortex in one way or another
What are the three energy sources that muscles derive ATP from?
Creatine phosphate Anaerobic glycolysis cellular respiration
Myosin protein
Cross bridges are formed when heavy polypeptidechains (2) and light chains (4) link together during contraction
Voluntary muscle control
Decision to move is activates, AP to motor neurons activate muscle fibers ACETYLCHOLINE Ion channels: chemically gated (ex. ach receptor) or voltage gated (Membrane potential voltage changes)
What happens to joints as we age?
Decreased production of synovial fluid Thinning of articular cartilage Loss of ligament length and flexibility
Flexion
Decreases the angle of a joint
Some muscles thatll probably be on the test bc hes mean
Deltoid Supraspinatus Subscapularis Coracobrachialis Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor Subscapularis
Control of muscle tension depends on?
Depends on how many motor units are activated
excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)
Depolarizing postsynaptic potential that INCREASES likelihood of neuron firing an action potential
Fibularis tertius
Dorsiflexion and everts foot O:Distal anterior surface or fibula and IO membrane I: tendon into dorsum of 5th metatarsal
Platysma
Draws down the lower lip and angles of the mouth; tenses skin of the neck; helps depress mandible O: Fascia of chest I: Lower margin of mandible and skin/ muscle at corner of mouth
Cartilage tears
Due to compression and shear stress Fragments may cause joint to lock or bind Cartilage rarely repairs itself Repaired with arthroscopic surgery
Elevation vs depression
Elevation is lifting/raising a body part. ┗(＾0＾)┛ (shrugging) Depression is the lowering of it. ┏(＾0＾)┓ (opening jaw)
Anaerobic Glycolysis
Energy-yielding conversion of glucose to lactic acid in various tissues, notably muscle, when sufficient oxygen is not available.
functions of skin: excretion and absorption
Excretion - elimination of substances from the body Absorption - passage of materials from the external environment into body cells
Extensor hallucis longus
Extends great toe O: Anteromedial fibula shadt, IO membrane I: Tendon inserts on distal phalanx of great toe
differences in male and female pelvis
Female pelvis structured for childbirth -wider and shallower
Fibrocartilaginous callus formation
Fibroblasts invade the fracture site and produce collagen fibers bridging the broken ends of the bone -2nd stage
Syndesmoses
Fibrous joint Dense fibrous CT, varies in length Interosseous membranes between radius and ulna inferior tibiofibular joint
-Fibrous vs Globular Proteins
Fibrous: long and thin shaped; less soluble in water. Collagen Globular: compact and relatively spiral; more soluble in water. Antibodies or enzymes
Phalanges
Fingers 1-5 Digit 1: thumb/pollex has two bones digits 2-5 have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx
rectus abdominis
Flex and rotates lumbar region of vertebral column O: Pubic crest and symphysis I: Xiphoid process and costal cartilage 5-7
Shoulder joint
Freely moving ball and socket joint due to lg head of humerus and loose articular capsule Glenoid labrum, Coracohumeral ligament, 3 glenohumeral joints Tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle is "superstabilizer"
The Axon: Functional Characteristics
Generates and transmits nerve impulses along AXOLEMMA to AXON TERMINAL Terminal secretes Neurotransmitters which can excite or inhibit neurons Axon terminals connecting = SYNAPSE May contain myelin sheath
Synovial joints
Have Joint cavity Bones covered in cartilage, held together w/ligaments inside synovial capsule Bursae and tendon sheaths Hip, knee, shoulder, elbow
Elbow joint and its ligaments
Hinge joint formed from ulnar trochlear notch into humerus trochlea -Anular ligament surrounds head of radius -Ulnar collateral and radial collateral restrict side to side movement
What is the pelvic girdle made up of?
Hip bones (ox coxa, coxal bones, pelvic bones), coccyx and sacrum
Inorganic compounds of bone
Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) -65% of bone mass -Reason bones are hard
Intervertebral articulation
IV joints are articulated by discs located between bodies of vertebrae -Facet joints
Summation
If several presynaptic end bulbs release their neurotransmitter at about the same time, the combined effect may generate a nerve impulse due to summation. Spatial or temporal
Why is it hard for nervous tissue to repair?
Inhibatory ologidendrocytes Absence of growth-stimulating cues Rapid formation of scar tissue
Sprains
Injuries caused by sudden twisting or wrenching of a joint with stretching or tearing of ligaments
Serial Processing
Input travels along one pathway to a specific destination One neuron each Spinal reflex
Paralell Processing
Input travels along several pathways, different areas dealing with different information at the same time Higher level mental functioning
How are facial expression muscles different?
Insert into the skin instead of moving joint
inversion vs eversion of foot
Inversion: sole of foot faces medially Eversion: sole of foot faces laterally
Circumduction
Involves flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction of limb Limb describes cone in space
Structure of Neurotransmitter receptors How can it be removes?
