A&P Test 1, A&P 1 Exam 2 Pedrozo, Anatomy Test #3, A and P test 4

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dorsiflexion vs plantar flexion (foot)

Dorsiflexion: bending foot towards shin Plantar flexion: pointing toes

-Four steps of tissue progression in fractures

Hematoma formation Fibrocartilaginous callus formation Bony callus formation Bone remodeling

Internal intercostals

depress ribs, forced exhalation O: superior border of rib below I: Inferior border of rib above

depressor anguli oris

depresses corner of mouth O: Body of mandible I:Skin and muscle below zygomaticus

Superior oblique

depresses eye and turns it laterally O: Body of sphenoid above tendinous ring I: Post/superior quadrant of sclera behind equator of eyeball

Inferior rectus

depresses eye and turns it medially

depressor labii inferioris

depresses lower lip (pout) O: Body of mandible at midline I: Skin and muscle of lower lip

peripheral connective tissue sheath

derived from dermis, forms the external layer of follicle wall

epithelial root sheath

derived from epidermis external root sheath - direct continuation of epidermis internal root sheath - derived from matrix cells

functions of skin: blood reservoir

dermis has so many blood vessels that it can hold about 8-10% of total blood flow while at rest

mast cells

detect foreign microorganisms and initiate local inflammatory response

What are the types of bones of the hand?

carpus, metacarpus, phalanges

functions of skin: cutaneous sensations

tactile sensations - touch, pressure, vibration, tickle thermal sensations - hot, cold pain

Psoas minor

flexes trunk

Joint

Contact point between cartilage and bone, teeth and bone, or two or more bones

-Fontanels

Gaps between a baby's skull that slowly close up during the first 18 months of life

Pelvic brim

where the abdomen meets the pelvic cavity divides superior and inferior portions of the pelvis

trochlear notch

wraps around the trochlea of the humerus to make elbow joint

corrugator supercilii

wrinkles brow O: arch of frontal bone above nasal bone I: Skin of eyebrow

Mentalis

wrinkles chin O: Mandible below incisors I: Skin of chin

carotene

yellow to orange pigment found in certain plant products

phomelanin

yellow to red

-Regional Anatomy

-Divided into Axial region (head, neck, and trunk) and appendicular region (limbs)

-Regional Terms: Coxal

-Hip

-isotonic vs hypertonic vs hypotonic

-Isotonic: Unchanged volume -Hypertonic: Higher osmal, cell shrivels -Hypotonic: lower Osmal, cell explodes

-Transport Across Plasma Membrane

-Passive: Does not require energy -Active: Does require energy

-Regional Terms: Pelvic

-Pelvis

Sagittal suture

between parietal bones

eumelanin

brown to black hair

-Facet

smooth, nearly flat articular surface

Number of skull muscles

22 8 cranial 14 facial 3 ear

Abduction

movement along frontal plane, away from the midline

-Concentration Gradient

- Difference in concentration of chemicals between sides of plasma membrane

Resting Membrane Potential

An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell.

Phalanges (foot)

Arranged like those of the hand Big toe (Hallux) has proximal and distal phalanx

What are myofilaments? What are the two types and what do they contain?

Arrangement of actin and myosin within sarcomere ACTIN MYOFILAMENTS: THIN! Across I band, anchored to z disc MYOSIN MYOFILAMENTS: THICK!!! Across A band, Connected at M line

What are periosteal arteries/veins?

Arteries with nerves that enter bone diaphysis thru canals

Glenoid cavity

Articulating point of scalpula w/humerus: glenohumeral joint

What are the regulatory muscle proteins? What do they do?

TROPOMYOSIN and TROPONIN: Regulatory proteins bound to actin

isotonic contraction vs. isometric

Tension is constant while muscle length changes (concentric: when its shortened. Eccentric: when its lengthened) isometric: muscle contracts but does not change length

Iliac fossa

The broad, slightly concave inner surface of the ilium.

Surgical neck

The neck of the humerus that is prone to fractures.

Basic pattern of CNS?

central cavity surrounded by gray matter, with white matter external to gray matter

medulla

central core, consists of large cells and air spaces. contains soft keratin, absent in fine hairs

Jugular notch

central indentation in superior border of manubrium

metaphase

centromeres of chromosomes line up in the middle

anaphase

centromeres of chromosomes split and sister chromatids move towards opposite poles of cell

Four Brain regions

cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, cerebellum

keratinocytes

chief role is to produce keratin, the fibrous protein that helps give the epidermis its protective properties most epidermal cells are keratinocytes, are tied together by desmosomes and some by tight junctions millions slough off every day

prophase

chromatin condenses into chromosomes and the nuclear membrane disappears, centrosomes move to opposite poles

cytokenesis

cleavage furrow forms and eventually cytoplasm splits begins during late anaphase

Masseter

closes jaw O:Zygomatic arch and bone I: Angle/ramus of manidble

Nuclei

clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

Ganglia

clusters of cell bodies in the PNS

terminal hair

coarser, longer hair of eyebrows, eyelashes, and scalp

anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments

continuous bands down the front and back of the spine from the neck to the sacrum that support and prevent hyperextension/flexion

thin (hairy) skin

covers all body regions except palms, digits, and soles

thick skin

covers areas for abrasion - palms, fingertips, and soles of feet 5 layers - stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale

thick (hairless) skin

covers the palms, palmer surfaces of digits, soles

what are crucial to cell's ability to complete S phase and enter mitosis?

cyclins and cdks

What is the sarcoplasm? what does it contain?

cytoplasm of muscle cell contains GLYCOSOMES for storage and MYOGLOBIN for oxygen storage

first degree

damaged epidermis (3-6 days to heal)

second degree

damaged epidermis and dermis, no damage to accessory organs (3-4 weeks to heal)

what is hair composed of?

dead, keratinized epidermal cells (pili)

Fissures

deep grooves longitudinal, transverse

reticular lamina

deep to basal lamina consists of a layer of extracellular material containing a fine network of collagen protein fibers

intracapsular ligaments

deep to capsule; covered by synovial membrane

subcutaneous tissue

deep to the skin superficial to the tough connective tissue, not part of skin but shares some of skin's protective functions adipose and areolar

Bones of the hip

ilium, ischium, pubis

Fatigue

inability to maintain force of contraction after prolonged activity Can be due to Inadequate Ca, depeletion of Oxygen source, build up of lactic acid/ADP, or insufficient Ach Ex. Heavy breathing after exercising

Hyperplasia

increase in cell number due to endurance training

Hypertrophy

increase in muscle size due to sarcomere increase

Extension

increases the angle of a joint

True pelvis

inferior to pelvic brim; almost entirely surrounded by bone; inlet and outlet are critical to delivery of a baby

steps in wound healing

inflammation organization regeneration

Bursitis

inflammation of a bursa

arthritis

inflammation of a joint

Tendonitis

inflammation of tendon sheaths

steps of tissue repair

inflammation, organization, permanent repair via regeneration fibrosis

4 cell types of epidermis

keratinocytes melanocytes dendritic cells tactile epithelial cells

Ulnar head

knob-shaped; articulates with a notch on the radius and a wrist bone

macrophages

large irregularly shaped cells that devour a broad variety of foreign materials also dispose of dead tissue cells

Obturator foramen

large opening formed by rami and body

Radius

lateral bone of the forearm Head, radial tuberosity to anchor biceps, ulnar notch, radial styloid process to anchor ligaments

Gluteal surface

lateral surface of the fan-shaped portion of the ilium Posterior, anterior, and inferior gluteal lines

Piriformis

laterally rotates and abducts thigh O: Anterior sacrum I: Superior border of greater trochanter of femur

Intercondylar fossa

lies between condyles

Ulnar styloid process

ligament attachment

mucous membranes

line all body cavities that open to the outside of the body (hollow organs of digestive, respiratory, and urogenital tracts)

cell adhesion proteins

serve mainly as a connective tissue glue that allows connective tissue cells to attach to the ECM

stratum spinosum (prickly layer)

several cell layers thick spinelike extensions of keratinocytes, however these spines do not exist in living cells - they are artifacts created during tissue preparation

Main parts of rib

shaft: flat bone making up most of rib, COSTAL GROOVE houses nerves Head: articulates w/facets Neck: constricted portion beyond head Tubercule: knoblike structure lateral to neck

Sulci

shallow grooves

Spinous process

sharp, slender projection

epithelial tissue

sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity

Plane joint

short slipping or gliding movements; i.e. carpals nonaxial

Reflexes

simple, automatic responses to sensory stimuli, such as the knee-jerk response Occur due to REFLEX ARCS

simple epithelia

single cell layer

-Endocrine

-Hormone secreting glands that regulate

-Regional Terms: Oral

-Mouth

Fibula

Doesn't bear weight

Temporalis

closes jaw O: Temporal Fossa I: Coronoid process

lanugo hair

cover the fetus

Colle's fracture

distal radius is broken by falling onto an outstretched hand

Pubic arch

formed by the convergence of the ischium and pubis on either side, below the pubic symphysis

Gyri

ridges

Tubercle

small rounded projection

Opposition

thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping)

skeletal muscle

voluntary control

Greater tubercule

(Humerus), large bony protuberance on the lateral surface on the proximal end Separated from lesser tubercule by intertubercular sulcus

Organismal

- All total structures, working together for life

-What are the bones of the appendicular skeleton?

- Limbs (appendages) - Pectoral Girdle - Pelvic Girdle -126 bones

How many vertebrae are there?

-26

How many coccygeal vertebrae are there?

-3-5

Epicondyle

-: Usually roughened projection on a condyle

-Endoplasmic Reticulum

-A cell structure that forms a maze of passageways in which proteins and other materials are carried from one part of the cell to another. -Protein Synthesis, protein sorting, transport

-DNA

-A complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes. -A+T, C+G -Double helix made of sugars and phosphates

-Proteasomes

-A giant protein complex that recognizes and destroys proteins tagged for elimination by the small protein ubiquitin.

-Cytoskeleton

-A network of fibers that holds the cell together, helps the cell to keep its shape, and aids in movement

-Endomembrane System

-A network of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles -Er, golgi, secretory vesicles, lysosomes

-RNA

-A single-stranded nucleic acid that passes along genetic messages -AGGU

Golgi apparatus

-A system of membranes that modifies and packages proteins for export by the cell -Stacked cisterns, directs cell traffic

-Organelles

-A tiny cell structure that carries out a specific function within the cell

Homeostatic Control: afferent vs efferent

-AFFERENT approaches, EFFERENT exits

-Directional Terms: Superior

-Above

primary active transport

-Active transport that relies directly on the hydrolysis of ATP. -Na K pump

-Osteomalacia

-Adult ricketts, soft bones

-Metabolism

-All chemical reactions in body are called metabolism

-Resting Membrane Potential

-An electrical potential established across the plasma membrane of all cells by the Na+/K+ ATPase and the K+ leak channels. IN most cells, the resting membrane potential is approximately -70 mV with respect to the outside of the cell. - -3NA and +2K -Voltage: difference in charge on membrane surface -ONLY IN EXCITABLE CELLS

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

-An endomembrane system where lipids are synthesized, calcium levels are regulated, and toxic substances are broken down.

