abcd
Centralization
Degree to which decision making is concentrated at a single point in the organization
Decentralization
Degree to which decision making is distributed to lower-level employees
Formalization
Degree to which jobs within the organization are standardized
Locus of Control
Degree to which people believe they are in control
Continuous Reinforcement
Desired behaviour is reinforced each and everytime its demonstrated
Intermittent Reinforcement
Desired behaviour is reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating, but not every time it's demonstrated
Cross-Functional Team
Different departments coming together to work
Multi-team system
Different teams need to coordinate their effects to produce a desired outcome
Type B
Doesn't suffer from sense of time urgency - relaxed. They are careful to detail and are senior executives
Directions of Communication
Downward, Upward, Lateral
Conflict Management Strategies
Dual Concern Theory
Probability
Each randomly tells others
Productivity includes
Effectiveness and Efficiency
Affective Commitment
Emotional attachment to the organization
Employee Stock Ownership Plan
Employees acquire stocks as part of their benefits. If employees do good, the stock rises
Empowerment
Employees are given more responsibilities
Telecommuting
Employees do work at home on a computer
Encounter Stage
Employees see what the organization is really like and learns of the expectations
Self-Managed Team
Employees who take on responsibilities of their former managers
Profit-Sharing Plan
Employer shares profits with employees based on a predetermined forumula
Commitment
Enthusiastic about the request
Status quo
Equilibrium state
Affective Events Theory (AET)
Events that affect employees at work have an impact on their job satisfaction and performance 1. Emotional Episode (caused by an event) 2. Job satisfaction is affected 3. Moods change and affects performance 4. Emotions are high 5. Emotions tend to be incompatible with behaviours required to do a job, they can have a negative influence on job performance
Systematic Study
Examination of behaviour to draw conclusions and uses Evidence-based management("gut feeling")
Bicultural audit
Examination of the differences between two potential merger partners prior to determine if the two cultures are able to work together
ERG
Existence, Relatedness, Growth You can work on more than one need at a time
of Exit, Neglect, Voice, and Loyalty, which are Destructive, Constructive, Active, and Passive?
Exit - Active Destructive Voice - Active Constructive Neglect - Passive Destructive Loyalty - Passive Constructive
Role Underload
Expecting too little of someone
Role Overload
Expecting too much of someone
The Big Five Personality Model
Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Emotional Stability, Openness to experience
Normative
Feeling obliged to stay with the organization
Mood
Feeling that is less intense than emotion without a contextual background
Appreciative Inquiry
Finding out what is good about the company and building upon it
Piece-Rate Wage
Fixed + Commision
Positive Reinforcement
Following a response with something pleasant
Negative Reinforcement
Following a response with something unpleasant
The Five-Stage Model
Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning
Cultural Differences such as
Francophone vs Anglophone values
Group-Based Incentives
Gain-Sharing: Improvements in group productivity determines the total amount of money to be shared. Can receive award even if company is not profitable. FOCUSES ON PRODUCTIVITY
Major Workforce Diversity Categories
Gender, Origin, Age, Religion, Domestic Partners
Halo Effect
General impression of a person based on 1 characteristic
The main factors that lead to a potential clash of values in the Canadian Workplace...
Generational and Cultural Differences
Job Enrichment
Giving people more control over their work and more independance. They do a "complete" activity
Job Enlargement
Giving people more jobs ... giving them more things to do
Compliance
Goes along
Committee
Group composed of members from different department
Ubuntu
Group well-being and social harmony
Job Sharing
Having 2 or more people split a 40-hour-a-week job
Nonverbal communication
Messages conveyed through body movements, facial expressions, and the physical distance between the sender and receiver
Subcultures
Mini-cultures within an organization usually defined by department designations and geographical seperation
Internal Agents
More thoughtful and cautious because they have to live with the consequences
The Grapevine
Most common informal networks
Organizational Level
Most complex level
Pressure and Ingratiation
Most likely used by managing downwards
Rational persuasion
Most likely used by managing upward
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Most widely used personality assessment instrument in the world. It has 100 questions
McClellands Theory of Needs
Need for Achievement, Need for Power, Need for Affiliation
Distributive bargaining
Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources... a win-lose situation
Outside Agents
Objective perspective and more likely to implement a lot of change
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Offering extrinsic awards for work effort that was rewarding intrinsically will tend to decrease the overall level of a person's motivation
Single Strand
One person tells another
Gossip
One tells all
Resistance
Opposed to the request
Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction. Removing dissatisfying characteristics does not make the job satisfying. Individuals attitude towards work determines his success/failure Motivators: factors that lead to job satisfaction (growth, responsibility) Hygiene Factors: factors that lead to job dissatisfaction (work condition, pay, etc).