Ionotropic (work by ion movement) and metabotropic (work via signal transduction thru Adenyl cyclase, coupled G-protein, Tyrosine kinase Can be removed by diffusion, uptake into cells, enzymatic degradation
hinge joint
Joint between bones (as at the elbow or knee) that permits motion in only one plane
Synathrosis
Joints that allow NO movement Ex. Sutures sin=bad=NO
Amphiarthoses
Joints that allow little movement Ex. Pubic symphysis, IV discs
Diarthroses
Joints that are freely movable Hip, knee, shoulder, elbow
Patella
Kneecap, forms at two years of age sesamoid bone
Cartilaginous joints
Lack synovial cavity Articulating bones held together w/ cartilage CT Little/no movement Synchondroses, Simphyses, Epiphyseal
Fibrous joints
Lack synovial cavity, bones held together w/ dense CT Little to no movement Sutures, Syndemoses, Gomphosis (peg-in-socket joints)
Diaphragm
Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing O: Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of 7-12 ribs, lumbar vert. and interverterbral discs I: Central tendon
-Lumbar
Largest vertebrae
Obturator internus
Laterally rotates and abducts thigh at hip joint O: Inner surface of obturator foramen, pubis, ischium I: medial surface of greater trochanter of femur
functions of skin: protection
Lipids released by lamellar granules - prevent water loss and prevent water damage Sebum - lubricate skin and hairs and antimicrobial action Acidic sweat - reduces bacterial growth Melanin - absorbs damaging UV Macrophages - detect and fight invading organisms
lateral and medial epicondyles
Located to the sides of the condyle. The medial epicondyle is larger than the lateral one.
Thoracic cage functions
Made of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum -Protection of vital organs, shoulder girdle/upper limb support, attachment points of muscles for respiration and movement
Bulbospongiosus
Males: helps empty urethra, erection Females: constricts vagina O:Perenial body of penis I: Anteriorly to corpa cavernosa
-Mandible bone markings
Mandibular angle Coronoid process Condylar process Mandibular notch Mandibular and mental foramina
Converging circuit
Many inputs, one output
Ligaments stabilizes knee CAPSULE
Medial lateral patellar patellar
Tibia
Medial leg bone
Myofibrils
Microscopic protein filaments that make up muscle cells. contains Striations Sarcomeres Myofilaments
Body
Midportion, articulates w/ cartilage of ribs 2-7
Astrocytes
Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched of glial cells Support neurons, influence function and processing, exchange between capillaries and neurons
Basics of knee joint
Most complex joint of the body consists of femoropatellar and tibiofemoral joint surrounded by a single cavity Allows flexion extension and some rotation
protraction vs retraction
Movement on lateral plane protraction: mandible out retraction: mandible towards neck
Three Structural classifications of neurons
Multipolar: 3+ processes, most common Bipolar: 2 processes, rare (retina, olfactory) Unipolar: One process
What's the difference between grey and white matter?
Myelinated areas are white matter, unmyelinated are gray due to neuronal cell bodies
Satellite and Schwann cells
Neuroglia of PNS Satellite: Surround Neuron cell vodies, similar to astrocytes of CNS Schwann : Surround all peripheral nerve fibers to form myelin sheath, vital to regeneration
Smooth muscle structure
Not striated, slower and longer movements, can shorten and stretch various organs (gi tract, respiratory
Iliacus
O: iliac fossa and sacrum I: W/ psoas major into lesser trochanter of femur
excitation-contraction coupling
Once the AP arrives and excites muscle cell, Actin and Myosin slide past each other this means that muscle A.P and the sliding filament mech are connected
Axon structure
One axon per cell arising from axon hillock, Cone-shaped area of cell body Long axons called nerve fibers Occasional branches (axon collaterals) Branches profusely at end (terminus) Can be 10,000 terminal branches Distal endings called axon terminals or terminal boutons
Chemical Synapse
One-way transfer of information from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron
Antagonist
Opposes or reverses particular movement
-Carbohydrates
Organic compound of C, H, and O -Starches, sugars, cellulose -Oxidation reduction, break down of glucose, ATP conversion
orgin vs insertion
Origin: less movable side Insertion: movable side
Acromion
Outward extension of the shoulder blade forming the point of the shoulder.
Difference in PNS and CNS myelin sheath
PNS myelin sheath is produced by schwann cells, CNS myelin sheath is produced by oligodendrocytes
Menisci
Pads of cartilage that lie between the articular surfaces of the bones
-Sacrum
Part of pelvic girdle composed of 5 fused vertebrae (S1-S5)
What contributes to RMP?
