Academic phrase 5
The main objective of professional education is to develop students' ability to interpret, evaluate and analyse by providing theoretical concepts. The main objective of professional education such content is highly practical. Although the debate on the content and approach to tourism education programs has centred on professional education versus vocational skills, they both are mainly concerned with creating human resources to work for others. However, according to Echtner, the third component creates human resources to work for oneself by developing entrepreneurs. Such an education can tap into an important portion of human resource potential in developing countries by encouraging and cultivating local entrepreneurial tourism development. In fact, one of the most important critical needs of developing counties is to foster not only an environment within which entrepreneurship can flourish, but also entrepreneurs (Echtner, 1995).
- The main objective of professional education - has centred on professional education versus vocational skills - creating human resources to work for others. - encouraging and cultivating local entrepreneurial tourism development
Entrepreneurship has become a priority for several societies. The capacity of new firms to contribute to economic growth (Achs and Armington, 2003), jobs (Birch, 1987) and innovation (Reynolds, Storey and Westhead, 1994) fully justifies the interest they generate. Given this prioritization, universities are increasingly being called upon to play a more active role, in particular by providing their students with education and support that make an entrepreneurial career easier to undertake. The involvement of universities is all the more important given that this career avenue is becoming a more common and necessary choice for students.
- become a priority - contribute to economic growth - contribute to innovation - Given this prioritization, universities are increasingly being called upon -
There are several models and theories that explain the complex phenomenon of entrepreneurship. This study draws its inspiration from models described in the scientific literature on the theory of reasoned action and planned behaviour (Ajzen, 1991); these models attempt to predict and explain individual behaviour, which in the present case is business start-up. Accordingly, we will review the main principles of the models stemming from this area. We will also take a look at the various studies that have examined student entrepreneurship, then a brief discussion on the impact of the cultural dimension on entrepreneurial predispositions.
- complex phenomenon of entrepreneurship - This study draws its inspiration - these models attempt to predict and explain individual behaviour - stemming from this area. -
TOURISM STUDENTS' ENTREPRENEURIAL INTENTIONS Eda Gurel
- entrepreneurial intentions
In our model, we argue that formal education will impede entrepreneurial intention. As Krueger and Carsrud (1993, p. 327) state: ''teaching people about the realities of entrepreneurship may increase their entrepreneurial self-efficacy, but simultaneously decrease the perceived desirability of starting a business''. Learned (1992) says that although individuals may have the necessary combination of traits and background—in other words, the potential to found a business—the final decision is formed from the interaction of the potential with the situation. The situation may facilitate or inhibit the individual to found his/her own business. Given the above factors, we have set our hypothesis as: H7: Education will moderate the relationship between entrepreneurial traits and intention.
- formal education will impede entrepreneurial intention. - As Krueger and Carsrud (1993, p. 327) state: -
Several studies have clearly demonstrated that entrepreneurial behaviour is strongly influenced by people's values, attitudes and beliefs. What is more important, beliefs are influenced by the national culture and social context. Nonetheless, even though it might be reasonable to believe that the microeconomic and cultural environments of some countries favour entrepreneurial behaviour whereas others discourage it, further investigation is needed. Accordingly, this paper presents the results of a study undertaken to better understand and compare the intentions, interests and prevalence of university students from Canada, Tunisia, France, Romania, United-Kingdom, Columbia, and Germany. The study also compares these different groups with regard to their beliefs and perceptions about entrepreneurship. Not only does this study allow us to draw up a profile of university students in the seven countries, it also allows us to study the cultural dimension and its possible impact on the students' entrepreneurial activity.
- influenced by people's values, attitudes and beliefs - beliefs are influenced by the national culture and social context - Nonetheless, even though it might be reasonable to believe that - the microeconomic and cultural environments of some countries favour entrepreneurial behaviour whereas others discourage it - further investigation is needed - with regard to their beliefs and perceptions about entrepreneurship - Not only does - draw up a profile of university students - it also allows us to study the cultural dimension
Scholars such as Airey and Tribe (2000) and Ayikoru, Tribe, and Airey (2009) question the extent to which traditional tourism and hospitality management education prepares students to think critically outside existing practices and paradigms. Especially in developing countries, Echtner (1995) proposes a 'three-pronged' approach to tourism education, which cultivates three types of skills: professional, vocational and entrepreneurial. Echtner points out that the existing types of tourism education programs can be grouped into two basic categories: professional education and vocational skills, and she emphasises the third, largely overlooked component in tourism education: entrepreneurial development.