-Lysosomes

-An organelle containing digestive enzymes

-Anions vs. Cations

-Anions: Negative charge, gains electron -Cations: Positive charge, loses electrons

-Regional Terms: Tarsal

-Ankle

-Directional Terms: Ventral

-Anterior

-Regional Terms: Antecubital

-Anterior surface of the elbow

-Regional Terms: Brachial

-Arm (upper portion of upper limb)

-Regional Terms: Axillary

-Armpit

-Directional Terms: Deep

-Away from body surface

-Directional Terms: Lateral

-Away from the midline

-Directional Terms: Posterior

-Back

-Regional Terms: Olecranial

-Back of elbow

-Regional Terms: Occipital

-Back of head

-Regional Terms: Popliteal

-Back of knee

-Cervical vertebrae

-Balance head, fine movements and lg range of motion C1-C7

-Proteins

-Basic structure material of body w/many vital functions -Enzymes, hemoglobin, contractile muscle proteins, cell signaling/structure

-Endochondral ossification

-Begins @ 2 month in utero -Uses previous hyaline cartilage -Happens in Primary ossification center in shaft:blood vessels convert perichondrium into periosteum

-Directional Terms: Inferior

-Below

-Cardiovasculat System

-Blood vessels transport blood, carries oxygen and CO2

-Nervous System

-Body control system, activates muscles and glands w/electrical currents thru nerves

-What tissues is a bone made up out of?

-Bone -Cartilage -Dense connective -Adipose -Nervous tissue

-Osteoblasts

-Bone forming cells that secrete bone matrix made of collagen and binding proteins (osteoid) -Actively mitotic

-What is a long bone? What are its parts?

-Bone with a shaft and two ends, longer than it is wide -Diaphysis, Epiphyseal line, epiphyses, metaphyses, articular cartilage, medullary cavity

-Regional Terms: Orbital

-Boney eye socket

-Digestive System

-Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells.

-Regional Terms: Mammary

-Breast

-Regional Terms: Sternal

-Breastbone

-Regional Terms: Gluteal

-Buttocks

Atlas

-C1 articulates against the head -Nodding -No body or spinous process

-Why is water the most abundant inorganic compound?

-High heat capacity, High vaporization, Polar solvent, Reactivity

-Regional Terms: Sural

-Calf

-Perforating/Volkmann's canals

-Canals lined with endosteum at right angles to central canal -Connect blood vessels and nerves of periosteum, medullary cavity, and central canal

Homeostatic Control: Effector

-Carries out response to stimulus and either shuts off or inhabited

Organic components of bone

-Cells -Osteoid: Secreted by osteoblasts. Made of ground substance and collagen fibers -SACRIFICIAL BONDS stretch/break collagen to prevent fractures

-Osteoclasts

-Cells that break down bone (resorption) -located in RESORPTION BAYS when active -Ruffled border

-Passive:Channel-mediated facilitated diffusion

-Channels are transmembrane proteins that transport substances, usually ions or water, through aqueous channels from one side of the membrane to the other.

-Regional Terms: Buccal

-Cheek

body organization

-Chemical (atoms, molecules) -Cellular (one cell) -Tissue (group of cells) -Organ -Organ System -Organismal

-Buffers

-Chemical substance that minimizes changes in ph by releasing or binding H ions, usually weak acid+weak base -Try to stay near 7.4 pH -BICARBONATE BUFFER SYSTEM: Maintains blood pH

-Forms of Energy

-Chemical: Form stored in bonds of chemical substances (ATP) -Electrical Energy: Movement of Charged Particles -Mechanical energy: Energy directly involved in moving matter -Some energy supply is always lost to environment as heat

-Regional Terms: Thoracic

-Chest

Ricketts

-Children with soft bones due to Vitamin D deficiency

-Lipids: Steroids

-Cholesterol, bile salts, estrogen, testosterone. Carbon atoms arranged in four rings Functions: physiological regulators and component of cell membranes -Hydrophobic

What is Interstitial growth?

-Chondrocytes divide and secrete new matrix, expanding cartilage from within

What is cartilage made out of?

-Chondrocytes enclosed in small lacunae cavities inside E.M

The pectoral girdle is made up of what?

-Clavicle, scalpula, sternoclavicular joint

-Bone remodeling (for fracture)

-Compact bone laid down to reconstruct shaft walls

Organs

-Composed of 2-4 tissue types and performs specific body function

Ligamentum flavum

-Connects adjacent vertebrae

-Cell Junctions: Gap Junctions

-Connexions form tunnels that small molecules can pass through cell-to-cell

-Peroxisomes

-Contain oxidase enzymes that detoxify alcohol, hydrogen peroxide, and other harmful chemicals -Free radicals must be destroyed

-Body Cavities: Ventral Body Cavity Membranes

-Covered by a thin, double-layered membrane lining the cavity walls (Visceral Serosa) -Membranes separated by SEROUS FLUID allows organs to slide across cavity walls

-Nucleic Acids

-DNA and RNA

Homeostatic Control: control center

-Determines set point at which a variable can be contained, analyzes input, and then sends info thru EFFERENT PATHWAY to EFFECTOR

-Diaphysis vs. metaphysis vs. epiphysis

-Diaphysis: shaft of bone, separated from epi by epi. line -Metaphyses: regions between dia and epi, two -Epiphyses: Ends of bone

-Electrical Gradient

-Difference in concentration of ions

-Isotopes

-Different atomic forms of same element, # of neutrons vary

-Osmosis

-Diffusion of water through a selectively permeable membrane from high to low concentration -WATER FOLLOWS SOLUTE

-Neutralization

-Displacement reaction, mixing an acid with a base to make water and salt

-Acids

-Dissolve in metals, releases hydrogen ions, proton donor, dissociates in water to release protons and anions -HCl= H+ + Cl-

Body Cavities: Abdominopelvic Cavity

-Divided into Abdominal and pelvic cavities

-Body Cavities: Dorsal

-Divided into cranial and spinal cavity

-Body Cavities: Ventral

-Divided into thoracic and abdominopelvic

-Sagittal plane

-Divides body into left and right -Directly down the middle: MIDSAGITTAL

What is the periosteum of the bone? What does it contain?

-Double-layered membrane that covers outside of bone -Contains FIBROUS layer (dense irregular sharpey's fibers securing bone to matrix) and OSTEOGENIC layer (Inner layer that contains osteogenic cells) -Contains BLOOD VESSELS and NERVE FIBERS

-When does ossification/osteogenesis occur?

-During fetal development -Child bone growth -Bone remodeling -Healing fractures

-Regional Terms: Otic

-Ear

Carpus

-Eight wrist bones in two rows Proximal row: Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform (these form wrist joint) Distal row: Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, hamate

-Carbon as an organic compound

-Electroneutral, apolar -Carboxyl, Hydroxyl, Sulfhydral, Phosphate

-Atoms/Atom structure

-Elements composed to essentially identical particles -Nucleus, protons, Neutrons, Electrons, Orbitals

-Colloids

-Emulsions, heterogenous. Composition is dissimilar in diff. arreas of mixture -Cytosol

-Active Transport

-Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference -Primary, Secondary, Vesicular Transport

-Active Transport

-Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference -Primary/Secondary transport, Vesicular transport

-Homeostatic Control: Positive Feedback Mechanisms

-Enhances stimulus, same direction as initial change -infrequent

Nutrient artery

-Enters center of diaphysis through NUTRIENT FORAMEN -Nutrient veins will exist the same canal

Cephalization

-Evolutionary development of rostral (anterior) portion of CNS -Resulted in increased number of neurons -Highest level reached in human brain

Exergonic/Endergonic Reactions

-Exergonic: Reaction that RELEASES ENERGY, oxidative -Endergonic: Reaction that ABSORBS ENERGY, anabolic

-Molarity

-Express concentration thru % of solute

-Integumentary System

-External Body covering, protects deeper tissues, makes Vitamin D, sweat/oil, pain receptors and temp regulation -Hair, Skin, nails

-Directional Terms: Distal

-Farther from another body part/trunk

-Lipids: Triglycerides

-Fats/oils. Storage of energy, made of fatty acid CH chains and glycerol -Sat fats: only single bonds -Unsat Fats: kinked double bonds

-Regional Terms: Digital

-Fingers or toes

-Bone-lining cells

-Flat cells on bone surfaces; help maintain matrix w/osteocytes Periosteal: EXTERNAL BONE -Endosteal: INTERNAL BONE

-Cytosol

-Fluid portion of cytoplasm

-Regional Terms: Pedal

-Foot

Markings of Occipital bone

-Foramen magnum: large hole where brain connects w/ spinal crd -Hypoglossal canal: allows cranial nerve xii to pass -External occipital protuberance -External occipital crest -Superior/inferior nuchal lines

-Regional Terms: Frontal

-Forehead

Zygomatic bones

-Form cheekbones -Articulate w/ zygomatic process of temporal, frontal, maxillary bones

-Secondary Active Transport

-Form of active transport which does not use ATP as an energy source; rather, transport is coupled to ion diffusion down a concentration gradient established by primary active transport. -Antiport: Cross membrane in opposite directions -Symport: Move in same directions

-Directional Terms: Anterior

-Front

-What bones are made from intramembranous ossification?

-Frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal, clavicle

Physiology

-Functions of the body; how body parts work to carry out life

-Sulcus

-Furrow on a bone for passage of blood vessel, nerve or tendon

-Regional Terms: Pubic

-Genital

-Regional Terms: Inguinal

-Groin

Tissues

-Groups of cells with a common structure and function. -Epithelial, muscle, connective, nervous

Epiphyseal plate

-Growth plate, made of cartilage, gradually ossifies via Endochondral ossificatio

-Canaliculi

-Hairlike canals that connect lacunae to each other and the central canal

-Regional Terms: Manus

-Hand

-Regional Terms: Cephalic

-Head

-Regional Terms: Calcaneal

-Heel of foot

-Foramen

-Hole for blood vessels, nerves, or ligaments

-Control of bone remodeling

-Hormonal or response of mechanical stress -Hormonal: Parathyroid hormone released when blood calcium is low -Calcitonin (negligible effects) -Mechanical stress: remodeling by producing electrical signals when bone is deformed -Hormonal controls determine whether and when remodeling occurs in response to changing blood calcium levels, but mechanical stress determines where it occurs

-Lymphatic System

-Houses white blood cells, immune response, manages fluids

-Denaturation

-Hydrogen bonds in globular proteins are broken w/ pH change, proteins unfold and cannot perform role

-Hydrolisis/dehydration

-Hydrolisis: Water is added to break bonds -Dehydration: Water is removed to make bonds

-Lipids

-Hydrophobic org. compound of C, H, and O -Triglycerides, Phospholipids, Steroids, EicoSanoids

-Inorganic vs. Organic

-Inorganic: Lack carbon, simple (water/salts) -Organic: Always contain C and H, always covalent

-Cell Structure: Integral Proteins vs Peripheral Proteins

-Integral Proteins: Have channel, firm and hydrophobic/philic -Peripheral Proteins: No channel, loosely attaches

-What are the two forms of ossification/osteogenesis?