Permeability to Na+ inward leakage Permeability to K+ outward leakage Na+/K+ ATPase Na+ concentration gradient K+ concentration gradient
Fibularis longus
Plantar flexes and everts foot O:Head/upper portion of lateral fibula I: Long rendon that curves under foot to first metatarsal and medial cuneiform
-Mitchondria
Power House of the cell where ATP is produced.
curves of the vertebral column
Primary: developed before birth, concave Secondary: developed after birth to support weight of head (cervical) and weight of trunk (lumbar) Cervical and lumbar curvatures - Concave posteriorly Thoracic and sacral curvatures - Convex posteriorly
tibialis anterior
Prime mover in dorsiflexion O: lateral condyle and tibial shaft I: by tendon into surface of medial cuneiform and 1st metatarsal
Extensor digitorum longus
Prime mover of toe extension O: Lateral condyle of tibia, some of fibula, I.O membrane I: Middle/distal phalanges of 2nd and 5th toes
Pectoralis minor
Pulls the scapula forward and downward or raises the ribs O: Ribs 3-5/2-4 I: Coracoid process of scalpula
elongation
RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to growing mRNA matching sequence
initiation
RNA polymerase separates DNA strands at the promoter region and a primer complementary RNA is inserted
functions of skin: thermoregulation
Regulating the production of sweat: Sweat reduces body temperature via conduction Regulating blood flow: Blood flow to the dermis changes body temperature by changing heat conduction from blood to skin tissues
-Reproductive System
Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)
longissimus capitis
Rotates and tilts head to the side/backwards O: Processes of C and T vertebra I: Temporal bone/mastoid process
Serratus anterior
Rotates scapula so its inferior angle moves laterally and upwards (boxers muscle) O: Muscle branches on ribs 1-8 or 9 I: Anterior surface of medial scapular border
Neuroglia in PNS neurons
Sattelite cells Schwann Cells
Why is the shoulder joint unstable?
Scalpula has no bone of joint connections to skeleton, meaning the shoulder is mobile but not strong
-Homeostatic control: Receptors
Sense change in stimuli, sends info along AFFERENT PATHWAY to control center
Functional classification of neurons
Sensory: Unipolar, transmit impulses Motor: Carry CNS impulses to effectors, multipolar Interneurons: Between motor and sensory, 99 percent of neurons
What three factors determine stability of joints?
Shape of articular surface Ligament number and location Muscle tone to keep tendons taut as they cross joints (MOST IMPORTANT)
Appendicular muscles
Shoulders and upper limbs Pelvis and lower limbs
cerebral cortex
Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding
Zygomaticus major and minor
Smiling O: Zygomatic bone I:Skin/muscle of corner of mouth
Myelination
Speeds up and insulates axon In PNS, formed by schwann cells
Trapezius
Stabilizes, elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula O: Occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, spinous process of c7 and thoracic I: Acromion, spine of scapula, lateral clavicle
Rhomboid minor and major
Stabilizes/adducts scapula O: Spinous process of C7 and T1 I: Medial border of scapula
What are some neuropeptides?
Substance P Enkephalins Endorphins Dynorphins Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Angiotensin II Cholecystokinin
Sacrum markings
Superior articular proccess: art. w/L5 Art w/coccyx and hip bones via auricular surfaces, forming sacroiliac joints -Sacral promontory: Anterosuperior margin -Transverse ridges: lines of fusion -Anterior sacral foramina :Openings for nerves or vessels -Alae -Median and lateral sacral crest: roughened bumps on posterior midline -Posterior sacral foramina: lg openings for spinal nerves -Sacral canal and sacral hiatus
Scalpula borders
Superior: shortest and sharpest Medial:parallel to spine Lateral: near armpit, ends at shoulder joint`
Supination vs pronation
Supination is a movement of the forearm in which the palm of the hand is turned anteriorly (anatomical position). Pronation is the movement that turns the palm posteriorly.
Levator Ani
Supports pelvic viscera and provides sphincter-like action in anal canal and vagina O: Inside pelvis from pubis to ischeal spine I: Inner surface of coccyx ,opposite side levator ani
Endomysium
Surrounds individual muscle fibers
Length-tension relationship
The force of a muscle contraction depends on the length of the sarcomeres prior to the contraction Overstreched: low actin mysoin overlap, less force understretched: actin actin, less force optimum overlap: maximal force
Temporomandibular joint
The joint formed where the mandible and cranium meet, just in front of the ear. Articulates w/ mandibular fossa, art. tubercle, and mandibular condyle Hinge and gliding movement most easily dislocated
Cerebral hemispheres
The right and left halves of the cerebrum.
T Tubules
Tubes formed by protrusion of sarcolemma Increase muscle surface area, allow electrical nerve transmission
Retrograde
Towards cell body viruses
What is the carpal tunnel?
Tunnel formed by ligaments where hand nerves and tendons travel through wrist -Carpal tunnel syndrome
Rotation
Turning of bone around its own long axis Medial, Lateral C1 and C2 vertebrae, humerus and femur
Articular (joint) capsule
Two layers outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular connective tissue, inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue
Oligodendrocytes
Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.
functions of skin: synthesis of vitamin d
Ultraviolet rays activate the precursor molecule (calcitriol) that allows vitamin D to be made Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract
Humerus
Upper arm bone art superiorly w/glenoid cavity art. inferiorly w/radius and ulna
Buccinator
Used to suck in your cheeks O:Molar region of maxilla and mandible I: Orbicularis oris
Pubis
V shaped anterior portion of hip bone
-Cranial vault vs cranial base
Vault: Superior, lateral, posterior portion of skull and forehead -Base: Inferior skull, anterior, middle, posterior fossae
Lateral ventricles
Ventricles located in each cerebral hemisphere, seperated by septum pellucidum
What is the spine made up of?