Knowledge Management
Organizing and distributing an organizations collective wisdom so that the right information goes to the right person
Contrast Effect
Our reaction to one person is influenced by other people we recently encountered
Utilitarianism
Outcomes or consequences that emphasizes the greater good for the greatest number
Organizational Justice
Overall Perception of what is fair in the workplace
Organizational culture
Pattern of shared values, beliefs, and assumptions considered to be the appropriate way to think and act within an organization
Equity Theory
People compare job and outcomes with other people
Idea Champions
People who actively and enthusiastically promote an idea, build support for it, etc.
Change Agents
People who change an organization
Quality Circle
People who meet to discuss their quality problems and recommend solutions
Selective Perception
People will use shortcuts to perceive ambiguous situations
Group Level
People's behaviour in groups are different from when they are alone
Things that affect perception
Perceiver, Target, Situation
Prearrival
Period of learning and socializing before a new employee joins the organization
Role Ambiguity
Person is unclear about his role
Stages of moral development
Person's capacity to judge what is morally right
Perceiver
Personal Characteristics that affect perception and if we perceive someone as something, we tend to ignore their actual traits
Heredity
Personality traits built into genetic code
The Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
Phase 1 - Forming Norming Transition - Storming Phase 2 - Performing Adjourning
Individual-Based Incentives
Piece-rate, Bonuses, Merits, and Skill-based
Attitudes
Positive or negative feelings about objects, people, etc. This is a response to situations, therefore not the same as values
Coercive Power
Power that is based on fear
3 stages of socialization
Prearrival, Encounter, Metamorphosis
How to individuals minimize conflict?
Problem Solving, Developing overarching goals, Smoothing (playing down differences), Compromising, Avoidance
Types of teams
Problem-Solving Teams, Self-Managed Teams, Cross-Functional Teams, Virtual Teams
Procedural Justice
Process used to distribute rewards
Organizational-Based Incentives
Profit-Sharing Plan, Stock Options and Employee Stock Ownership Plan
Types of Cultural Intelligence
Provincial, Analyst, Natural, Ambassador, Mimic, Chameleon
Includes several other disciplines such as:
Psychology, Sociology, Social Psychology, Antrhopology, Political Science
Self-fulfilling prophecy also known as the
Pygmalion effect ... people will behave in ways consistent with how he is perceived by others
Kinesics
The study of body motions
Proxemics
The study of physical space in interpersonal relationships. If someone is standing too close to you, you might perceive it as they are being sexual with you!
Target
The targets characteristics affect what is perceived. A loud person stands out more than a quiet person.
Winners Curse
Think of auctioning. We pay too much for an item won
Conciliator
Third party who provides informal communication link between two conflicting parties
Information
This person has data or knowledge that you need
Expert
This person has experience and knowledge and you defer to his or her judgement in some matters
Legitimate Power
This person has the right and expects you to comply
Reward Power
This person is able to give special benefits or rewards to people and it is advantageous to trade favours with him or her
Email bankruptcy
Too much e-mail ... can't handle it all!
Information Overload
Too much information so sometimes they ignore or passover some information
Needs Theory:
Types of needs that must be met to motivate people
Fundamental Attribution Error
Underestimate influence of Ext. factors and overestimate influence of Int. factors when judging others' behaviour.
Lewin's Three-Step Change Model
Unfreezing --> Moving --> Refreezing
Anchoring Bias
Unwilling to change your stance on something when new information is present
Bonuses
Used to acknowledge superior performance
Formal networks
Vertical, follow the AUTHORITY CHAIN
Management Reward Follies
We hope for ... teamwork and collaboration But we reward ... the best team members
Selective Perception
We see what we want to see
Target Point
What the person wants to buy/sell it for
Conflict
When one party perceives that another party has or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about
Defensiveness
When people feel threatened, they reduce their ability to achieve mutual understanding
Attribution Theory
When we see not normal behaviour by someone, we try to make sense of it.