-Intramembranous Ossification: Occurs in flat bones when conn. tissue membrane is replaced w/bone -Endochondral ossification: replaces cartilage w/bone in fetus

-Types of Chemical Bonds

-Ionic Bonds: Atoms formed by the transfer of 1+ electrons 1 atom to another, Attraction between 2 oppositely-charged ions, medium strength -Covalent Bonds: Chemical bond created by electron sharing between atoms, polar (not equally shared) or nonpolar (equally shared), strongest -Hydrogen Bonds: H atom covalent to Nitrogen, Oxygen, attracted by another electron-hungry atom, dipole

-Salt

-Ionic compound w/cations (metal and nonmetal) dissolved in water -Electrolytes: Salts, disassociate in water

-Radioisotopes

-Isotope that exhibits radioactive behavior -Used in radiology

-Cell Junctions: Desmosomes

-Junction formed w/linker proteins (cadherins) that interlock w/cells, cadherin anchored w/ PLAQUES -Allow give between cells to reduce tearing

-Respiratory System

-Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.

-Types of Energy

-Kinetic: Energy in action -Potential Energy: Stored/inactive energy

-Regional Terms: Patellar

-Kneecap

-Vesicular Transport

-Large Particle/macro transport across membrane via vesicles -Phagocytosis: cell engulfs lg material -Transcytosis: Endo+Exo, used to move substances out of cell

-Spongy Bone

-Layer of bone tissue that has many small spaces and is found just inside the layer of compact bone. -Trabeculae make strength

-Perichondrium

-Layer of dense connective tissue surrounding skeletal cartilage -Contains blood vessels and reinforcement

-Regional Terms: Crural

-Leg

Lipids: Eicosanoids

-Lipids on 20-c Fatty acid, found in prostaglandins which senses pain, blood clotting, inflammation

-Regional Terms: Abdominal

-Located below the ribs and above the hips

-Classification of bone shapes

-Long -Short (cube shaped) -Flat (thin layers of parallel plates) -Irregular (Complex shapes) -Sesamoid (sesame seed)

-Peptide Bonds

-Long amino acid chains that make up proteins, joined by dehydration

-Regional Terms: Lumbar

-Lower back

Mandible

-Lower jaw -ONLY MOVABLE SKULL BONE

Osteopenia

-Lower than normal bone mass, pre-osteoporosis

-Muscular System

-Manipulation of environment/locomotion/posture and heat production

-Cytoplasm

-Material between plasma membrane and nucleus -Cytosol, cytoskeleton, organelles

-Osteocytes

-Mature bone cells, no longer dividing -Maintain bone matrix, sense stress on bones to communicate if new bone needs to be formed

-Lipids: Phospholipids

-Modified tris w/2 fatty acid chains -Polar (hydrophilic) at one end; nonpolar (hydrophobic) -Used in cell membrane construction

-Molecules vs Compounds vs Mixtures

-Molecules: Combo of 2+ atoms held together w/chem bonds -Compound: When 2+ different kinds of atoms bind -Mixtures: Composed of 2+ components that are physically mixed -Solutions (Mixtures:) Homogenous, solvent vs solutes

-Carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

-Monosaccharides - simple sugar containing between 3-7 carbon atoms (Pentose, Hexose) Ex: glucose, galactose, fructose -Disaccharides - 2 simple sugars joined by dehyd. synthesis. Must be hydrolized for transport Ex: Sucrose, lactose, maltose -polysaccharides: Polymers of simple sugars, linked by dehydration Ex: Starch, Glycogen

-Fissure

-Narrow slit between bones for passage of blood vessels or nerves

Bones of the nasal cavity

-Nasal bones (nose bridge) -Lacrimal bones and fossa -Inferior nasal conchae -Palatine bones w/horizontal and perpendicular plate -Maxilla -vomer

-Regional Terms: Umbilical

-Navel

-Directional Terms: Proximal

-Nearer to another body part/trunk

-Regional Terms: Cervical

-Neck

-Ribosome

-Nonmembrous, made of protein and rRNA -Free vs membrane bound

-Regional Terms: Nasal

-Nose

-Interstitial Lamellae

-Not part of osteon, fill gaps between osteons

-What is the anatomy of vertebrae?

-One body, one foramen, and seven processes

Organ system

-Organs working together for common purpose -11 organ systems

-Resorption

-Osteoclasts create pits to break down matrix, then phagocytize dead matrix and undergo apoptosis

-Homeostatic Control: Negative Feedback Mechanisms

-Output will shut off or reduce the original effect, goal is to prevent severe changes in body

What is Fibrocartilage? Where is it?

-Parallel rows of chondrocytes with thick collagen fibers -Great tensile strength -Knee Menisci, Vertebral dics

-Directional Terms: Dorsal

-Posterior

-Regional Terms: Sacral

-Posterior region between the hip bones

-Protein Structural Levels

-Primary: Linear Sequence of Polypeptides -Secondary: Primary chain is bend and spiraled to form ALPHA HELIX (H bond stabilized) and BETA PLEATED SHEET (Zig zag, hydrophobic and H bonds) -Tertiary: Alpha helix+beta pleated sheet fold in on each other -Quaternary: 2+ tertiary polypep. chains

-What are three types of bone markings?

-Projection: outward bulge of bone -Depression: bowl/groove that can serve as passageways -Opening: hole or canal that serves as passageways

Skull bone functions

-Protect the brain Inner markings: -stabilize the brain, vessels and nerves Outer markings: attachment sites for movement Protect and support the special senses organs

-Skeletal

-Protects/supports organs and provides framework

-Cell Junctions: Tight Junctions

-Proteins of cells fuse to form impermeable junction that prevents fluids/molecules from moving between cells

Bases

-Proton acceptors, dissociate in water, capable of binding w/hydrogen ions -Bicarbonate ion, Amonnia

-What is hyaline cartilage? Where is it?

-Provides support, flexibility, and resilience -Only collagen fibers -Joints, Costal/ribs, respiratory, tip of nose

-Three phases of fracture repair

-Reactive: early inflammation -Repairative phase: Formation of fibro and bony callus -Bone remodeling: Bony callus is remodeled

-What is Hematopoietic tissue? Where is it in newborns/adults?

-Red bone marrow inside long bone cavities and DIPLOE of flat bones -Newborns: medullary cavities and spongy bone contain RM -Adults: RM in femur/humerus heads and diploe of flat bones

-pH Unit

-Relative concentration of H ions in bodily fluids -MORE H IONS= MORE ACIDIC! -MORE HYDROXYL IONS: MORE BASIC -14: Most Basic -0: Most Acidic

-Abdominalpelvic Regions

-Right hypochondriac, right lumbar, right inguinal or iliac, epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric, left hypochondriac, left lumbar, left inguinal or iliac.

-Condyle

-Rounded projection w/ smooth articular surface

-Fossa

-Shallow depression

-Regional Terms: Scapular

-Shoulder blade

-Regional Terms: Fibular (peroneal)

-Side of leg

-What are bone markings?

-Sites of muscle, ligament, and tendon attachment -Areas involved in joint formation -Conduits for blood vessels and nerves

-What are the bones of the axial skeleton?

-Skull, ribs, sternum, spine, sacrum, cocci -80 bones

-Regional Terms: Plantar

-Sole of foot

Purpose of the vertebral column?

-Spinal cord protection -Transmits weight of head and trunk to lower limbs -Supports structures forming thoracic/abdominopelvic cavities

-Regional Terms: Vertebral

-Spine

-Osteogenic/progenitor cells

-Stem cells in periosteum/endosteum that will turn into osteoblasts or bone-lining cells when stimulated -Actively mitotic

Thoracic Vertebrae

-Stronger, heart shaped body -Circular foramen -Giraffe head -Costal facets: articulate against ribs, support ribs -T1-T10

Developmental Anatomy

-Structural changes occuring throughout the lifespan -Embryology: development before birth/in utero

-Nucleotides

-Structures of nucleic acids, have N base, pentose sugar and a phosphate group

Microscopic Anatomy

-Structures too small to be seen by the nakes eye -Cytology: Study of cells -Histology: Study of Tissues

Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy

-Study of large body structures; can be seen with naked eye -Regional: Structures in one particular region in the body -Systemic: Structures studied by system (e.g Cardiovascular -Surface: Structures as they relate to overlying skin surface

Anatomy

-Study of the structure of body parts in relation to others

-Functions of the skeletal system

-Support -Protection of organs -Body Movements -Mineral Homeostasis -Blood Cell Formation (Hemopoiesis) -Storage of triglycerides/yellow marrow -Hormone production: osteocalcin for insulin and glucose

-Sutures and sutural bones

-Sutural bones: Small bones located within cranial sutures -Sutures: Jointed areas where flat bones come together

-Types of Chemical Reactions

-Synthesis/Combustion Reaction: More complex atoms/molecules ate formed from simpler ones, anabolic: A+B=AB -Decomposition Reactions: Molecule is broken down, catabolic: AB=A+B -Exchange/Displacement Reactions: Synthesis and Decomposition: AB+C=AC+B, AB+CD=AD+CB -Redox Reactions: Decomp Reactions, oxidation (loss of electrons) and reduction (gain of electrons), used w/ ATP production

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

-System of internal membranes within the cytoplasm. Membranes are rough due to the presence of ribosomes. functions in transport of substances such as proteins within the cytoplasm

-Homeostasis

-The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions, even though outside world changes continuously -Interstitial fluid must be regulated to provide cells w/ideal conditions

-Electrochemical Gradient

-The diffusion gradient of an ion, representing a type of potential energy that accounts for both the concentration difference of the ion across a membrane and its tendency to move relative to the membrane potential.

-Glycocalyx

-The external surface of sugars of a plasma membrane that is important for cell-to-cell communication -Glycolipids and Glycoproteins

-Membrane Potential

-The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane -Chemical+Electrical Gradient

-Regional Terms: Femoral

-Thigh

-What is the endosteum of the bone?

-Thin membrane lining medullary cavity/inner bone structures -Osteogenic cells

-Regional Terms: Pollex

-Thumb

-Directional Terms: Medial

-Toward the midline

-Directional Terms: Cephalad/Cranial

-Towards the head -Synonymous w/anterior

-Directional Terms: Superficial

-Towards the surface

-Directional Terms: Caudal

-Towards the tail -Synonymous w/posterior

-Passive: Facilitated Diffusion

-Transported substance binds to carrier proteins or moves thru channel proteins -Carrier-Mediated and Channel Mediated

-Meatus

-Tube like opening

What are the intervertebral discs made up of?