Vertebrae, ligaments, and intervertebral discs
When do action potentials occur?
When the membrane potential reaches threshold Strong enough stimulus will open voltage-gate Na+ channel, depolarization Na+ channels close and K+ channels open, repolarization
Hyoid bone
a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue. -
-Colles
a break in the distal part of the radius
myasthenia gravis
a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles
Spina bifida
a congenital defect that occurs during early pregnancy when the spinal canal fails to close completely around the spinal cord to protect it
Spondylosis
a degenerative disorder that can cause the loss of normal spinal structure and function
Neural tube
a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord
What are neurons? What are some features of neurons?
a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Excitable, extreme longevity Amitotic : the direct method of cell division, characterized by simple cleavage of the nucleus without the formation of chromosomes.
Action Potentials
a sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease (makes it less negative) and eventually reverse the membrane potential (depolarization, i.e. positive) and eventually restore it to the resting state (repolarization)
Fovea Capitis
a small pit in the head of the femur for the attachment of a short ligament that runs to the acetabulum
Subarachnoid space
a space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane and above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid
Electrical synapse
a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell
Lordosis
abnormal anterior curvature of the lumbar spine (sway-back condition)
Scoliosis
abnormal lateral curvature of the spine
holocrine glands
accumulate their products within them until they rupture (sebaceous oil glands)
cdks
activated by cyclins when they bind to them cyclin-cdk complex activates enzyme cascades that prepare for cell division
Greater Sciatic notch
allows blood vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis posteriorly into the thigh
Striations
alternate dark and light bands found on skeletal and cardiac muscle myofibril Dark A bands have H zone (lighter midsection) Each H zone has an M line down the middle Each I band has a darker Z disc middle
-Strong acid
an acid that ionizes completely in aqueous solution
-Weak Acid
an acid that is only slightly ionized in aqueous solution
Triad
area formed from terminal cistern of one sarcomere, T tubule, and terminal cistern of neighboring sarcomere
lamina propria
areolar connective tissue that rests on a third deeper layer of smooth muscle cells
papillary dermis
areolar connective, collagen and elastic fibers form loosely woven mat with many small blood vessels allows phagocytes and other defensive cells to wander freely as they patrol the area for bacteria dermal papillae - peglike projections on the surface friction ridges - enhance our ability to grip certain kinds of surfaces
Neuron processes
armlike processes that extend from cell body Two types: Dendrites and axons CNS: neuron cell bodies and processes PNS: only processes form TRACTS (CNS) or NERVES (PNS)
Head of humerus
articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula
Radial notch
articulates with head of radius
Auricular surface
articulates with sacrum
avascular but innervated
avascular - no blood vessels innervated - supplied by nerve fibers
Occipital bone
back of head -Articulates w/pariteal, temporal, and sphenoid
3 types of skin cancer
basal cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma malignant melanoma
basement membrane
between epithelia and connective tissue that reinforces the epithelial sheet, helps it resist stretching and tearing, and defines the epithelial boundary 2 layers - basal lamina and reticular lamina
Lambdoid suture
between parietal bones and occipital bone
functions of connective tissue
binding and supporting protecting insulating storing reserve fuel transporting substances
Dislocations
bones forced out of alignment
cuboidal cells
boxlike
dermis
bulk of skin, tough leathery layer composed mostly of dense connective tissue vascular
cortex
bulky layer surrounding medulla several layers of flattened cells
Adductor tubercle
bump on upper part of medial condyle
arrector pili
bundle of smooth muscle cells associated with each hair follicle
which tissues have no regeneration?
cardiac nervous
Creatine Kinase
catalyzes the transfer of phosphate from CP to ADP to yield ATp
regression stage
cells in hair matrix stop dividing hair stops growing 2-3 weeks
Clavicle
collar bone Sternal end art. w/manibruim of sternum into sternoclavicular joint Acromial end art w/ acromion of scalpula into acromioclavicular joint
musin
complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water when secreted
Transverse Abdominus
compresses abdominal contents O: Inguinal ligament, last six ribs cartilage, iliac crest I: Linea alba, pubic cresr
sebaceous oil gland
connected to hair follicles softens hair and skin
4 classes of connective tissue
connective proper cartilage bone blood
Fourth ventricle
connects to third ventricle via cerebral aqueduct
introchanteric line and crest
connects trochanters of femur
Articular Cartilage
consists of hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones; prevents crushing of bone ends
gland
consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product (secretion)
stratum basale (basal layer)
deepest epidermal layer attached to underlying dermis along wavy borderline that resembles corrugated cardboard single row of stem cells
Arculate line
defines pelvic brim
granulation tissue
delicate pink tissue that contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and lay down a new capillary bed
Epimysium
dense irregular conn tissue surrounding ENTIRE muscle
abnormal color or shape of nails can be an indicator of?