The Message
When we speak, our speech is the message When we write, our words are the message
Personal Variables
When you meet someone you immediately dislike
The Situation
Where the location is affects the perception (night club vs school)
Flexitime
Work a core amount of hours and form their total workday from a flexible set of hours outside the core
Virtual Teams
Work thats knowledge-based and allows people from different time zones to work together
Metamorphosis Stage
Working out any problems and stuff. Changing beliefs, values, and norms. Metamorphosis Stage is complete when the employee has become comfortable with the organization
Referent
You like the person and enjoy doing things for him or her
3 types of Organizational Commitments
1. Affective 2. Normative 3. Continuance
Ways to increase Organizational Commitment
1. Proud of company's aspirations, accomplishments, etc 2. Know what is expected to be done 3. In control (Locus of Control) 4. Recognized for quality of performance
Cultural Intelligence
Ability to understand ones unfamiliar and ambiguous gestures in the same way as would people from his culture
Norm
Acceptable standards of behaviour within a group
Effectiveness
Achievement of goals
Employee Deviance
Actions that slow down the organization(working slow on purpose, etc)
Political behaviour
Activities that influence or attempt to influence the distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the organization... Instead of using Legitimate power and Coercive power to impose a salary decrease, a boss may explain sympathetically to his employees why it is needed
Conformity
Adjusting ones behaviour to align with the norms of the group
Seperation
Allowing the two organizations to be seperate and keep their individual cultures
Self- Efficacy Theory
Also known as the Social Learning/Cognitive Theory Increase self-efficacy in 4 ways: 1. Enactive Mastery 2. Vicarious Modeling 3. Veral Persuasion 4. Arousal
Type A
Always moving, walking, eating rapidly. They are less creative because of their lack of detail and quality. Makes a salesperson
Distributive Justice
Amount and allocation of rewards among individuals
Channel richness
Amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication episode
Felt Emotions
An employees actual emotion
Employee Engagement
An individuals involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the work he or she does. How ENGAGED she is. (Highly engaged employees reduce risk of getting into injuries)
learning Organization
An organization that is continually changing
artifacts
Aspects of an organization's culture that you see, hear, feel
Delegation
Assignment of authority to another person to carry out specific duties, allowing the employee to make some of the decisions
3 ways of merging two organizations
Assimilation, Seperation, Integration
Theory X
Assumes that employees dislike work and will avoid it. Favours EXTRINSIC MOTIVATORS (we need to get paid to work!)
Theory Y
Assumes that employees enjoy work and focuses on INTRINSIC MOTIVATORS (we do it because we are interested)
Different Examples of political behaviour
Attacking or blaming others, Building support for ideas, Praising others, Creating obligations, etc
Self-Serving bias
Attribute success to intrinsic factors and putting blame on extrinsic factors.
Projection
Attributing my own characteristics to other people. People perceive others according to what htey themselves are like
5 types of Conflict Management Strategies
Avoiding, Yielding, Compromising, Forcing, Problem Solving
For complicated messages use ...
rich channels
Product Departmentalization
Banking, Investments, Insurance
Organizational Citizenship behaviour
Behaviour that is not part of an employee's formal job requirements but promotes effectiveness in an organization
Pygmalion Effect
Believing something to be true can make it true
BATNA
Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement
Bargaining zone
Between sellers resistance point and buyers resistance point (sometimes there might not be one!)
Creating an Effective Team Requires
CCWP Context Composition Work Design Process
Punishment
Causing unpleasant condition to eliminate undesirable behaviour
3 types of chains
Chain, Wheel, All-Channel
First-order change
Change that is gradual and slow
Second-order change
Change that is multi-dimensional, multi-level
Functional Departmentalization
City of Vancouver (Engineers, Accountants, etc)
Problem-Solving Teams
Come together to solve a problem
How do people respond to power?
Commitment, Compliance, Resistance
Lateral (Horizontal)
Communication among members of the same workgroup
Informal networks
Communications that flow along social and relational lines
Role Conflict
Complying with one role makes it harder to comply with another
Values
Concepts/beliefs that guide how we make decisions about and evaluations of behaviours
Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict that hinders group performance (destructive)
Functional Conflict
Conflict that improves performance (constructive)
Affective Conflict
Conflict that is emotional and directed towards a person rather than an issue
Cognitive conflict
Conflict that is related to perception and judgement
Continuous Improvement Processes
Continually improving
Encoding
Converting a message to symbolic form
Dominant Culture
Core values of the organization
Single-looping learning
Correcting errors using past routines and present policies
Integrative bargaining
Creating a win-win solution
Skunkworks
Cross-Functional teams that develop new products or work on complex problems. It is good when SPEED is an important factor
Satisfice
"Good is enough"
Hindsight bias
"looking back, i wouldn't done x"
Expectancy Theory
(Expectancy)Effort --> Performance (0-1) (Instrumental)Performance --> Rewards (-1 ~ 1) with 0 having no relationship between performance and reward (Valence)Rewards --> Personal Goals (-1 ~ 1) how desirable the reward is.