-Used as shock absorbers Nucleus pulposes (elasticity and compressibility) Anulus Fibrosus (Limits expansion of NP)

Tuberosity

-Variably sized projection with rough, bumpy surface

-Regional Terms: Carpal

-Wrist

-Passive:Carrier-mediated facilitated diffusion

-a carrier moves a solute down its concentration gradient across the plasma membrane

Coracoid process

-anterior projection that anchors bicep muscle of arm

-Regional Terms: Hallux

-big toe

-Hematoma Formation

-blood vessels break, releasing blood that clots -Step 1

-Intramembranous Ossification

-bone develops from a fibrous membrane formed by MESENCHYMAL CELLS

Open/Compound fracture

-broken bone penetrates through the skin

-Amino Acids

-building blocks of proteins, 20 common types -Amine and carboxyl/acid group -R group differentiates types

What is Appositional Growth?

-cartilage-forming cells in the surrounding perichondrium secrete new matrix against the external face of the existing cartilage tissue -New matrix is laid down on cartilage surface

-Regional Terms: Mental

-chin

-Gradients Across Plasma Membrane

-concentration (different molecule numbers) and electrochemical (different *charged ions) -Formed due to membrane compartments

-Cell Junctions

-connections between cells that hold the cells together as a unit -Tight, Desmosomes, Gap Junctions

-What is compact bone?

-dense outer layer of bone -OSTEONS+ -CANALS AND CANALICULI+ -INTERSTITIAL AND CIRCUMFERENTIAL LAMELLAE

-Frontal Plane

-divides the body into anterior and posterior portions, vertical

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

-energy-carrying biological molecule, which, when broken down, drives cellular activities -Energy released during glucose catabolism is coupled w/ ATP synth ADP: Breaking ATP phosphate bond

-Regional Terms: Antebrachial

-forearm

-Enzymes

-globular proteins that act as biological catalysts

-Transverse Plane

-horizontal division of the body into upper and lower portions

-What are the three types of cartilage?

-hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

11 Organ Systems

-integumentary -skeletal -muscular -nervous -endocrine -cardiovascular -lymphatic -respiratory -digestive -urinary -reproductive

-Polymers

-large compound formed from combinations of many monomers, made by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS (water is removed) and broken apart by HYDROLoSIS (water is added)

Trochantar

-large projection ONLY IN FEMUR

-Circumferential lamellae

-located deep to periosteum and superficial to endosteum and extend around entire circumference of the diaphysis - resist twisting of long bone

-Skeletal Cartilage

-made of some variety of cartilage tissue molded to fit its body location and function

Requirements for life

-maintaining boundaries: integumentary, plasma membrane to separate intra/extracellular fluid -movement: Muscular and skeletal system -responsiveness: Senses change in environment and responds accordingly -digestion: Breaking down of food -metabolism: All chemical reactions occurring in body cells (anabolism and catabolism) -excretion: Removing waste (urinary, digestive) -reproduction: Cells must be able to divide for body growth and repair -growth: Constructive activities must occur faster than destructive ones

Organizational levels of skeletal muscle

-muscle -fascicle -muscle fiber -myofibril -sarcomere -filament

-Passive: Simple DIffusion

-no energy requirement, movement of molecules from high to low concentration

-Survival needs

-nutrients, oxygen, water, normal body temperature, appropriate atmospheric pressure

Greenstick fracture

-one in which the bone is bent and only partially broken

-Bone remodeling

-ongoing replacement of old bone tissue by new bone tissue -Consists of BONE DEPOSIT and BONE RESORPTION

Bony callus formation

-osteoblasts begin to produce spongy bone trabeculae joining portions of the original bone fragments -3rd stage

-Remodeling units

-packets of adjacent osteoblasts and osteoclasts coordinate remodeling process

-Regional Terms: Palmar

-palm of hand

-Basic Cell structure

-plasma membrane, nucleus, cytoplasm

-Regional Terms: Acromial

-point of shoulder

Central (Haversian) canal

-runs through core of osteon Contains blood vessels and nerve fibers

Parallel after-discharge circuit

-signal stimulates neurons arranged in parallel arrays that eventually converge on a single output cell

-What is elastic cartilage? Where is it?

-similar to hyaline cartilage, but more elastic fibers in matrix -External ear, epiglottis

Sensory (afferent) divisions (2)

-somatic sensory fibers: convey impulses from skin, skeletal muscles, joints to CNS visceral sensory nerve fibers:convey impulses from visceral organs to CNS

-What is an osteon?

-structural unit of compact bone -Osteon cylinder contains LAMELLAE

-Factors influencing Rate of Chemical Reactions

-temperature, concentration, particle size, catalysts

-Tonicity

-the ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water -Isotonic, Hypertonic, Hypotonic

-Passive Transport

-the movement of substances across a cell membrane without the use of energy by the cell -Facilitated/Simple Diffusion, Osmosis

-Cell Structure: Plasma Membrane

-the outer membrane of the cell that separates the inside of the cell from the outside (forms a barrier) -Selectively permeable to small NP molecules -Made of lipids, proteins, carbs

-Osmolarity

-total concentration of all solute particles in a solution -More solute, less water concentration

-Functions of Membrane Proteins

-transport, enzymatic activity, signal transduction, cell-cell recognition, intercellular joining, attachment to the cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix

False ribs

-vertebrochondral -Ribs 8-10, attached indirectly to sternum by costal cartilages

True ribs

-vertebrosternal -ribs 1-7, attach directly to sternum thru costal cartilage

Principle of Complementary Structure and Function

-what a structure can do depends on its specific form

Radioulnar joint

Articulation between the radius and ulna and their proximal ends. Produces supination and pronation.

-Steps of intramembranous ossification

1. development of ossification center via mesenchymal cells becoming osteoblasts 2. osteoid is secreted, then calcified 3. formation of trabeculae via osteoid being laid down around blood vessles 4. lamellar bone replaces woven bone, red marrow appears

many theories of aging

1. genetically programmed cessation of cell division, 2. glucose addition to proteins (glycation), 3. free radical reactions (ROS & others) 4. excessive immune responses

steps of translation

1. initiator tRNA attaches to start codon 2. large/small ribosomal subunits join to form ribosome and initiator tRNA fits to P site 3. anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs w/next mRNA at A site 4. amino acid on tRNA at P forms peptide bond w/amino acid at A 5. two peptide protein created from formation of bond becomes attached to tRNA at A site 6. ribosome shifts by 1 codon; tRNA at P enters E and is released from ribosome, tRNA at A is now at P

functions of epithelium

1. protection 2. absorption 3. filtration 4. excretion 5. secretion 6. sensory reception

What are the steps at the neuromuscular junction to produce muscle action?

1: Neuron arrives from axon 2: voltage gated Ca channels open and cause influx of Ca 3: High Ca concentration causes exocytosis of Neurorans into synaptic cleft, depolarizing the muscle cell 4: depolarized muscle cell makes Ca2+ release, elevating Ca levels and causing binding of actin and myosin to make a muscle move

How many thoracic vertebrae are there?

12

-Cell Theory

1: The cell is the unit of life 2: Every cell comes from another cell 3:Functions of organisms reside in cells 4:Structure/Function relationship

How many lumbar vertebrae are there?

5 (L1-L5)

How many sacral vertebrae are there?

5 fused

Metatarsal bones

5, labeled 1-5 ends articulate w/ cuneiforms and cuboid

How many cervial vertebrae are there?

7

Tarsal bones

7 Talus, Calaneus, Navicular, 3 Cuneiforms, Cuboid

reticular dermis

80% thickness of the dermis is coarse, denser irregular connective tissue ECM of this layer contains thick bundles of collagen fibers

growth stage

85% of hair is in this stage cells in hair matrix are dividing, adding cells to hair medula 2-6 years

-Strong Base

A base that dissociates completely into ions in solution.

-Weak base

A base that does not dissociate completely into ions in solution.

Squamous suture

Between parietal and temporal bones

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A hyperpolarizing postsynaptic potential Decreases likelihood of fire of AP

Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL)

A ligament in the knee that attaches to the anterior aspect of the tibial plateau. restricting anterior movement of the tibia on the femur (no sliding forward)

Reverberating circuit

A neural circuit in which a single impulse is transmitted over and over

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

-Nitrogen Bases

Adenine, Guanine,(Purines), Thymine, Cytosine, Uracil (Pyrimidines)

Action vs. Graded potentials

AP: allow communication over short and long distances GP: allow communication over short distances only Both require resting membrane potential and existence of certain ion channels

What are some small molecule neurotransmitters?

Acetylcholine Amino acids Biogenic amines ATP and other purines Nitric oxide Carbon monoxide

Neuroglia of CNS Neurons

Astrocytes Microglial cells Ependymal Cells Oligodendrocytes

Anterograde

Away from cell body miitochondria, cytoskeletal elements

Hip joint

Ball and socket, head of femur art. w/ acetabulum supported by iliofemoral, pubofemoral, ischiofemoral, ligamentum teres

Bone's role in Calcium homeostasis

Bone is the body's major calcium reservoir Levels of calcium in the blood are maintained by controlling the rates of calcium resorption from bone into blood and of calcium deposition from blood into bone

Osteoporosis

Bone thinning/low bone density in older people and sedentary individuals -Bone resorption drugs, hormones

Metacarpus

Bones of the palm of the hand -I-V Articulates w/carpals and phalanges

-Parietal bones

Bones that form the sides and top of the cranium.

Exemptions to CNS pattern

Brain stem, spinal cord, cerebral cortex

Dendrites

Branchlike parts of a neuron that are specialized to receive information. Contain dendritic spikes

Bursae/tendon sheaths

Bursa: sac-like synovial fluid filled structures for cushioning movement Tendon sheaths: tube-like bursa for tendons to resist friciton

Axis

C2 articulates against the atlas -Rotation ("no") -Knoblike dens differentiate from other vertebrae

Motor (efferent) divisions

CNS to effectors Somatic and Autonomic nervous system

What does the contraction cycle require?

Ca++ to bind to Troponin ATP is consumed

Ligaments stabilizing knee joint

Capsular and extracapsular ligaments Help prevent hyperextension of knee Fibular and tibial collateral ligaments (resists rotation) Oblique popliteal ligament (stabilizes) Arcuate popliteal ligament (reinforces)

types of cancers

Carcinomas arise from epithelial cells, 80 to 90 percent of all cancer. Melanomas are cancerous growths of melanocytes. Sarcomas arise from connective tissues. Myeloma cancers arising from plasma cells in the bone marrow

Symphyses

Cartilaginous joint Fibrocartilage, somemovement, slightly movable Ex. Pubic symphysis, IV joints

Synchondrosis

Cartilaginous joint Hyaline cartilage that unites bones, mostly immovable (ex. epiphyseal plate)

When can PNS possibly repair itself?