disease yellow-tinged may indicate respiratory or thyroid gland disorder beau's lines: horizontal lines may indicate illness such as diabetes, heart attack, or cancer chemotherapy
Vertebral fracture
displacement of bone in the body, vertebral arches, spinous processes, or facets of vertebrae -most common at c1, c2, c4-t1, and t12-l2
Condylar joint
egg-shaped articular surface of one bone fits into an oval concavity in another biaxial
myofilaments
elaborate network or actin and myosin filaments that bring about movement or contraction in all cell types
Levator anguli Oris
elevates angle of mouth O:Anterior surface of maxilla below infra foramen I: Outer end of upper lip
Inferior oblique
elevates eye and turns it laterally O: Orbital surface of maxilla behind orbital margin I: Post/inferior quadrant of sclera behind equator of eyeball
Superior Rectus
elevates eye and turns it medially O: Superior tendinous ring within orbit I:Superior sclera anterior to equator of eyeball
External intercostals
elevates ribs during inspiration O: Inferior border of rib above I: Superior border of rib below
levator labii superioris
elevates upper lip O: Zygomatic bone and intraorbital margin of maxilla I: Skin and muscle of upper lip
what are the 2 layers of the skin?
epidermis dermis
specialized contacts
epithelial cells fit closely together to form continuous sheets. sides of adjacent cells are tied together by tight junctions and desmosomes
epidermis
epithelial cells, outermost protective shield of the body avascular
which tissues regenerate extremely well?
epithelial tissue bone areolar dense irregular blood
regeneration
epithelium has high regenerative capacity
-Paget's Disease
excessive bone deposition and resorption causing bones to grow poorly
Kyphosis
excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back.
What are the characteristics of muscle tissue? (4)
excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity
most common cause of skin cancer
exposure to UV light
Iliocostalis cervicis
extends cervical region of vertebral column O: Ribs 1-6 I:Transverse process c4-c6
Iliocostalis lumborum
extends lumbar region of vertebral column O: Iliac Crest I: Ribs 7-12
Spinalis cervicis
extends vertebral column O: Ligamentum n uchae/spinous process of C7 I: Spinous process of axis
Spinalis Thoracis
extends vertebral column O: Spinous process of t10-12 I: Spinous process of superior thoracic vert.
common characteristics of connective tissue
extracellular matrix - separates the living cells of the tissue mesenchyme - all connective tissue arise from this (embryonic tissue)
Microglial cells
extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells
perimysium and fascicles
fascicles are grouped muscle fibers covered with fibrous connective tissue of the perimysium
adipocytes
fat cells which store energy as fat
Lateral/medial condyles
femur, articulate w/ tibia
Glenoid labrum
fibrocartilage ring that deepens glenoid cavity
Structurally classified joints
fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
before a specimen can be viewed through a microscope it must be
fixed (preserved) sections (slices) stained (contrast)
Scalpula
flat, thin and triangular bone that is located in the superior part of the posterior thorax between the second and seventh ribs
squamous cells
flattened and scale like
Psoas major
flex hip and thigh O: Transverse processes and bodies of lumbar vertebrae I: Iliacus into lesser trochanter of femur
Sternocleidomastoid
flexes neck; rotates head O: Sternum, clavicle I: Temporal bone/mastoid process, occipital bone
Ventricles
fluid filled spaces in the brain, filled w/ CSF and lined by ependymal cells
hair follicle
fold down from epidermal surface into the dermis deep end of follicle expands to form the hair bulb
Prosencephalon
forebrain, becomes telncephalon and diencephalon
Temporal bones and the three major regoins
form the sides and base of the cranium -Squamous: zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa makes up part of temporomandibular joint -Tympanic: Surround External acoustic meatus -Petrous: Houses middle and inner ear cavities
cuticle
formed from single layer of cells overlapping one another helps the hair not mat most heavily keratinized
transitional epithelium
forms lining of hollow urinary organs
Sphenoid bone
forms part of the base of the skull and parts of the floor and sides of the orbit -Sphenoidal sinuses -Sella turcica, hypophyseal fossa enclosing pituitary gland
Ethmoid bone
forms part of the posterior portion of the nose, the orbit, and the floor of the cranium -Crista galli, perpendiculat plate, superior/middle nasal concha
spondylolisthesis
forward slipping of one vertebra over another
Iliac crest
found at top of hip bone, ends ant.superior and posterior superior
stratum lucidum (clear layer)
found only in thick skin visible through light microscope few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes
-Coccyx
four vertebrae fused together to form the tailbone
Impacted fracture
fracture in which one bone fragment is pushed into another
Comminuted fracture
fracture in which the bone is splintered or crushed
Pott fracture
fracture of the distal end of the fibula
third degree
full thickness wounds, all skin functions are lost
Neuronal pool
functional group of neurons that integrate info received from other receptors and processes them to other areas
Olecranon/coronoid process
grip trochlea of humerus to form hinge joint
interstitial fluid
ground substance consists of large amounts of fluid and functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between blood capillaries
hair grows in 3 cycles
growth, regression, resting stages
resting stage
hair loss follicle prepares to enter growth stage 3 months
for transmission electron microscopy, tissue sections are stained with