Motivating Potential Score
(Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance)/3 * Autonomy *Feedback
How Employees Can Express Dissatisfaction
1.Exit(ACTIVELY attemping to leave an organization), 2.Voice(ACTIVELY attempting to improve conditions, 3.Loyalty(PASSIVELY but optimistically waiting for conditions to improve), 4.Neglect(PASSIVELY letting conditions worsen by being late, reducing effort)
When did OB emerge as a distinct field?
1940s
Dual Concern Theory
2 dimensions: Cooperativeness and Assertiveness
Alternative Dispute Resolution
3rd party that helps both sides find a solution outside court
Compressed Workweek
4 10-hour days Allows more leisure time and time with family
Geert Hofstede found
5 value dimensions of national culture 1. Power Distance 2. Individualism vs Collectivism 3. Masculinity vs Femininity 4. Uncertainty Avoidance 5. Long-term vs Short-term orientation
Global Leadership and Organizational Behaviour EFfectiveness
9 dimensions in which cultures differ.
Flexible Benefits
A benefits plan that allows each employee to put together a benefit package tailored to his or her own needs
Strong Culture
A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared
Positive Organizational Culture
A culture that emphasizes building on employee strengths, rewards, and emphasizes growth
What is organizational behaviour?
A field of study that looks at the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on behaviour within organizations.
Groupthink
A group pressures for conformity prevents the group from critically thinking. The group dominates the individual
Job Characteristic Model (JCM) and the 5 dimensions
A model that identifies 5 core job dimensions and their relationships to personal and work outcomes. Skill Variety Task Identity Task Significance Autonomy Feedback
Kotter's Eight-Step plan for Implementing Change
A more detailed approach than the Three-Step Model
Emotional Intelligence
A person's ability to (1) be self-aware (recognize your own emotion) (2) detect emotions in others, and (3) manage emotional cues and information
Variable-Pay Programs
A portion of an employee's pay is based on performance
Double-loop learning
A process of correcting errors by modifying the organization's objectives, policies, and standard routines
Operant Conditioning
A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behaviour leads to a reward or prevents a punishment
Relationship among Team Cohesiveness, Performance Norms and Productivity
High Performance High Cohesiveness - High Productivity High Performance Low Cohesiveness - Moderate Productivity Low Performance High Cohesiveness - Low Productivity Low Performance Low Cohesiveness - Moderate/Low Productivity
Galatea Effect
High performance expectations are communicated to an employee
Mechanistic Model
High specialization, clear chain of command, etc.
Motivation
How hard someone tries in reaching his/her goal
Communication Networks
How information slows
Positive Organizational Scholarship(Positive Organizational Behaviour)
How organizations develop human strengths, foster vitality and resilience, and unlock potential.
Role Expectations
How others believe a person should act in a given situation
Interactional Justice
How someone is treated
Job Design
How tasks are assigned to form a job ... how the job works
Core Self-Evaluation
How the person see themselves. How much they like/dislike themselves and how capable they think they are
Process Theory
How to motivate people
Perception
How we interpret and give meaning to things
Proactive personality
Identifies opportunities, shows initiatives and takes action
Action Research
Implementing change based on the data recieved
How to increase motivation using Expectancy Theory?