- the extent to which - traditional tourism and hospitality management education - a 'three-pronged' approach to tourism education, - three types of skills: professional, vocational and entrepreneurial - Echtner points out that - largely overlooked component in tourism education - entrepreneurial development.
Entrepreneurial Beliefs and Intentions: A Cross-Cultural Study of University Students in Seven Countries Yvon Gasse
A Cross-Cultural Study
As Learned (1992, p.40) argues "some individuals have a combination of psychological traits in interaction with background factors that make them more likely candidates to attempt to found businesses". Supporting this proposition, Mueller and Thomas (2001) point out that personality traits and the socio-cultural background of individuals act as a stimulator and/or motivator of their entrepreneurial behaviours. Indeed, a family business tradition in the same or similar business sector helps an individual to acquire business knowledge and skills which if harnessed with their personality traits can stimulate entrepreneurial activity (Altinay and Altinay, 2006).
- As Learned (1992, p.40) argues - personality traits and the socio-cultural background of individuals -
Socio-cultural Background and Entrepreneurial Intention Cultural values: Previous research has identified a direct relationship between the individualism-collectivism dimension of culture and entrepreneurship. In individualist cultures, people are primarily concerned with their own and immediate family interests. In collectivist cultures, the interests of the wider society override the needs/interests of individuals (Hofstede, 2003). While some researchers have argued that individualism leads to increased levels of entrepreneurship (McGrath et al., 1992; Shane, 1993), other scholars have argued that collectivism may foster entrepreneurial values (Franke, Hofstede, & Bond, 1991; Sivakumar & Nakata, 2003).
- Cultural values - In individualist cultures - collectivism may foster entrepreneurial values
Entrepreneurship contributes to a country's economy by promoting innovation, engendering competition, creating employment and thus contributes to economic wealth and spending power (Guasch, Kuznetsov, & Sanchez, 2002; Holmgren & From, 2005). In particular, in developed and developing countries both, tourism entrepreneurship is vital to tourists' experiences and satisfaction and to destination and community development (Bardolet & Sheldon, 2008; Blake, Sinclair, & Soria, 2006; Cawley & Gillmor, 2008; Getz & Carlsen, 2005). Countries therefore are examining how best to cultivate tourism entrepreneurship.
- Entrepreneurship contributes to (منجر به بهتر شدن)a country's economy - promoting innovation - engendering competition - creating employment - and thus contributes to economic wealth - In particular, in developed and developing countries both, - Countries therefore are examining how best to cultivate tourism entrepreneurship.
Entrepreneurship is seen as a critical factor in promoting innovation, creating employment opportunities and generating social and economic wealth in a country's economy (Wong et al., 2005). Sectors such as hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism can be seen as archetypal entrepreneurial industries and can consequently play a key role in economic development. Combined these sectors rep- resented approximately 10% of UK employment in 2004 in over 160,000 food service outlets, 26,000 guest houses, 3,000 health and fitness clubs, 15,000 hotels, 6,800 visitor attractions, ranging from gardens to local museums and many other types of outlets (Mintel report quoted in Ball, 2005). Hospitality entrepreneurship in particular helps the re-generation of communities through the development of destinations by offering new products and services which enhance the tourist experience (Getz and Petersen, 2005; Hjalager, 2010; Jaafar et al., 2011; Li, 2008). Since the vast majority of hospitality businesses in the vast majority of countries are small and medium sized enterprises, there is a strong link between entrepreneurial activities in hospitality and SME theory and practice (Altinay, 2010).
- Entrepreneurship is seen as - Sectors such as hospitality, leisure, sports and tourism - archetypal entrepreneurial industries - can consequently play
The entrepreneur is the cornerstone of the 'entrepreneurship phenomena', as the entrepreneur is the individual who, with certain psychological traits, attributes and values initiates a business venture (Thomas & Mueller, 2000). Researchers have explored the personality differences between entrepreneurs and non-entrepreneurs on the basis that certain psychological characteristics are required preconditions for entrepreneurship (Utsch & Rauch, 2000). Key preconditions identified by Koh (1996) include high need for achievement, internal locus of control, moderate risk-taking orientation, high tolerance for ambiguity, high degree of self-confidence and innovativeness. These traits affect the intentions of individuals to start a new venture (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993; Thomas & Mueller, 2000). Timmons, Smollen, and Dingee (1977) define more than twenty personal characteristics that may distinguish entrepreneurs from others. Among these traits closely associated with entrepreneurial potential, innovativeness, locus of control, tolerance for ambiguity and risk propensity have been selected as the focus of this study.