Cell body is intact, schwann cells are functional, low scar tissue formation Chromatolysis, wallerian degernation, new axon formation

-Urinary System

Cleanses the blood. Rids the body of wastes. Maintains salt and water balance.

Orbicularis Oculi

Closes eyelids; used in blinking, winking, and squinting O:Frontal/maxillary bones and ligaments I: Tissue of eyelid

Orbicularis oris

Closes/pouts lips O: Maxilla and mandible I: Muscles and skin at anchors of mouth

External oblique

Compresses abdomen; laterally flexes and rotates vertebral column O: Lower 8th rib I: Iliac and pubic crest, rectus sheath

Four considerations of cerebral cortex

Contains three types of functional areas: Morot, sensory, association Each hemisphere is concerned with contralateral (opposite) side of body Lateralization (specialization) of cortical function can occur in only one hemisphere Conscious behavior involves entire cortex in one way or another

What are the three energy sources that muscles derive ATP from?

Creatine phosphate Anaerobic glycolysis cellular respiration

Myosin protein

Cross bridges are formed when heavy polypeptidechains (2) and light chains (4) link together during contraction

Voluntary muscle control

Decision to move is activates, AP to motor neurons activate muscle fibers ACETYLCHOLINE Ion channels: chemically gated (ex. ach receptor) or voltage gated (Membrane potential voltage changes)

What happens to joints as we age?

Decreased production of synovial fluid Thinning of articular cartilage Loss of ligament length and flexibility

Flexion

Decreases the angle of a joint

Some muscles thatll probably be on the test bc hes mean

Deltoid Supraspinatus Subscapularis Coracobrachialis Supraspinatus Infraspinatus Teres minor Subscapularis

Control of muscle tension depends on?

Depends on how many motor units are activated

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

Depolarizing postsynaptic potential that INCREASES likelihood of neuron firing an action potential

Fibularis tertius

Dorsiflexion and everts foot O:Distal anterior surface or fibula and IO membrane I: tendon into dorsum of 5th metatarsal

Platysma

Draws down the lower lip and angles of the mouth; tenses skin of the neck; helps depress mandible O: Fascia of chest I: Lower margin of mandible and skin/ muscle at corner of mouth

Cartilage tears

Due to compression and shear stress Fragments may cause joint to lock or bind Cartilage rarely repairs itself Repaired with arthroscopic surgery

Elevation vs depression

Elevation is lifting/raising a body part. ┗(^0^)┛ (shrugging) Depression is the lowering of it. ┏(^0^)┓ (opening jaw)

Anaerobic Glycolysis

Energy-yielding conversion of glucose to lactic acid in various tissues, notably muscle, when sufficient oxygen is not available.

functions of skin: excretion and absorption

Excretion - elimination of substances from the body Absorption - passage of materials from the external environment into body cells

Extensor hallucis longus

Extends great toe O: Anteromedial fibula shadt, IO membrane I: Tendon inserts on distal phalanx of great toe

differences in male and female pelvis

Female pelvis structured for childbirth -wider and shallower

Fibrocartilaginous callus formation

Fibroblasts invade the fracture site and produce collagen fibers bridging the broken ends of the bone -2nd stage

Syndesmoses

Fibrous joint Dense fibrous CT, varies in length Interosseous membranes between radius and ulna inferior tibiofibular joint

-Fibrous vs Globular Proteins

Fibrous: long and thin shaped; less soluble in water. Collagen Globular: compact and relatively spiral; more soluble in water. Antibodies or enzymes

Phalanges

Fingers 1-5 Digit 1: thumb/pollex has two bones digits 2-5 have three bones: distal, middle, and proximal phalanx

rectus abdominis

Flex and rotates lumbar region of vertebral column O: Pubic crest and symphysis I: Xiphoid process and costal cartilage 5-7

Shoulder joint

Freely moving ball and socket joint due to lg head of humerus and loose articular capsule Glenoid labrum, Coracohumeral ligament, 3 glenohumeral joints Tendon of long head of biceps brachii muscle is "superstabilizer"

The Axon: Functional Characteristics

Generates and transmits nerve impulses along AXOLEMMA to AXON TERMINAL Terminal secretes Neurotransmitters which can excite or inhibit neurons Axon terminals connecting = SYNAPSE May contain myelin sheath

Synovial joints

Have Joint cavity Bones covered in cartilage, held together w/ligaments inside synovial capsule Bursae and tendon sheaths Hip, knee, shoulder, elbow

Elbow joint and its ligaments

Hinge joint formed from ulnar trochlear notch into humerus trochlea -Anular ligament surrounds head of radius -Ulnar collateral and radial collateral restrict side to side movement

What is the pelvic girdle made up of?

Hip bones (ox coxa, coxal bones, pelvic bones), coccyx and sacrum

Inorganic compounds of bone

Hydroxyapatites (mineral salts) -65% of bone mass -Reason bones are hard

Intervertebral articulation

IV joints are articulated by discs located between bodies of vertebrae -Facet joints

Summation

If several presynaptic end bulbs release their neurotransmitter at about the same time, the combined effect may generate a nerve impulse due to summation. Spatial or temporal

Why is it hard for nervous tissue to repair?

Inhibatory ologidendrocytes Absence of growth-stimulating cues Rapid formation of scar tissue

Sprains

Injuries caused by sudden twisting or wrenching of a joint with stretching or tearing of ligaments

Serial Processing

Input travels along one pathway to a specific destination One neuron each Spinal reflex

Paralell Processing

Input travels along several pathways, different areas dealing with different information at the same time Higher level mental functioning

How are facial expression muscles different?

Insert into the skin instead of moving joint

inversion vs eversion of foot

Inversion: sole of foot faces medially Eversion: sole of foot faces laterally

Circumduction

Involves flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction of limb Limb describes cone in space

Structure of Neurotransmitter receptors How can it be removes?

Ionotropic (work by ion movement) and metabotropic (work via signal transduction thru Adenyl cyclase, coupled G-protein, Tyrosine kinase Can be removed by diffusion, uptake into cells, enzymatic degradation

hinge joint

Joint between bones (as at the elbow or knee) that permits motion in only one plane

Synathrosis

Joints that allow NO movement Ex. Sutures sin=bad=NO

Amphiarthoses

Joints that allow little movement Ex. Pubic symphysis, IV discs

Diarthroses

Joints that are freely movable Hip, knee, shoulder, elbow

Patella

Kneecap, forms at two years of age sesamoid bone

Cartilaginous joints

Lack synovial cavity Articulating bones held together w/ cartilage CT Little/no movement Synchondroses, Simphyses, Epiphyseal

Fibrous joints

Lack synovial cavity, bones held together w/ dense CT Little to no movement Sutures, Syndemoses, Gomphosis (peg-in-socket joints)

Diaphragm

Large, flat muscle at the bottom of the chest cavity that helps with breathing O: Xiphoid process, costal cartilage of 7-12 ribs, lumbar vert. and interverterbral discs I: Central tendon

-Lumbar

Largest vertebrae

Obturator internus

Laterally rotates and abducts thigh at hip joint O: Inner surface of obturator foramen, pubis, ischium I: medial surface of greater trochanter of femur

functions of skin: protection

Lipids released by lamellar granules - prevent water loss and prevent water damage Sebum - lubricate skin and hairs and antimicrobial action Acidic sweat - reduces bacterial growth Melanin - absorbs damaging UV Macrophages - detect and fight invading organisms

lateral and medial epicondyles

Located to the sides of the condyle. The medial epicondyle is larger than the lateral one.

Thoracic cage functions

Made of thoracic vertebrae, the ribs, and the sternum -Protection of vital organs, shoulder girdle/upper limb support, attachment points of muscles for respiration and movement

Bulbospongiosus

Males: helps empty urethra, erection Females: constricts vagina O:Perenial body of penis I: Anteriorly to corpa cavernosa

-Mandible bone markings

Mandibular angle Coronoid process Condylar process Mandibular notch Mandibular and mental foramina

Converging circuit

Many inputs, one output

Ligaments stabilizes knee CAPSULE

Medial lateral patellar patellar

Tibia

Medial leg bone

Myofibrils

Microscopic protein filaments that make up muscle cells. contains Striations Sarcomeres Myofilaments

Body

Midportion, articulates w/ cartilage of ribs 2-7

Astrocytes

Most abundant, versatile, and highly branched of glial cells Support neurons, influence function and processing, exchange between capillaries and neurons

Basics of knee joint

Most complex joint of the body consists of femoropatellar and tibiofemoral joint surrounded by a single cavity Allows flexion extension and some rotation

protraction vs retraction

Movement on lateral plane protraction: mandible out retraction: mandible towards neck

Three Structural classifications of neurons

Multipolar: 3+ processes, most common Bipolar: 2 processes, rare (retina, olfactory) Unipolar: One process

What's the difference between grey and white matter?

Myelinated areas are white matter, unmyelinated are gray due to neuronal cell bodies

Satellite and Schwann cells

Neuroglia of PNS Satellite: Surround Neuron cell vodies, similar to astrocytes of CNS Schwann : Surround all peripheral nerve fibers to form myelin sheath, vital to regeneration

Smooth muscle structure

Not striated, slower and longer movements, can shorten and stretch various organs (gi tract, respiratory

Iliacus

O: iliac fossa and sacrum I: W/ psoas major into lesser trochanter of femur

excitation-contraction coupling

Once the AP arrives and excites muscle cell, Actin and Myosin slide past each other this means that muscle A.P and the sliding filament mech are connected

Axon structure

One axon per cell arising from axon hillock, Cone-shaped area of cell body Long axons called nerve fibers Occasional branches (axon collaterals) Branches profusely at end (terminus) Can be 10,000 terminal branches Distal endings called axon terminals or terminal boutons

Chemical Synapse

One-way transfer of information from a presynaptic neuron to a postsynaptic neuron

Antagonist

Opposes or reverses particular movement

-Carbohydrates

Organic compound of C, H, and O -Starches, sugars, cellulose -Oxidation reduction, break down of glucose, ATP conversion

orgin vs insertion

Origin: less movable side Insertion: movable side

Acromion

Outward extension of the shoulder blade forming the point of the shoulder.

Difference in PNS and CNS myelin sheath

PNS myelin sheath is produced by schwann cells, CNS myelin sheath is produced by oligodendrocytes

Menisci

Pads of cartilage that lie between the articular surfaces of the bones

-Sacrum

Part of pelvic girdle composed of 5 fused vertebrae (S1-S5)

What contributes to RMP?