heavy metal salts
Subclavius
helps stabilize and depress pectoral girdle O: Costal Cartilage of rib 1 I: Groove on inferior surface of clavicle
-Suspensions
heterogenous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out -Blood
Rhombencephalon
hindbrain, becomes metencephalon and myelincephalon
Ball and socket joint
hip and shoulder joints multiaxial
Acetabulum
hip socket, where femur articulates formed by ilium, ischuim and pubis
sternal angle
horizontal ridge across front of sternum
inflamation
inflammatory sets stage dilation of blood vessels increase blood vessel permeability clotting of blood occurs
3 steps of transcription
initiation, elongation, termination
endothelium
inner covering provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessel and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system
cardiac and smooth
involuntary
glassy membrane
junction of the fibrous sheath and epithelial root sheath (basement membrane or follicle epithelium)
hypodermis
located deep to the dermis but not a layer of the skin areolar and adipose tissue anchors skin to underlying structures
apocrine sweat gland
located in hairy skin areas secrete lipids and proteins in addition to water, small molecules larger than eccrine sweat glands, begin function at puberty contain myoepithelial cells - contract upon nervous system stimulation to force sweat into ducts
endocrine glands
lose their ducts during development (ductless glands) they produce hormones, chemical messengers that they secrete by exocytosis most are multicellular organs
xiphoid process
lower, narrow portion of the sternum
Ischiocavernosus
maintains erection or penis/clitoris O:Ischial Tuberosities I: Midline central tendon
-Sternum
manubrium, body, xiphoid process
Ulna
medial bone of the forearm, forms major portion of elbow joint w/humerus
the layers of the hair
medulla cortex cuticle
Mesencephalon
midbrain
mesothelium
middle covering found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs
artifacts
minor distortions
G2 checkpoint
mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged
telophase
mitotic spindle dissolves, new nuclear membrane forms and chromosomes retain their chromatin appearance
ceruminous glands
modified sweat glands located in ear canal
serous membranes
moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities each layer consists of simple squamous epithelium resting on thin layer of areolar connective tissue
multicellular exocrine glands
more complex and have 2 basic parts - epithelium derived duct and secretory unit simple glands - unbranched duct compound glands - branched duct
eccrine sweat gland
most abundant palms, soles, forehead ducts connect to pores, function in thermoregulation regulated by sympathetic nervous system
melanoma
most dangerous type because its resistant to chemotherapy key to survival is early detection: ABCD rule A: asymmetry, two sides of pigmented area do not match B: border irregularity C: color, contains several colors D: diameter, larger than 6mm
G1 checkpoint
most important checkpoint if DNA is damaged, apoptosis occurs, otherwise the cell is committed to divide when growth signals are present and nutrients are available
Adduction
movement along frontal plane, toward the midline
Hyperextension
movement beyond the anatomical position
Uniaxial
movement in one plane
Multiaxial
movement in or around all three planes
Biaxial
movement in two planes
Lateral Rectus
moves eye laterally O: Lateral tendinous ring within orbit I: Lateral sclera anterior to equator of eyeball
Medial Rectus
moves eye medially O:Medial tendinous ring within orbit I: Medial sclera anterior to equator of eyeball
unicellular exocrine glands
mucous and goblet cells unicellular glands in the intestinal and respiratory tracts
Paranasal Sinuses
mucous membrane-lined cavities in the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid and ethmoid bones
Synergist
muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation by adding force or reducing undesirable movement
Prime mover (agonist)
muscle that produces most of force during an action
Vomer
nasal septum -Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone Palatine process of maxilla Horizontal plate of palatine bone
What three things are skeletal muscles made out of?
nerve and blood supply, connective tissue sheaths, and attachments
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum tubules surrounding each myofibril Stores and releases Ca2+
Neuronal Pool: discharge zone
neurons closer to incoming fiber are more likely to generate impulse
Neuronal pool: Facilitated zone
neurons on periphery of pool are farther away from incoming fiber; usually not excited to threshold unless stimulated by another source
floating ribs
no sternum attachment 11-12
translation
occurs in cytoplasm process of reading mRNA nucleotide sequence to determine the amino acid sequence of the newly formed protein
transcription
occurs in nucleus process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is copied onto strand of RNA to direct protein synthesis
What forms the trochlear notch?
olecranon and coronoid process
Diverging circuit
one input, many outputs
mechanically gated channels
open and close in response to vibration or pressure stimuli
suprascapular notch
opening for nerves
-What are the 4 types of bone cells?
osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts
stratum corneum (horny layer)
outermost epidermal layer, 20-30 cell layers thick accounts for 3/4 of epidermal thickness cells are shred regularly (dandruff) protect deeper cells from environment, prevent water loss, protect from abrasion and penetration
Extracapsular ligament
outside the capsule
hemoglobin
oxygenated pigment in red blood cells
vellus hair
pale, fine hair of adult females and children
what are the 2 layers of the dermis?