- Examples of this can be seen in - new independent businesses - the term entrepreneur - attempting to found a business - preconditions for entrepreneurship - that may distinguish entrepreneurs from others. - have been selected as the focus of this study.
Given the above factors, this paper aims to investigate the entrepreneurial intention of higher education tourism students in the UK and Turkey by considering their traits as well as their socio-cultural back-grounds. More specifically, this research aims to find out, first, the similarities and differences between the entrepreneurial traits of tourism students in the UK and Turkey; second, the influence of different traits—namely, propensity to take risks, internal locus of control, tolerance for ambiguity and students' innovation—on their intentions to start a business; third, the influence of their socio-cultural back- grounds—namely, family background, education and national culture—on their intentions to start a business and fourth in particular, the moderating effect of education between the entrepreneurial traits and intentions of students. By exploring the above four factors, the study will address a research gap in the area of tourism entrepreneurship by identifying the intentions of tourism students to start a new business. In particular, it will respond to Johnson's, Simon's and Wijbenga's (2006) call for discipline-based research into the effects of higher education on entrepreneurship. Interestingly, although today's university students make up a significant share of the pool of potential entrepreneurs (Mueller 2004), there appears to be a dearth of studies into tourism students' intentions to get involved in entrepreneurial endeavours.
- Given the above factors, this paper aims to - the entrepreneurial intention of higher education tourism students - by considering their traits as well as their socio-cultural back-grounds - a research gap in the area of tourism entrepreneurship - by identifying the intentions of tourism students to start a new business - In particular, it will respond to Johnson's, Simon's and Wijbenga's (2006) call for discipline-based research into the effects of higher education on entrepreneurship. - Interestingly, although today's university students make up a significant share of the pool of potential entrepreneurs - get involved in entrepreneurial endeavours.
On the negative side, some researchers argue that formal education can lead to a reduction in curiosity, vision and an increase in risk aversion (Fallows, 1985; Shapero, 1980). Ronstadt (1984) claims that traditional education leads to conformity, decreases tolerance for ambiguity and thus hinders students' creative thinking abilities and intentions to start a new business. Kirby (2005) therefore argues that universities and business schools in particular should revise their curricula and teaching and learning methods in order to stimulate innovative and critical thinking.
- On the negative side, some researchers argue that - formal education - revise their curricula and teaching and learning methods - stimulate innovative and critical thinking.
Family: Previous research shows that individuals with an entrepreneurial family are more likely to establish their own businesses (Basu & Virick, 2008; Gasse, 1985; Hirsrich, 1986; Linan, Rodriguez-Cohard, & Rueda-Cantuche, 2005). In particular, previous research about the influence of family tradition suggests that individuals acquire certain business skills prior to their business start-up (Basu & Goswami, 1999; Duchesneau & Gartner, 1990). Past experience also equips them with the ideas, vision and confidence to start a new business (Altinay & Altinay, 2006). Based on these arguments, we hypothesise that: H6: Entrepreneurial family will be associated with the students' intention of establishing a business.
- Previous research shows that - individuals with an entrepreneurial family - In particular, previous research about the influence of family tradition suggests that
Previous research suggests that individuals' traits influence their intentions to start a business (Koh, 1996; Mueller & Thomas, 2001; Robinson, Stimpson, Huefner, & Hunt, 1991). Individuals with traits such as high propensity for risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity and internal locus of control are more likely to start a new business. However, while investigating the interface between the traits of individuals and their intentions, these studies do not consider socio-cultural elements, namely, education, entrepreneurial family back- ground and national culture.
- Previous research suggests that - individuals' traits influence their intentions to start a business - high propensity for risk taking, tolerance for ambiguity and internal locus of control -the interface between the traits of individuals and their intentions - these studies do not consider socio-cultural elements, namely, education, entrepreneurial family back-ground and national culture.
Previous studies claim that education influences individuals' cultural values and thus their level of entrepreneurship (Hayton, Zahra, & Zahra, 2002; Morrison, 2000). For example, the manner in which people are educated from an early age and the transferable skills which they develop during higher education play a significant role in establishing characteristics generally associated with entrepreneurial behaviour (Casson, 1991; Ronstadt, 1985). Tourism and hospitality education is still considered very much vocational and action oriented, and many have doubts about the extent to which it prepares students for thinking critically and working outside existing practices and paradigms (Airey & Tribe, 2000; Echtner, 1995), essential features for fostering entrepreneurship (Kirby, 2005). Although tourism and hospitality management education has come a long way from its origins in on-the-job training to a broad-based liberal curriculum in schools, it is still considered very much vocational and action oriented.