Improve Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence
Emotional Dissonance
Inconsistency between how you feel and what you show
Escalation of Commitment
Increased commitment to a previous decision despite negative information
3 different types of Organizations
Individual Level, Group Level, Organization Systems Level
Three-component model of creativity
Individual creativity requires expertise, creative-thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation
Nominal Group Technique
Individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion
Bounded Rationality
Individuals are limited on a person's ability to interpret, process, and act on information
Social Loafing
Individuals spend less time working together than they do individually
Whistle-bloewr
Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders
Groupshift
Initial positions of individual group members become exaggerated because of interactions of the group Risk takers become riskier Conserative people become more conservative
Emotions
Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something
Decoding
Interpreting a message
Feedback loop
It is important to get feedback! Example: If a prof was giving a lecture but there was no feedback, then there is only one way communication
Continuance
It is in the organizations based interest to stay(to get money, scared of unemployment elsewhere)
Empowerment is determined by
Job Content and Job Context
Availability Bias
Judge on information that is readily available (thinking plane crashes happen more often than car crashes)
Stereotyping
Judging someone based on one's perception fo the group to which that peron belongs
Goal-Setting Theory: Management by Objectives
Locke's Model of Goal Setting 1. Direct attention 2. Regulate Effort 3. Increase persistence 4. Encourage development of strategies and action plans Effective Goals are SMART Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Results-oriented, Time-bound
Confirmation Bias
Looking for things to reconfirm rather than looking for errors
Organic Model
Low formalization
Downward
Managers to employees ... assign goals, provide instructions
Filtering
Manipulating information so that the receiver will view it more favourably
Assimilation
Merging an entire organization into another one
Integration
Merging parts of the organizations
Efficiency
Ratio of effective work output to the input required to produce the work
Intrinsic Rewards
Recognition! Recognition! ... Recognizing an employee's superior performance often costs little or no money. It may reduce turnover in organizations
High-context culture
Rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues when communicating with others (China, Vietnam). There is more trust in high-context cultures
Low-context culture
Rely on words to convey meanings. Values directness. (Europe, USA, Canada)
Displayed Emotions
Required by employees for a specific job
Fixed-Interval
Reward give at a fixed time period
Fixed Ratio
Reward given at fixed output
Variable Ratio
Reward given at variable output
Variable- Interval
Reward given at variable time periods
Contingency Approach
Says that Organizational Behaviours depend upon the situation. Something that is appealing to one person might not be appealing to the other.
Maslows Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization --> Esteem --> Social --> Safety --> Psychology. No need is ever fully met
4 types of comparisons an employee uses
Self-Inside: Compare to another job inside her organization Self-outside: Compare to another job outside her organization Other-inside: Compare to another person inside the organization Other-outside: Compare to another person outside the organization
Cultural Barriers are caused by ...
Semantics (some words do not translate btwn cultures) Word Connotations (words imply different things in different languages) Tone differences Differences among perceptions (people perceive things differently)
Job Rotation
Shifting an epmloyee from one task to another
Types of Grapevine patterns
Single Strand, Gossip, Probability, Cluster
Cluster
Some tell selected others (most typical)
Personality
Stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determines how an individual reacts and interacts with others
Process Re-engineering
Start over, rethink and redesign processes
Ethics
Study of moral values of principles that guide us to make a decision of "right or wrong"
Ethics
Study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour of what is right/wrong
Upward
Suggestion boxes, surveys, etc.
Task Force
Temporary cross-functional team
Communication Apprehensions
Tension and anxiety about oral communication, written communication, or both
Individual Levels
That influences behaviour such as job satisfaction, motivation, etc.
4 Generational Differences
The Elders (playing by the rules), Baby Boomers (spoiled), Generation X, The Ne(x)t Generation(most high performing). Baby Boomers currently dominate the workplace
Randomness error
The ability for people to predict the outcome of random events
Political Skill
The ability to influence others to enhance your own objectives
Departmentalization
The basis on which jobs are grouped together
Power
The capacity that A has to influence the behaviour of B
Self-concordance
The degree to which a person's reasons for pursuing a goal is consistent with the person's interests and core values
Machiavellianism
The degree to which someone can maintain emotional distance
Narcissism
The degree to which someone finds self-importance and have a sense of entitlement
Self-Monitoring
The degree to which you can adjust your behaviour to the situation they are in
Emotional Labour
The employees ability to express desired emotions while at work
The Channel
The medium through which a message travels
Workforce diversity
The mix of people in organizations in terms of gender, race, etc.
Resistance Point
The most/least a person is willing to go
Span of control
The number of employees who report to a manager
Impression management
The process by which individuals try to make others view them a certain way
Rokeach Value Survey
divided values into 2 sets. 1.Terminal (lifetime achievement) 2.Instrumental (means for achieving terminal values)
Process Departmentalization
insepcting, packing, shipping
An organization...
is a coordinated social unit composed of a group of people that are set to achieve a common goal or set of goals
For routine messages use ...
low richness
Organizational Commitment
state in which employee IDENTIFIES with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to maintain membership in the organization.
Prejudice
unfounded dislike of a person due to their belonging to a particular group
Language
words mean different things to different people