papillary reticular
Types of fascicle arrangement
parallel (greatest shortening) convergent (less shortening, greatest power) pennate (least shortening, more power) circular (sphincters)
Circuit
patterns of synaptic connections in neuronal pools, process specific types of information
Neuron Cell body
perikaryon Synthesizes proteins, membranes, chemicals Rough ER most located in CNS
Fibularis Brevis
plantar flexes and everts foot O: Distal fibula shaft I: tendon running behind lateral malleolus to insert on proximal end of 5th metatarsal
flexor digitorum longus
plantar flexes and inverts foot; flexes toes O:Posterior tibia I: Tendon runs behind malleolus and into 2nd and 5th toes
Flexor hallucis longus
plantar flexes foot and flexes great toe, push off muscle when walking O:Midshaft of fibula, IO I: tendon runs under foot to great toe
Sarcolemma
plasma membrane of a muscle fiber
tibial tuberosity
point of attachment for the patellar ligament
Pubic tubercule
point protrusion by symphysis
xiphisternal joint
point where sternal body and xiphoid process fuse
Pubic symphisis
point where the coxal bones join anteriorly via fibrocartilage
melanin
polymer made of an amino acid called tyrosine all humans have the same number of melanocytes
Actin protein
polypeptide made of G actin subunits that link together to form F actin 2 F actins: thin filament
Fracture classification
position of bone ends after fracture, completeness of break, whether skin is penetrated
tactile epithelial cells
present at epidermal-dermal junctions shaped like spiky hemisphere, each cell is associated with sensory nerve ending
connective tissue
prevalent in body (skin)
Posterior cruciate ligament
prevents posterior displacement of tibia
Tibialis posterior
prime mover of foot inversion O: Superior tibia and fibula/IO membrane I: tendon passes behind medial malleolus under arch of foot, into II-IV
sliding filament mechanism
process of muscle contraction in which shortening occurs by thick and thin filaments sliding past each other ---- Myosin pulls actin and the thin filament slides inwards. The z discs move towards each other, I bands shorten, and H zone dissapears, causing sarcomere to shorten and generates a force Strutural proteins transmit this force through entire muscle
Ependymal Cells
produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid, line brain and spinal column Can be ciliated to circulate CSF
What are the functions of a muscle? (4)
producing movement, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints, generating heat
Risorius
pulls corners of mouth laterally O: Lateral Fascia of masseter muscle I: Skin at angle of mouth
-Bone processes
projections or outgrowths of bones -Attachment points for ligaments
spine of scapula
prominent ridge
Crest
prominent ridge or elongated projection
Herniated disc
protrusion of a fragmented intervertebral disc in the intervertebral foramen with potential compression of a nerve
Deltoid tuberosity
raised area on lateral surface of humerus to which deltoid muscle attaches
Occipitofrontalis
raises eyebrows O: Epicranial Aponeurosis I: Skin of eyebrows and nose
Leakage channel
randomly alternate between open and closed positions.
-Regional Terms: Perineal
region between the anus and external genitalia
cyclins
regulatory proteins that accumulate during interphase destroyed after mitotic cell division
fibrosis
replaces destroyed tissue with scar tissue (dense connective tissue)
regeneration
replaces destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue
Ligand gated ion channel
respond to chemical stimuli (ligand binds to receptor)
Voltage gated channels
respond to direct changes in membrane potential
muscle tissue
responsible for most types of body movements cells are all tightly packed together
organization
restores blood supply begins as blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue epithelium begins to regenerate fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge gap until regeneration is complete any debris is phagocytized
burns
results when protein in skin are denatured damage caused by heat, electricity, radioactivity, corrosive chemicals
Acetabular labrum
rim of fibrocartilage that enhances depth of hip socket (hip dislocations are rare)
semispinalis capitis
rotates and tilts head backwards O: Processes of C and T vertebrae I: Occipital bone
splenius capitis
rotates head, bends head to one side, or extends neck O: Spinous process of cervical and thoracic vertebrae I: Temp. bone/mastoid process, occipital bone
pivot joint
rotating bone turns around an axis; i.e. connection between radius/ulna and humerus
sesamoid bones
round bones found near joints (e.g., the patella) form in tendon
regeneration
scab detaches fibrous tissue matures epithelium thickens/begins to resemble tissue
nails
scale-like modifications of epidermis that contain hard keratin act as protective cover for distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes consists of free edge, nail plate, and root
acne is an infection in what gland?
sebaceous oil gland whiteheads are blocked sebaceous glands, if secretion is oxidized it becomes a blackhead
exocrine glands
secret their products onto body surfaces or into body cavities unicellular by exocytosis and multicellular by epithelium walled duct liver, pancreas, mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands
merocrine glands
secrete their products by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands)
greater and lesser trochanters
sites of muscle attachment on the proximal end of the femur connected by intertrochanteric line and crest
which tissues have weak regeneration?
skeletal cartilage
external anal sphincter
skeletal muscle for defacation
cutaneous membrane
skin consisting of stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly attached to thick layer of connective tissue (dermis)
Anatomical neck
slight constriction of humerus inferior to head
Nonaxial
slipping movements only, since there is no axis around which movement can occur
-Lacunae
small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes
Graded Potential
small deviations in resting membrane potential, occurs in response to the opening of a mechanically-gated or ligand-gated ion channel The amplitude of a graded potential depends on the stimulus strength
Joint (Synovial) cavity
small, fluid-filled potential space that is unique to synovial joints
sarcomere structure
smallest functional unit of a muscle fiber, between z discs A band w half I band at each end
which tissues regenerate moderately?