- Previous studies claim that - education influences individuals' cultural values and thus their level of entrepreneurship - the transferable skills which they develop during higher education - in establishing characteristics generally associated with entrepreneurial behaviour - Tourism and hospitality education is still considered very much vocational - many have doubts about the extent to which - tourism and hospitality management education - on-the-job training to a broad-based liberal curriculum in schools
Family tradition It is measured as a nominal variable (1 = yes, 0 = no) based on the question whether anybody in the family has a prior entrepreneurship experience.
- as a nominal variable (1 = yes, 0 = no) - prior entrepreneurship experience
Similarly, it has been found that national culture plays an influential role on entrepreneurial behaviours (McGrath, MacMillan, & Scheinberg, 1992; Shane, 1993; Sivakumar & Nakata, 2003). Hofstede (2003, p. 25) defines national culture as ''the collective programming of mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from an- other'' and suggests four dimensions—power distance, individualism, masculinity and uncertainty avoidance—to explain differences among individuals from different nations. However, to date, there appears to be a limited number of studies exploring tourism entrepreneurs' motives, despite the growing importance in responding to crucial tourism agendas such as ethics and sustainability, climate change and global crises (Getz & Carlsen, 2005; Hjalager, 2007; Russell & Faulkner, 2004).
- Similarly, it has been found that - national culture plays an influential role on entrepreneurial behaviours - However, to date, there appears to be a limited number of studies exploring tourism entrepreneurs' motives, despite the growing importance in responding to crucial tourism agendas such as ethics and sustainability, climate change and global crises - tourism entrepreneurs' motives - crucial tourism agendas such as ethics and sustainability
Socio-cultural background has been operationalised as cultural values, family tradition and education. Culture is considered to have an influence on managerial practices that can guide and shape behaviour (Smircich, 1983). Although there are many other levels of culture, values are held to be a critical feature of culture and cultural distinctiveness (England, 1976; Hofstede, 2003; Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961). Establishment of entrepreneurial priorities, making choices and reaching decisions to start a new business are shaped by values (Hayton et al., 2002). A business tradition in the family and education in some facets of business also influence the intention to start a business by equipping individuals with the skills and vision to engage in entrepreneurial endeavours (Altinay, 2008; Altinay & Altinay, 2006). Education that equips individuals with the knowledge and experience to deal with different situations may stimulate or impede the entrepreneurial intention (Krueger & Carsrud, 1993). state that ''teaching people about the realities of entrepreneurship may increase their entrepreneurial self-efficacy, but simultaneously decrease the perceived desirability of starting a business''.
- Socio-cultural background has been operationalised as cultural values, family tradition and education. - by equipping individuals with the skills and vision to engage in entrepreneurial endeavours - Based on these arguments and the studies of Learned (1992) and Krueger and Carsrud (1993) on entrepreneurial traits and intention, we propose the model in Figure 1. Having defined entrepreneurial intention as ''the intention to start a new business'' like in similar studies (such as Thomas and Mueller, 2000; Wu and Wu, 2008), this model and the relationships between the different variables have been supported with a number of hypotheses. The following section of the paper explains the development of the hypotheses.
The conceptual model includes six independent variables of which five are psychological personality traits and one is a family background variable. As it was discussed before, risk-taking propensity is a potentially mediating variable (see Fig. 1). The scales for personality traits included a total of 40 items from a number of instruments. Risk-taking propensity measure consisted of ten items (Jackson, 2007), innovativeness of eight items (Mueller and Thomas, 2001), tolerance of ambiguity of four items (Acedo and Jones, 2007), locus of control of ten items (Mueller and Thomas, 2001) and need for achievement of eight items (Kahl, 1965). All trait items are measured using a five-point Likert scale ranging between "1" (strongly disagree) and "5" (strongly agree). To minimise response-set bias and the halo effect, some statements are reverse-scored and intermingled with other statements.
- The conceptual model - of which - one is a family background variable - The scales for personality traits - a total of 40 items - from a number of instruments - Risk-taking propensity measure consisted of 10 items - All trait items are measured using a five-point Likert scale
Entrepreneurial intention The dependent variable in this study (entrepreneurial intention) is measured on a nominal scale (1 = yes, 0 = no). This variable is based on the question whether the individual intends to engage in entrepreneurial activity or not.
- The dependent variable - is measured on a nominal scale (1 = yes, 0 = no).