Permeability to Na+ inward leakage Permeability to K+ outward leakage Na+/K+ ATPase Na+ concentration gradient K+ concentration gradient

Fibularis longus

Plantar flexes and everts foot O:Head/upper portion of lateral fibula I: Long rendon that curves under foot to first metatarsal and medial cuneiform

-Mitchondria

Power House of the cell where ATP is produced.

curves of the vertebral column

Primary: developed before birth, concave Secondary: developed after birth to support weight of head (cervical) and weight of trunk (lumbar) Cervical and lumbar curvatures - Concave posteriorly Thoracic and sacral curvatures - Convex posteriorly

tibialis anterior

Prime mover in dorsiflexion O: lateral condyle and tibial shaft I: by tendon into surface of medial cuneiform and 1st metatarsal

Extensor digitorum longus

Prime mover of toe extension O: Lateral condyle of tibia, some of fibula, I.O membrane I: Middle/distal phalanges of 2nd and 5th toes

Pectoralis minor

Pulls the scapula forward and downward or raises the ribs O: Ribs 3-5/2-4 I: Coracoid process of scalpula

elongation

RNA polymerase adds nucleotides to growing mRNA matching sequence

initiation

RNA polymerase separates DNA strands at the promoter region and a primer complementary RNA is inserted

functions of skin: thermoregulation

Regulating the production of sweat: Sweat reduces body temperature via conduction Regulating blood flow: Blood flow to the dermis changes body temperature by changing heat conduction from blood to skin tissues

-Reproductive System

Reproduce offspring- produce male sex cells (sperm) and female sex cells (oocytes)

longissimus capitis

Rotates and tilts head to the side/backwards O: Processes of C and T vertebra I: Temporal bone/mastoid process

Serratus anterior

Rotates scapula so its inferior angle moves laterally and upwards (boxers muscle) O: Muscle branches on ribs 1-8 or 9 I: Anterior surface of medial scapular border

Neuroglia in PNS neurons

Sattelite cells Schwann Cells

Why is the shoulder joint unstable?

Scalpula has no bone of joint connections to skeleton, meaning the shoulder is mobile but not strong

-Homeostatic control: Receptors

Sense change in stimuli, sends info along AFFERENT PATHWAY to control center

Functional classification of neurons

Sensory: Unipolar, transmit impulses Motor: Carry CNS impulses to effectors, multipolar Interneurons: Between motor and sensory, 99 percent of neurons

What three factors determine stability of joints?

Shape of articular surface Ligament number and location Muscle tone to keep tendons taut as they cross joints (MOST IMPORTANT)

Appendicular muscles

Shoulders and upper limbs Pelvis and lower limbs

cerebral cortex

Site of conscious mind: awareness, sensory perception, voluntary motor initiation, communication, memory storage, understanding

Zygomaticus major and minor

Smiling O: Zygomatic bone I:Skin/muscle of corner of mouth

Myelination

Speeds up and insulates axon In PNS, formed by schwann cells

Trapezius

Stabilizes, elevates, retracts, and rotates scapula O: Occipital bone, ligamentum nuchae, spinous process of c7 and thoracic I: Acromion, spine of scapula, lateral clavicle

Rhomboid minor and major

Stabilizes/adducts scapula O: Spinous process of C7 and T1 I: Medial border of scapula

What are some neuropeptides?

Substance P Enkephalins Endorphins Dynorphins Hypothalamic releasing and inhibiting hormones Angiotensin II Cholecystokinin

Sacrum markings

Superior articular proccess: art. w/L5 Art w/coccyx and hip bones via auricular surfaces, forming sacroiliac joints -Sacral promontory: Anterosuperior margin -Transverse ridges: lines of fusion -Anterior sacral foramina :Openings for nerves or vessels -Alae -Median and lateral sacral crest: roughened bumps on posterior midline -Posterior sacral foramina: lg openings for spinal nerves -Sacral canal and sacral hiatus

Scalpula borders

Superior: shortest and sharpest Medial:parallel to spine Lateral: near armpit, ends at shoulder joint`

Supination vs pronation

Supination is a movement of the forearm in which the palm of the hand is turned anteriorly (anatomical position). Pronation is the movement that turns the palm posteriorly.

Levator Ani

Supports pelvic viscera and provides sphincter-like action in anal canal and vagina O: Inside pelvis from pubis to ischeal spine I: Inner surface of coccyx ,opposite side levator ani

Endomysium

Surrounds individual muscle fibers

Length-tension relationship

The force of a muscle contraction depends on the length of the sarcomeres prior to the contraction Overstreched: low actin mysoin overlap, less force understretched: actin actin, less force optimum overlap: maximal force

Temporomandibular joint

The joint formed where the mandible and cranium meet, just in front of the ear. Articulates w/ mandibular fossa, art. tubercle, and mandibular condyle Hinge and gliding movement most easily dislocated

Cerebral hemispheres

The right and left halves of the cerebrum.

T Tubules

Tubes formed by protrusion of sarcolemma Increase muscle surface area, allow electrical nerve transmission

Retrograde

Towards cell body viruses

What is the carpal tunnel?

Tunnel formed by ligaments where hand nerves and tendons travel through wrist -Carpal tunnel syndrome

Rotation

Turning of bone around its own long axis Medial, Lateral C1 and C2 vertebrae, humerus and femur

Articular (joint) capsule

Two layers outer fibrous capsule of dense irregular connective tissue, inner synovial membrane of loose connective tissue

Oligodendrocytes

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.

functions of skin: synthesis of vitamin d

Ultraviolet rays activate the precursor molecule (calcitriol) that allows vitamin D to be made Vitamin D aids in the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract

Humerus

Upper arm bone art superiorly w/glenoid cavity art. inferiorly w/radius and ulna

Buccinator

Used to suck in your cheeks O:Molar region of maxilla and mandible I: Orbicularis oris

Pubis

V shaped anterior portion of hip bone

-Cranial vault vs cranial base

Vault: Superior, lateral, posterior portion of skull and forehead -Base: Inferior skull, anterior, middle, posterior fossae

Lateral ventricles

Ventricles located in each cerebral hemisphere, seperated by septum pellucidum

What is the spine made up of?

Vertebrae, ligaments, and intervertebral discs

When do action potentials occur?

When the membrane potential reaches threshold Strong enough stimulus will open voltage-gate Na+ channel, depolarization Na+ channels close and K+ channels open, repolarization

Hyoid bone

a U-shaped bone in the neck that supports the tongue. -

-Colles

a break in the distal part of the radius

myasthenia gravis

a chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction and produces serious weakness of voluntary muscles

Spina bifida

a congenital defect that occurs during early pregnancy when the spinal canal fails to close completely around the spinal cord to protect it

Spondylosis

a degenerative disorder that can cause the loss of normal spinal structure and function

Neural tube

a groove formed in the top layer of differentiated cells in the embryo that eventually becomes the brain and spinal cord

What are neurons? What are some features of neurons?

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system Excitable, extreme longevity Amitotic : the direct method of cell division, characterized by simple cleavage of the nucleus without the formation of chromosomes.

Action Potentials

a sequence of rapidly occurring events that decrease (makes it less negative) and eventually reverse the membrane potential (depolarization, i.e. positive) and eventually restore it to the resting state (repolarization)

Fovea Capitis

a small pit in the head of the femur for the attachment of a short ligament that runs to the acetabulum

Subarachnoid space

a space in the meninges beneath the arachnoid membrane and above the pia mater that contains the cerebrospinal fluid

Electrical synapse

a type of synapse in which the cells are connected by gap junctions, allowing ions (and therefore the action potential) to spread easily from cell to cell

Lordosis

abnormal anterior curvature of the lumbar spine (sway-back condition)

Scoliosis

abnormal lateral curvature of the spine

holocrine glands

accumulate their products within them until they rupture (sebaceous oil glands)

cdks

activated by cyclins when they bind to them cyclin-cdk complex activates enzyme cascades that prepare for cell division

Greater Sciatic notch

allows blood vessels and the large sciatic nerve to pass from the pelvis posteriorly into the thigh

Striations

alternate dark and light bands found on skeletal and cardiac muscle myofibril Dark A bands have H zone (lighter midsection) Each H zone has an M line down the middle Each I band has a darker Z disc middle

-Strong acid

an acid that ionizes completely in aqueous solution

-Weak Acid

an acid that is only slightly ionized in aqueous solution

Triad

area formed from terminal cistern of one sarcomere, T tubule, and terminal cistern of neighboring sarcomere

lamina propria

areolar connective tissue that rests on a third deeper layer of smooth muscle cells

papillary dermis

areolar connective, collagen and elastic fibers form loosely woven mat with many small blood vessels allows phagocytes and other defensive cells to wander freely as they patrol the area for bacteria dermal papillae - peglike projections on the surface friction ridges - enhance our ability to grip certain kinds of surfaces

Neuron processes

armlike processes that extend from cell body Two types: Dendrites and axons CNS: neuron cell bodies and processes PNS: only processes form TRACTS (CNS) or NERVES (PNS)

Head of humerus

articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula

Radial notch

articulates with head of radius

Auricular surface

articulates with sacrum

avascular but innervated

avascular - no blood vessels innervated - supplied by nerve fibers

Occipital bone

back of head -Articulates w/pariteal, temporal, and sphenoid

3 types of skin cancer

basal cell carcinoma squamous cell carcinoma malignant melanoma

basement membrane

between epithelia and connective tissue that reinforces the epithelial sheet, helps it resist stretching and tearing, and defines the epithelial boundary 2 layers - basal lamina and reticular lamina

Lambdoid suture

between parietal bones and occipital bone

functions of connective tissue

binding and supporting protecting insulating storing reserve fuel transporting substances

Dislocations

bones forced out of alignment

cuboidal cells

boxlike

dermis

bulk of skin, tough leathery layer composed mostly of dense connective tissue vascular

cortex

bulky layer surrounding medulla several layers of flattened cells

Adductor tubercle

bump on upper part of medial condyle

arrector pili

bundle of smooth muscle cells associated with each hair follicle

which tissues have no regeneration?

cardiac nervous

Creatine Kinase

catalyzes the transfer of phosphate from CP to ADP to yield ATp

regression stage

cells in hair matrix stop dividing hair stops growing 2-3 weeks

Clavicle

collar bone Sternal end art. w/manibruim of sternum into sternoclavicular joint Acromial end art w/ acromion of scalpula into acromioclavicular joint

musin

complex glycoprotein that dissolves in water when secreted

Transverse Abdominus

compresses abdominal contents O: Inguinal ligament, last six ribs cartilage, iliac crest I: Linea alba, pubic cresr

sebaceous oil gland

connected to hair follicles softens hair and skin

4 classes of connective tissue

connective proper cartilage bone blood

Fourth ventricle

connects to third ventricle via cerebral aqueduct

introchanteric line and crest

connects trochanters of femur

Articular Cartilage

consists of hyaline cartilage covering ends of bones; prevents crushing of bone ends

gland

consists of one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product (secretion)

stratum basale (basal layer)

deepest epidermal layer attached to underlying dermis along wavy borderline that resembles corrugated cardboard single row of stem cells