smooth muscle denser regular
melanocytes
spider shaped epithelial cells that synthesize pigment melanin found in deepest layer of epidermis made in membrane bound granules called melanosomes then transferred through cell processes to nearby keratinocytes protects nucleus from UV radiation in sunlight
M checkpoint
spindle assembly checkpoint mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not aligned properly
superficial transverse perineal
stabilizes central tendon of perineum O: Ischial Tuberosity I: Perineal Body
Iliocostalis thoracis
stabilizes thoracic vertebrae in extension O: Ribs 7-12 I: Rib 1-6
dendritic cells
star shaped cells arise from bone marrow and migrate to epidermis ingest foreign substances and are key activators of our immune system
Skeletal muscle structure
striated, multiple nuclei per cell, very long cylindrical shape, voluntary to move bones
Cardiac muscle structure
striated, one nucleus per cell, branched ends and intercalacated discs, involuntary intercalated discs contain desmosomes and gap junctions pumps blood
telomeres
strings of nucleotides that protect ends of chromosomes (like caps on shoestrings)
Central tendon of perineum
strong tendon that many perineal muscles insert into
what is the dermis made of?
strong, flexible connective tissue
Four rotator cuff tendons
subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor
false pelvis
superior to pelvic brim
Scapula angles
superior, inferior, lateral
Axial muscles
support and position axial skeleton Head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, pelvic floor
Functionally classified joints
synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, diarthrotic
Fixators
synergists that immobilize a bone or muscle's origin
-Facet joints
synovial joints that link vertebrae and provide flexibility in the spine -Superior articular facet:articulating surface on dorsal side -Inferior articular facet articulating surface on ventral side The inferior articulate process articulates against the superior articulate process of the vertebrae below it
Coronal suture
the suture between the parietal and frontal bones of the skull
functions of hair
tactile protection from physical trauma shield skin from sunlight
columnar
tall and column shaped
Internal Oblique
tenses abdominal wall and compresses abdominal contents O: Lumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament I: Linea alba, pubic crest, last 3 or 4 ribs, costal margin
Manubrium
the bony structure that forms the upper portion of the sternum -Articulates w/ claviculat notches and ribs 1 and 2
Twitch contraction
the brief contraction of all the muscle fibers in a motor unit in response to a single action potential in its motor neuron Latent, contraction, relaxation, refractory
Ischium
the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis Ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity
Action potential Propagation
the movement of an action potential along an axon; in myelinated axons, it occurs via saltatory conduction can be affected by axon diameter, amount of myelination, and temp
Aerobic: Cellular Respiration
the process by which cells use oxygen to obtain usable energy from an energy source ----
Muscle tone
the state of balanced muscle tension that makes normal posture, coordination, and movement possible
third ventricle
the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon, connected to lateral ventricle via INTERVENTRICULAR FORAMEN
Pubic crest
thick anterior border
Myosin myofilaments
thick filaments Extend length of A band Connected at M line s
lunule
thickened nail matrix, appears white
Capsular ligament
thickened part of fibrous layer
nail matrix
thickened portion of bed responsible for nail growth
Femur
thigh bone articulating w/ acetebulum and tibia/patella
Actin myofilaments
thin filaments Extend across I band and partway in A band Anchored to Z discs
stratum granulosum (granular layer)
thin layer consists of 1-5 cell layers process of keratinization begins
basal lamina
thin supporting sheet consists of glycoproteins and collagen fibers acts as selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter epithelium
Wave summation
this occurs when a second stimulus is received before the muscle fiber has relaxed, creating a second contraction that is stronger than the first Unfused and fused tetanus
white blood cells
tissue response to injury
What are structural proteins?
titin, myomesin, nebulin, dystrophin
termination
transcription stops when RNA polymerase reaches special termination signal code
CNS and PNS
two divisions of the nervous system
stratified epithelia
two or more cell layers stacked on top of each other (high abrasion areas)
polarity
two surfaces: apical surface (not attached to surrounding tissue and is exposed to either the outside of the body or the cavity of internal organ) basal surface: attached to underlying connective tissue
Saddle joint
type of joint found at the base of each thumb; allows grasping and rotation Biaxial
hair color depends on what
type of pigment produced by melanocytes due to amount and type of melanin present in keratinized cells
nails normally appear pink because of?
underlying capillaries
ground substance
unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains fibers
Maxilla and markings
upper jaw -Anterior nasal spine, alveolar process, palantine process, frontal process, zygomatic process, sinuses -Inferior orbital fissure Infraorbital foramen Incisive fossa and canal
Synovial fluid
viscous (sticky) fluid within the synovial cavity Made of plasma and hyaluronic acid that lubricates and nourishes art. cartilage Phago. cells
patellar surface
where femur articulates with patella