The influence of family tradition and psychological traits on entrepreneurial intention Levent Altinay
- The influence of
Education: The literature regarding the impact of education on entrepreneurial behaviour is substantial and quite polarised. While some researchers claim that education lessens the entrepreneurial desire of the individual (e.g. Krueger & Carsrud, 1993), there are others who say that people's entrepreneurial inclination actually increases with education (e.g. Clercq & Arenius, 2006; Crant, 1996). The first group of researchers argues that education can improve an individual's creativity, flexibility, self-direction and ability to respond to widely variable situations and thus contribute to innovative behaviours (Llewellyn & Wilson, 2003; Rauch & Frese, 2000; Shook, Priem, & McGee, 2003). In particular, individuals with educational attainment know when, how and where to start a company (Ronstadt, 1985). Confirming this, Peters (2002) states that educational attainment equips individuals with the skills and mindsets to remain flexible and open to market forces and opportunities. Linking education to intention to start a business, both Sexton and Bowman-Upton (1984) and Hornaday and Vesper (1981) found that students who studied management, and in particular, entrepreneurship are more likely to be self- employed years later than their counterparts who did not take such courses. Similarly, a meta-analysis of literature on entrepreneurship education undertaken by Dickson, Solomon, and Weaver (2008) showed that there is a positive correlation between specific entrepreneurship education and students' intentions to form a business venture at some point in time.
- The literature regarding the impact of education on entrepreneurial behaviour - The first group of researchers argues tha - Linking education to intention
Demographic questions: Previous research has identified gender (Koh, 1996; Matthews & Moser, 1996; Mueller, 2004) and birth order (Koh, 1996; Webber, 2007) as influential factors on the intention to start a business. They suggest that males and first-born children have higher propensities to establish their own businesses. Given this, we have included both gender and birth order as demographic variables in our analysis.
- as influential factors on the intention to start a business. - Given this, we have included both
3.1. Measurement of constructs The sample of this study was comprised of university students in the UK. The major reason for using students as a sample was to study the intentional processes before phenomena occur and inclusion of intending and non-intending subjects should be considered (Krueger and Carsrud, 1993). The second reason for employing a student sample was because whilst some students are also potential entrepreneurs some other students do not intend to start their own business. Last, surveying university students allows us to control for level of education which may have an influence on entrepreneurial intention. Via convenience sampling, a total of 279 questionnaires were collected from students pursuing tourism and hospitality management degree at a major British university. Since the U.K. is one of the major education hubs in the world, there are many students from different cultures who obtain their degrees from this coun- try. To control for potential effects of culture (Hofstede, 2003) on nationality we only students who had a British (U.K.) nationality remained in the final sample. Consequently, 205 respondents were included in the final analysis.
- The major reason for using students as a sample was to study the intentional processes before phenomena occur and inclusion of intending and non-intending subjects should be considered - Last, surveying university students allows us to control for level of education which may have an influence on entrepreneurial intention. - Via convenience sampling,
Entrepreneurship as A Decision-making Process Shapero and Sokol (1982) were among the first authors to use planned behaviour theory in an entrepreneurial context. Their work gave rise to numerous studies whose results have pointed to the usefulness of this theory in understanding business creation (Davidsson, 1995; Krueger, 1993; Krueger and Brazeal, 1994; Krueger and Carsrud, 1993; Krueger and Dickson, 1994; Krueger, Reilly and Carsrud, 2000; Reitan, 1996). According to the authors' reasoning, desirability, perceived feasibility and, consequently, a propensity to start up a business are based on people's beliefs. For Shapero and Sokol (1982), entrepreneurial behaviour is necessarily based on a propensity to act. What is more, this propensity is directly influenced by the perceived desirability and feasibility of a behaviour, which are both explained by a person's beliefs and perceptions about the surrounding world (Boissin and Emin, 2006); these beliefs and perceptions include perceived opportunity, confidence in one's abilities, fear of failure, and knowing another entrepreneur (Arenius and Minniti, 2005).
- Their work gave rise to numerous studies - understanding business creation - According to the authors' reasoning, -
Abstract: This study aims to investigate the relationship between entrepreneurial traits, socio-cultural background and entrepreneurial intention of university students in the UK and Turkey. 409 tourism students were surveyed to measure entrepreneurial intention, entrepreneurial traits including risk-taking propensity, innovativeness, tolerance of ambiguity and locus of control and socio-cultural factors. The findings indicate that there is a statistically significant relationship between innovation, propensity to take risks, entrepreneurial family and entrepreneurial intention. Education does not seem to play an important role in fostering entrepreneurial traits and intentions of university students.