Arculate line

defines pelvic brim

granulation tissue

delicate pink tissue that contains capillaries that grow in from nearby areas and lay down a new capillary bed

Epimysium

dense irregular conn tissue surrounding ENTIRE muscle

abnormal color or shape of nails can be an indicator of?

disease yellow-tinged may indicate respiratory or thyroid gland disorder beau's lines: horizontal lines may indicate illness such as diabetes, heart attack, or cancer chemotherapy

Vertebral fracture

displacement of bone in the body, vertebral arches, spinous processes, or facets of vertebrae -most common at c1, c2, c4-t1, and t12-l2

Condylar joint

egg-shaped articular surface of one bone fits into an oval concavity in another biaxial

myofilaments

elaborate network or actin and myosin filaments that bring about movement or contraction in all cell types

Levator anguli Oris

elevates angle of mouth O:Anterior surface of maxilla below infra foramen I: Outer end of upper lip

Inferior oblique

elevates eye and turns it laterally O: Orbital surface of maxilla behind orbital margin I: Post/inferior quadrant of sclera behind equator of eyeball

Superior Rectus

elevates eye and turns it medially O: Superior tendinous ring within orbit I:Superior sclera anterior to equator of eyeball

External intercostals

elevates ribs during inspiration O: Inferior border of rib above I: Superior border of rib below

levator labii superioris

elevates upper lip O: Zygomatic bone and intraorbital margin of maxilla I: Skin and muscle of upper lip

what are the 2 layers of the skin?

epidermis dermis

specialized contacts

epithelial cells fit closely together to form continuous sheets. sides of adjacent cells are tied together by tight junctions and desmosomes

epidermis

epithelial cells, outermost protective shield of the body avascular

which tissues regenerate extremely well?

epithelial tissue bone areolar dense irregular blood

regeneration

epithelium has high regenerative capacity

-Paget's Disease

excessive bone deposition and resorption causing bones to grow poorly

Kyphosis

excessive outward curvature of the spine, causing hunching of the back.

What are the characteristics of muscle tissue? (4)

excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity

most common cause of skin cancer

exposure to UV light

Iliocostalis cervicis

extends cervical region of vertebral column O: Ribs 1-6 I:Transverse process c4-c6

Iliocostalis lumborum

extends lumbar region of vertebral column O: Iliac Crest I: Ribs 7-12

Spinalis cervicis

extends vertebral column O: Ligamentum n uchae/spinous process of C7 I: Spinous process of axis

Spinalis Thoracis

extends vertebral column O: Spinous process of t10-12 I: Spinous process of superior thoracic vert.

common characteristics of connective tissue

extracellular matrix - separates the living cells of the tissue mesenchyme - all connective tissue arise from this (embryonic tissue)

Microglial cells

extremely small glial cells that remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells

perimysium and fascicles

fascicles are grouped muscle fibers covered with fibrous connective tissue of the perimysium

adipocytes

fat cells which store energy as fat

Lateral/medial condyles

femur, articulate w/ tibia

Glenoid labrum

fibrocartilage ring that deepens glenoid cavity

Structurally classified joints

fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial

before a specimen can be viewed through a microscope it must be

fixed (preserved) sections (slices) stained (contrast)

Scalpula

flat, thin and triangular bone that is located in the superior part of the posterior thorax between the second and seventh ribs

squamous cells

flattened and scale like

Psoas major

flex hip and thigh O: Transverse processes and bodies of lumbar vertebrae I: Iliacus into lesser trochanter of femur

Sternocleidomastoid

flexes neck; rotates head O: Sternum, clavicle I: Temporal bone/mastoid process, occipital bone

Ventricles

fluid filled spaces in the brain, filled w/ CSF and lined by ependymal cells

hair follicle

fold down from epidermal surface into the dermis deep end of follicle expands to form the hair bulb

Prosencephalon

forebrain, becomes telncephalon and diencephalon

Temporal bones and the three major regoins

form the sides and base of the cranium -Squamous: zygomatic processes articulate with zygomatic bone to form zygomatic arch and mandibular fossa makes up part of temporomandibular joint -Tympanic: Surround External acoustic meatus -Petrous: Houses middle and inner ear cavities

cuticle

formed from single layer of cells overlapping one another helps the hair not mat most heavily keratinized

transitional epithelium

forms lining of hollow urinary organs

Sphenoid bone

forms part of the base of the skull and parts of the floor and sides of the orbit -Sphenoidal sinuses -Sella turcica, hypophyseal fossa enclosing pituitary gland

Ethmoid bone

forms part of the posterior portion of the nose, the orbit, and the floor of the cranium -Crista galli, perpendiculat plate, superior/middle nasal concha

spondylolisthesis

forward slipping of one vertebra over another

Iliac crest

found at top of hip bone, ends ant.superior and posterior superior

stratum lucidum (clear layer)

found only in thick skin visible through light microscope few rows of flat, dead keratinocytes

-Coccyx

four vertebrae fused together to form the tailbone

Impacted fracture

fracture in which one bone fragment is pushed into another

Comminuted fracture

fracture in which the bone is splintered or crushed

Pott fracture

fracture of the distal end of the fibula

third degree

full thickness wounds, all skin functions are lost

Neuronal pool

functional group of neurons that integrate info received from other receptors and processes them to other areas

Olecranon/coronoid process

grip trochlea of humerus to form hinge joint

interstitial fluid

ground substance consists of large amounts of fluid and functions as a molecular sieve through which nutrients and other dissolved substances can diffuse between blood capillaries

hair grows in 3 cycles

growth, regression, resting stages

resting stage

hair loss follicle prepares to enter growth stage 3 months

for transmission electron microscopy, tissue sections are stained with

heavy metal salts

Subclavius

helps stabilize and depress pectoral girdle O: Costal Cartilage of rib 1 I: Groove on inferior surface of clavicle

-Suspensions

heterogenous mixtures with large, often visible solutes that tend to settle out -Blood

Rhombencephalon

hindbrain, becomes metencephalon and myelincephalon

Ball and socket joint

hip and shoulder joints multiaxial

Acetabulum

hip socket, where femur articulates formed by ilium, ischuim and pubis

sternal angle

horizontal ridge across front of sternum

inflamation

inflammatory sets stage dilation of blood vessels increase blood vessel permeability clotting of blood occurs

3 steps of transcription

initiation, elongation, termination

endothelium

inner covering provides a slick, friction-reducing lining in lymphatic vessel and in all hollow organs of the cardiovascular system

cardiac and smooth

involuntary

glassy membrane

junction of the fibrous sheath and epithelial root sheath (basement membrane or follicle epithelium)

hypodermis

located deep to the dermis but not a layer of the skin areolar and adipose tissue anchors skin to underlying structures

apocrine sweat gland

located in hairy skin areas secrete lipids and proteins in addition to water, small molecules larger than eccrine sweat glands, begin function at puberty contain myoepithelial cells - contract upon nervous system stimulation to force sweat into ducts

endocrine glands

lose their ducts during development (ductless glands) they produce hormones, chemical messengers that they secrete by exocytosis most are multicellular organs

xiphoid process

lower, narrow portion of the sternum

Ischiocavernosus

maintains erection or penis/clitoris O:Ischial Tuberosities I: Midline central tendon

-Sternum

manubrium, body, xiphoid process

Ulna

medial bone of the forearm, forms major portion of elbow joint w/humerus

the layers of the hair

medulla cortex cuticle

Mesencephalon

midbrain

mesothelium

middle covering found in serous membranes lining the ventral body cavity and covering its organs

artifacts

minor distortions

G2 checkpoint

mitosis will occur if DNA has replicated properly apoptosis will occur if the DNA is damaged

telophase

mitotic spindle dissolves, new nuclear membrane forms and chromosomes retain their chromatin appearance

ceruminous glands

modified sweat glands located in ear canal

serous membranes

moist membranes found in closed ventral body cavities each layer consists of simple squamous epithelium resting on thin layer of areolar connective tissue

multicellular exocrine glands

more complex and have 2 basic parts - epithelium derived duct and secretory unit simple glands - unbranched duct compound glands - branched duct

eccrine sweat gland

most abundant palms, soles, forehead ducts connect to pores, function in thermoregulation regulated by sympathetic nervous system

melanoma

most dangerous type because its resistant to chemotherapy key to survival is early detection: ABCD rule A: asymmetry, two sides of pigmented area do not match B: border irregularity C: color, contains several colors D: diameter, larger than 6mm

G1 checkpoint

most important checkpoint if DNA is damaged, apoptosis occurs, otherwise the cell is committed to divide when growth signals are present and nutrients are available

Adduction

movement along frontal plane, toward the midline

Hyperextension

movement beyond the anatomical position

Uniaxial

movement in one plane

Multiaxial

movement in or around all three planes

Biaxial

movement in two planes

Lateral Rectus

moves eye laterally O: Lateral tendinous ring within orbit I: Lateral sclera anterior to equator of eyeball

Medial Rectus

moves eye medially O:Medial tendinous ring within orbit I: Medial sclera anterior to equator of eyeball

unicellular exocrine glands

mucous and goblet cells unicellular glands in the intestinal and respiratory tracts

Paranasal Sinuses

mucous membrane-lined cavities in the frontal, maxillary, sphenoid and ethmoid bones

Synergist

muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement and helps prevent rotation by adding force or reducing undesirable movement

Prime mover (agonist)

muscle that produces most of force during an action

Vomer

nasal septum -Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone Palatine process of maxilla Horizontal plate of palatine bone

What three things are skeletal muscles made out of?

nerve and blood supply, connective tissue sheaths, and attachments

Sarcoplasmic Reticulum

network of smooth endoplasmic reticulum tubules surrounding each myofibril Stores and releases Ca2+

Neuronal Pool: discharge zone

neurons closer to incoming fiber are more likely to generate impulse

Neuronal pool: Facilitated zone

neurons on periphery of pool are farther away from incoming fiber; usually not excited to threshold unless stimulated by another source

floating ribs

no sternum attachment 11-12

translation

occurs in cytoplasm process of reading mRNA nucleotide sequence to determine the amino acid sequence of the newly formed protein

transcription

occurs in nucleus process by which genetic information encoded in DNA is copied onto strand of RNA to direct protein synthesis

What forms the trochlear notch?

olecranon and coronoid process

Diverging circuit

one input, many outputs

mechanically gated channels

open and close in response to vibration or pressure stimuli

suprascapular notch

opening for nerves

-What are the 4 types of bone cells?

osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

stratum corneum (horny layer)

outermost epidermal layer, 20-30 cell layers thick accounts for 3/4 of epidermal thickness cells are shred regularly (dandruff) protect deeper cells from environment, prevent water loss, protect from abrasion and penetration

Extracapsular ligament

outside the capsule

hemoglobin

oxygenated pigment in red blood cells

vellus hair

pale, fine hair of adult females and children

what are the 2 layers of the dermis?