- This study aims to - the relationship between entrepreneurial traits, socio-cultural background and entrepreneurial intention - 409 tourism students were surveyed to measure - entrepreneurial traits including risk-taking propensity, innovativeness, tolerance of ambiguity and locus of control - socio-cultural factors - The findings indicate that - a statistically significant relationship between - Education does not seem to play - fostering entrepreneurial traits and intentions
While giving credit to those studies investigating the interface between traits and intention, Hisrich, Langan-Fox, and Grant (2007) and Pillis and Reardon (2007) question the extent to which traits can be used solely to predict the intention to start a business. Hisrich et al. (2007) also argue that the role of personality traits could have been underestimated in past entrepreneurship research due to design and methodological limitations. In particular, Learned (1992, p. 40) argues that, ''some individuals have a combination of psychological traits in interaction with background factors that make them more likely candidates to attempt to found businesses''. Supporting this view, Mueller and Thomas (2001) point out that the socio-cultural back- ground of an individual acts as a stimulator and/or motivator of entrepreneurial behaviours, in particular, venture creation. Therefore, this study adopted a holistic approach to investigate entrepreneurial intention in relation to the influences of traits and socio-cultural back- grounds of individuals.
- While giving credit to - the role of personality traits could have been underestimated in past entrepreneurship research due to design and methodological limitations - a combination of psychological traits in interaction with background factors - Supporting this view, - the socio-cultural background of an individual acts as a stimulator and/or motivator of entrepreneurial behaviours, - Therefore, this study adopted a holistic approach
Accordingly, this paper presents the results of a study undertaken to better understand and compare the intentions, interests and prevalence of university students from Canada, Tunisia, France, Romania, United-Kingdom, Columbia, and Germany. The study also compares these different groups with regard to their beliefs and perceptions about entrepreneurship. Not only does this study allow us to draw up a profile of university students in the seven countries, it also allows us to study the cultural dimension and its possible impact on the students' entrepreneurial activity. We will begin by examining the theoretical context and our conceptual model, which is partially based on the principles of planned behaviour. We will then explain the research design and presenting the results. Finally, we will discuss the conclusions that can be drawn from these results and the limits of the research.
- a study undertaken to better understand and compare the intentions, - and our conceptual model, which is partially based on the principles of planned behaviour -
Another key variable in evaluating entrepreneurship is an individual's propensity to take risk. There is an argument that the propensity to take risks is indeed a compound variable that encompasses other personality traits (Nicholson et al., 2005). On the other hand some authors view the propensity to take risks as a mediator between the variables of tolerance of ambiguity, locus of control (Wee et al., 1994), the need for achievement (Tang and Tang, 2007) and entrepreneurial intention. As a result, there is uncertainty about the role of risk-taking propensity and it is not clear whether the propensity to take risks is an exogenous variable, a mediator or a moderator.
- an individual's propensity to take risk - There is an argument that - propensity to take risks is indeed a compound variable that encompasses other personality traits - As a result, there is uncertainty about the role of risk-taking propensity - it is not clear whether the propensity to take risks is an exogenous variable, a mediator or a moderator.
Tiessen (1997) argued that although individualism leads to new venture creation, it is collectivist values that allow an organisation to leverage its resources. Individualism may facilitate the initiation of new ideas because it triggers creativity and entrepreneurism (Sivakumar & Nakata, 2003) as well as increasing individuals' sense of confidence (Geletkanycz, 1997). On the other hand, such traits might not be turned into business reality unless the leverage of resources is accomplished by adhering to implicit collectivist norms based on the shared values and goals of members (Wilkins & Ouchi, 1983). In addition, those in individualist cultures have a tendency to place a higher value on individual accomplishments than those in collectivist cultures (Hofstede, 2003). People in individualist cultures tend to be more autonomous and independent than people in collectivist cultures, they view uncertainty in the external environment more optimistically than collectivist individuals and they are more likely to involve themselves in situations that collectivist individuals perceive as being extremely risky (Morris, Davis, & Allen, 1994). Based on these arguments, we hypothesise that: H5: Individualism will be associated with intention in establishing a business.
- it is collectivist values that allow an organisation to leverage its resources - facilitate the initiation of new ideas because it triggers creativity and entrepreneurism
Countries are therefore developing long term plans and investing in their infrastructure to effectively channel business support resources, including training to individuals with entrepreneurship potential.
- long term plans - to effectively channel business support resources - individuals with entrepreneurship potential
These studies have made an important contribution to knowledge by explaining the connection between the personality traits of individuals and their intention to start up a business. However, they only partially explain business start-ups and the entrepreneurship process. Previous studies have neglected to consider the family backgrounds of individuals who are tolerant to uncertainty, have need for achievement with an internal locus of control and are willing to take risks to start up a business. This gap in the extant field of entrepreneurship research is surprising given that socio-cultural factors and in particular family tradition in the same line of business has already been identified as an influential factor on the entrepreneurial behaviours of individuals.
- made an important contribution to knowledge - the personality traits of individuals - their intention to start up a business. - they only partially explain business start-ups and the entrepreneurship process - Previous studies have neglected to consider the family backgrounds of individuals - an influential factor on the entrepreneurial behaviours of individuals.
Several studies have shown that entrepreneurs possess specific characteristics (Gasse and D'amours, 2000). However, it has also been noted that not only can these characteristics vary according to the type of entrepreneur, but that entrepreneurs' predispositions are also influenced by the surrounding environment. The decision to start up a business can be influenced by various factors. The objective of this comparative study was to verify the role that selected variables played in our model of the entrepreneurial process of university students. The other variables in Figure 1 are only presented to provide a general view of the complexity of the phenomenon.
- not only can these characteristics - The decision to start up a business -
Our paper aims to investigate the relationship between the personality traits - locus of control, tolerance of ambiguity, innovativeness, need for achievement and propensity to take risks - of British hospitality students in higher education and their intentions to start up a business. In light of the findings that the influence of personality traits is the highest in determining business start-up intentions in budding entrepreneurs (Nga and Shamuganathan, 2010: p.260), a sample of undergraduate hospitality students have been employed. Interestingly, although hospitality and tourism students are being encouraged to engage in entrepreneurial activities in order to stimulate the development of destinations, there appears to be limited research into the antecedents of their business start up activities (Li, 2008). In addition, the sample consisting of hospitality students has been selected in view of the implications of this study on the hospitality education curriculum. In hospitality management higher education, specific entrepreneurship modules are widespread. For example, Ball (2005) identified 13 British Universities offering entrepreneurship related modules in their hospitality courses, mostly in the final stages of their degree program, and most modules were offered as electives rather than as part of the core curriculum.
- of British hospitality students in higher education - In light of the findings that the influence of personality traits is the highest in determining business start-up intentions in budding entrepreneurs - a sample of undergraduate hospitality students have been employed - Interestingly, although hospitality and tourism students are being encouraged to engage in entrepreneurial activities in order to stimulate the development of destinations, there appears to be limited research into the antecedents of their business start up activities (Li, 2008). interestingly - are being encouraged - engage in entrepreneurial activities - stimulate the development of destinations - there appears to be - limited research - - the sample consisting of hospitality students has been selected in view of the implications of this study on the hospitality education curriculum. - mostly in the final stages of their degree program, and most modules were offered as electives rather than as part of the core curriculum.
Furthermore, the characteristics (personality traits and demographic variables) known to be specific to creators (Gasse and D'Amours, 2000) are only thought to influence intentions when they affect these beliefs and perceptions. More specifically, perceived desirability refers to how attractive the idea of starting up a business is to people (Shapero and Sokol, 1982). People are particularly influenced by role models in their circle of family and friends (Audet, 2004). Likewise, cultural and social factors directly affect the perceived desirability of entrepreneurial behaviour (OCDE, 1998); social pressure is illustrated, for example, by accepted and respected occupational characteristics. As pointed out by Gasse and Tremblay (2006), intentions are influenced by the perception that the entrepreneurial behaviour is not only personally desirable but also socially desirable. In addition to being desirable, the act of creation must also be reasonably feasible, or at least be perceived as such. Feasibility refers to the degree to which people think they can successfully start up a business (Boissin and Emin, 2006). Feasibility depends, for example, on the perceived availability of the resources needed to create a business, on people's skills and on their confidence in their ability to successfully complete critical tasks in the entrepreneurial process.