papillary reticular

Types of fascicle arrangement

parallel (greatest shortening) convergent (less shortening, greatest power) pennate (least shortening, more power) circular (sphincters)

Circuit

patterns of synaptic connections in neuronal pools, process specific types of information

Neuron Cell body

perikaryon Synthesizes proteins, membranes, chemicals Rough ER most located in CNS

Fibularis Brevis

plantar flexes and everts foot O: Distal fibula shaft I: tendon running behind lateral malleolus to insert on proximal end of 5th metatarsal

flexor digitorum longus

plantar flexes and inverts foot; flexes toes O:Posterior tibia I: Tendon runs behind malleolus and into 2nd and 5th toes

Flexor hallucis longus

plantar flexes foot and flexes great toe, push off muscle when walking O:Midshaft of fibula, IO I: tendon runs under foot to great toe

Sarcolemma

plasma membrane of a muscle fiber

tibial tuberosity

point of attachment for the patellar ligament

Pubic tubercule

point protrusion by symphysis

xiphisternal joint

point where sternal body and xiphoid process fuse

Pubic symphisis

point where the coxal bones join anteriorly via fibrocartilage

melanin

polymer made of an amino acid called tyrosine all humans have the same number of melanocytes

Actin protein

polypeptide made of G actin subunits that link together to form F actin 2 F actins: thin filament

Fracture classification

position of bone ends after fracture, completeness of break, whether skin is penetrated

tactile epithelial cells

present at epidermal-dermal junctions shaped like spiky hemisphere, each cell is associated with sensory nerve ending

connective tissue

prevalent in body (skin)

Posterior cruciate ligament

prevents posterior displacement of tibia

Tibialis posterior

prime mover of foot inversion O: Superior tibia and fibula/IO membrane I: tendon passes behind medial malleolus under arch of foot, into II-IV

sliding filament mechanism

process of muscle contraction in which shortening occurs by thick and thin filaments sliding past each other ---- Myosin pulls actin and the thin filament slides inwards. The z discs move towards each other, I bands shorten, and H zone dissapears, causing sarcomere to shorten and generates a force Strutural proteins transmit this force through entire muscle

Ependymal Cells

produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid, line brain and spinal column Can be ciliated to circulate CSF

What are the functions of a muscle? (4)

producing movement, maintaining posture, stabilizing joints, generating heat

Risorius

pulls corners of mouth laterally O: Lateral Fascia of masseter muscle I: Skin at angle of mouth

-Bone processes

projections or outgrowths of bones -Attachment points for ligaments

spine of scapula

prominent ridge

Crest

prominent ridge or elongated projection

Herniated disc

protrusion of a fragmented intervertebral disc in the intervertebral foramen with potential compression of a nerve

Deltoid tuberosity

raised area on lateral surface of humerus to which deltoid muscle attaches

Occipitofrontalis

raises eyebrows O: Epicranial Aponeurosis I: Skin of eyebrows and nose

Leakage channel

randomly alternate between open and closed positions.

-Regional Terms: Perineal

region between the anus and external genitalia

cyclins

regulatory proteins that accumulate during interphase destroyed after mitotic cell division

fibrosis

replaces destroyed tissue with scar tissue (dense connective tissue)

regeneration

replaces destroyed tissue with the same kind of tissue

Ligand gated ion channel

respond to chemical stimuli (ligand binds to receptor)

Voltage gated channels

respond to direct changes in membrane potential

muscle tissue

responsible for most types of body movements cells are all tightly packed together

organization

restores blood supply begins as blood clot is replaced with granulation tissue epithelium begins to regenerate fibroblasts produce collagen fibers to bridge gap until regeneration is complete any debris is phagocytized

burns

results when protein in skin are denatured damage caused by heat, electricity, radioactivity, corrosive chemicals

Acetabular labrum

rim of fibrocartilage that enhances depth of hip socket (hip dislocations are rare)

semispinalis capitis

rotates and tilts head backwards O: Processes of C and T vertebrae I: Occipital bone

splenius capitis

rotates head, bends head to one side, or extends neck O: Spinous process of cervical and thoracic vertebrae I: Temp. bone/mastoid process, occipital bone

pivot joint

rotating bone turns around an axis; i.e. connection between radius/ulna and humerus

sesamoid bones

round bones found near joints (e.g., the patella) form in tendon

regeneration

scab detaches fibrous tissue matures epithelium thickens/begins to resemble tissue

nails

scale-like modifications of epidermis that contain hard keratin act as protective cover for distal, dorsal surface of fingers and toes consists of free edge, nail plate, and root

acne is an infection in what gland?

sebaceous oil gland whiteheads are blocked sebaceous glands, if secretion is oxidized it becomes a blackhead

exocrine glands

secret their products onto body surfaces or into body cavities unicellular by exocytosis and multicellular by epithelium walled duct liver, pancreas, mucous, sweat, oil, salivary glands

merocrine glands

secrete their products by exocytosis (pancreas, sweat glands, salivary glands)

greater and lesser trochanters

sites of muscle attachment on the proximal end of the femur connected by intertrochanteric line and crest

which tissues have weak regeneration?

skeletal cartilage

external anal sphincter

skeletal muscle for defacation

cutaneous membrane

skin consisting of stratified squamous epithelium (epidermis) firmly attached to thick layer of connective tissue (dermis)

Anatomical neck

slight constriction of humerus inferior to head

Nonaxial

slipping movements only, since there is no axis around which movement can occur

-Lacunae

small cavities in bone that contain osteocytes

Graded Potential

small deviations in resting membrane potential, occurs in response to the opening of a mechanically-gated or ligand-gated ion channel The amplitude of a graded potential depends on the stimulus strength

Joint (Synovial) cavity

small, fluid-filled potential space that is unique to synovial joints

sarcomere structure

smallest functional unit of a muscle fiber, between z discs A band w half I band at each end

which tissues regenerate moderately?

smooth muscle denser regular

melanocytes

spider shaped epithelial cells that synthesize pigment melanin found in deepest layer of epidermis made in membrane bound granules called melanosomes then transferred through cell processes to nearby keratinocytes protects nucleus from UV radiation in sunlight

M checkpoint

spindle assembly checkpoint mitosis will not continue if chromosomes are not aligned properly

superficial transverse perineal

stabilizes central tendon of perineum O: Ischial Tuberosity I: Perineal Body

Iliocostalis thoracis

stabilizes thoracic vertebrae in extension O: Ribs 7-12 I: Rib 1-6

dendritic cells

star shaped cells arise from bone marrow and migrate to epidermis ingest foreign substances and are key activators of our immune system

Skeletal muscle structure

striated, multiple nuclei per cell, very long cylindrical shape, voluntary to move bones

Cardiac muscle structure

striated, one nucleus per cell, branched ends and intercalacated discs, involuntary intercalated discs contain desmosomes and gap junctions pumps blood

telomeres

strings of nucleotides that protect ends of chromosomes (like caps on shoestrings)

Central tendon of perineum

strong tendon that many perineal muscles insert into

what is the dermis made of?

strong, flexible connective tissue

Four rotator cuff tendons

subscapularis, supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor

false pelvis

superior to pelvic brim

Scapula angles

superior, inferior, lateral

Axial muscles

support and position axial skeleton Head and neck, vertebral column, trunk, pelvic floor

Functionally classified joints

synarthrotic, amphiarthrotic, diarthrotic

Fixators

synergists that immobilize a bone or muscle's origin

-Facet joints

synovial joints that link vertebrae and provide flexibility in the spine -Superior articular facet:articulating surface on dorsal side -Inferior articular facet articulating surface on ventral side The inferior articulate process articulates against the superior articulate process of the vertebrae below it

Coronal suture

the suture between the parietal and frontal bones of the skull

functions of hair

tactile protection from physical trauma shield skin from sunlight

columnar

tall and column shaped

Internal Oblique

tenses abdominal wall and compresses abdominal contents O: Lumbar fascia, iliac crest, inguinal ligament I: Linea alba, pubic crest, last 3 or 4 ribs, costal margin

Manubrium

the bony structure that forms the upper portion of the sternum -Articulates w/ claviculat notches and ribs 1 and 2

Twitch contraction

the brief contraction of all the muscle fibers in a motor unit in response to a single action potential in its motor neuron Latent, contraction, relaxation, refractory

Ischium

the lower, posterior portions of the pelvis Ischial spine, lesser sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity

Action potential Propagation

the movement of an action potential along an axon; in myelinated axons, it occurs via saltatory conduction can be affected by axon diameter, amount of myelination, and temp

Aerobic: Cellular Respiration

the process by which cells use oxygen to obtain usable energy from an energy source ----

Muscle tone

the state of balanced muscle tension that makes normal posture, coordination, and movement possible

third ventricle

the ventricle located in the center of the diencephalon, connected to lateral ventricle via INTERVENTRICULAR FORAMEN

Pubic crest

thick anterior border

Myosin myofilaments

thick filaments Extend length of A band Connected at M line s

lunule

thickened nail matrix, appears white

Capsular ligament

thickened part of fibrous layer

nail matrix

thickened portion of bed responsible for nail growth

Femur

thigh bone articulating w/ acetebulum and tibia/patella

Actin myofilaments

thin filaments Extend across I band and partway in A band Anchored to Z discs

stratum granulosum (granular layer)

thin layer consists of 1-5 cell layers process of keratinization begins

basal lamina

thin supporting sheet consists of glycoproteins and collagen fibers acts as selective filter that determines which molecules diffusing from underlying connective tissue are allowed to enter epithelium

Wave summation

this occurs when a second stimulus is received before the muscle fiber has relaxed, creating a second contraction that is stronger than the first Unfused and fused tetanus

white blood cells

tissue response to injury

What are structural proteins?

titin, myomesin, nebulin, dystrophin

termination

transcription stops when RNA polymerase reaches special termination signal code

CNS and PNS

two divisions of the nervous system

stratified epithelia

two or more cell layers stacked on top of each other (high abrasion areas)

polarity

two surfaces: apical surface (not attached to surrounding tissue and is exposed to either the outside of the body or the cavity of internal organ) basal surface: attached to underlying connective tissue

Saddle joint

type of joint found at the base of each thumb; allows grasping and rotation Biaxial

hair color depends on what

type of pigment produced by melanocytes due to amount and type of melanin present in keratinized cells

nails normally appear pink because of?

underlying capillaries

ground substance

unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains fibers

Maxilla and markings

upper jaw -Anterior nasal spine, alveolar process, palantine process, frontal process, zygomatic process, sinuses -Inferior orbital fissure Infraorbital foramen Incisive fossa and canal

Synovial fluid

viscous (sticky) fluid within the synovial cavity Made of plasma and hyaluronic acid that lubricates and nourishes art. cartilage Phago. cells

patellar surface

where femur articulates with patella


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