- perceived desirability refers to how attractive the idea of starting up a business is to people - Likewise, cultural and social factors directly affect the perceived desirability of entrepreneurial behaviour - In addition to being desirable, the act of creation must also be reasonably feasible, or at least be perceived as such -
The Influence of Culture on Entrepreneurial Behavior Several studies have attempted to understand and explain the hows and whys of new business creation, but few have looked at it from an intercultural perspective. Two questions in particular require further exploration: why do certain cultures produce individuals who are more inclined to be entrepreneurs than others and how do individual and cultural values affect business creation (Busenitz and Lau, 1996). The results of a study by Arenius and Minniti (2005) suggest that the microeconomic environments of some countries favour entrepreneurial behaviour whereas those of others discourage it. The relation between entrepreneurial behaviour and cultural and intercultural incentives is complex and, especially for the latter countries, requires further investigation. As discussed in the preceding section, the conceptual model presented in figure 1 supposes that cognitive elements such as perceptions and beliefs have an impact on people's behaviour. And given that cognition is influenced by values and social context, culture therefore becomes an important factor to consider. For Shapero and Sokol (1982) moreover, business start-up is the result of social and cultural factors. Following this logic, national cultures, which have an impact on mental patterns, are considered to be a significant predictor of behaviour (Adler, Doktor and Redding, 1986).
- the hows and whys of new business creation - but few have looked at it from an intercultural perspective. - The results of a study by Arenius and Minniti (2005) suggest that - the microeconomic environments - cognitive elements such as perceptions and beliefs have an impact on people's behaviour. - And given that cognition is influenced by values and social context, culture therefore becomes an important factor to consider - For Shapero and Sokol (1982) moreover, business start-up is the result of social and cultural factors.
The results of a study by Uhlaner, Thurik and Hutjes (2002) are in keeping with this idea. These authors pointed out that in countries in which the culture can be qualified as postmodern, that is which promotes self-fulfilment and quality of life, entrepreneurial activity is less strong. This being true, the authors proposed that measures to stimulate business creation in these countries put greater emphasis on the intangible benefits of business creation rather than on the tangible and economic benefits. Other studies have likewise looked into the relationship between cultural aspects and entrepreneurial behaviour (Busenitz, Gomez and Spencer, 2000; Davidson, 1995a; Huisman, 1985; Lee and Peterson, 2000; McGrath and MacMillan, 1992; Mueller and Thomas, 2000; Tiessen, 1997; Wennekers, Noorderhaven, Hofstede and Thurik, 2002). Knowing that perceptions and beliefs influence entrepreneurial intentions and behaviour, and that national culture can also considerably influence the latter, we thought it worthwhile to compare the entrepreneurial intentions, interests and prevalence of university students from seven different countries. We attempted to better understand how values, attitudes and behaviour predisposed these students to create a business or a job or have the intention to do so.
- the intangible benefits of business creation rather than on the tangible and economic benefits. - Other studies have likewise looked into -
The paper also evaluates the moderating influence of family business tradition between the personality traits and intentions of students. In particular, the paper responds to the call of Gurel et al. (2010) for further research into the interface between the personality traits of hospitality and tourism students and their intentions to start up a business by considering the moderating effect of socio-cultural backgrounds of individuals.
- the moderating influence of family business tradition - In particular, the paper responds to the call of Gurel et al. (2010) for further research into - by considering the moderating effect of socio-cultural backgrounds of individuals.
Certain studies have focused on the entrepreneurial intentions of university students (Audet, 2004; Boissin and Emin, 2006; Kolvereid, 1996; Tkachev and Kolvereid, 1999). Filion, L'Heureux, Kadji-Youlaeu and Bellavance (2002) showed that 58% of Québec university students intended to start up a business. Similarly, even though Audet (2004) found that only 8% of English-speaking Québec university students intended to start up a business in the short term, 45% of them estimated that there was a 75% chance that they would one day run their own enterprise. These results are consistent with those collected in Russia and Norway (Kolvereid, 1996; Tkachev and Kolvereid, 1999). However, few studies have attempted to understand how the students' values, attitudes and behaviour, that is their entrepreneurial potential, can predispose them to founding an enterprise, creating their own job or having the intention to do so.
- they would one day run their own enterprise - These results are consistent with those collected in Russia and Norway -
This paper investigates the influence of family tradition and psychological traits on the entrepreneurial intention of university hospitality students in the UK. The empirical study was predicated on the need to consider both socio-demographic variables and especially family background and personality traits. The research also tested the suggestion that risk taking propensity may act as a potential mediator. The findings of the study suggest that family entrepreneurial background and innovation influence the intention to start a new business; that there is positive relationship between tolerance of ambiguity and risk taking propensity; and a negative relationship between locus of control and risk taking propensity. The paper emphasizes the importance of taking a more holistic approach when researching the factors that influence entrepreneurial intention.
- university hospitality students - The empirical study was predicated on the need to consider - The research also tested the suggestion that - The findings of the study suggest that - family entrepreneurial background influence the intention to start a new business - when researching the factors that influence entrepreneurial intention.
