Acc test
Define the term DNA replication and state where in the cell DNA replication occurs.
DNA replication is the process by which DNA makes a copy of itself. The DNA unzips its double helix, the separation creates a Y shape. One strand is the leading strand and the other is the lagging strand. The leading strand binds with an RNA strand. This is called Continuous Replication. The lagging strand bind with RNA primers and Okazaki fragment are added as well. Takes place in nucleus
Describe the effect of dissociation on the strength of an acid or base.
Dissociation can effect acids and bases differently. Acids and bases are recognized as strong or weak depending on the dissociation effect.
Describe the effect of dissociation in producing anions and cations.
Dissociation is when a molecule splits up into two (or more) ions. Typically ethanoic acid (acetic acid) splits into the ethanoate ion and H+ this means that an anion (the CH3COO-) and a cation (the H+) are produced. So the effect of dissociation is to increase the number of anions and cations in solution.
Describe how enzymes work, including how they affect the activation energy of a reaction and the rate of a reaction.
Enzymes are catalysts that bind to molecules (substrates) to lower the energy required to make it react. The rate of reaction increases if the activation energy decreases.
Describe the role of oxygen in oxidative phosphorylation.
Oxygen (O2) is the electron acceptor in the Electron Transport Chain. "The electrons are passed to O2, the final electron acceptor of the electron transport system. This oxygen, now negatively charged because it has acquired additional electrons, combines with H+ ions, which are positively charged because they donated electrons at the beginning of the electron transport system, to form H2O."
Identify the common chemical symbols for: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, potassium, sodium, chlorine, iron, and phosphorus.
Oxygen- O Potassium- K Carbon- C Sodium- Na Hydrogen- H Chlorine- Cl Nitrogen- N Iron- Fe Calcium- Ca Phosphorous- P
Identify the function of each following parts of the plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates.
Phospholipid bilayer- Base of the cell Cholesterol- stiffens the membrane Protiens- windows and doors of the cell membrane Carbohydrates- allow cells to recognize eachother or food cells
Describe how ribosomes, the rough endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus work together in protein synthesis and packaging.
Ribosomes (rRna) and proteins are the organelles that carry out prtoein synthesis either free/bound ribosomes make diff land of proteins but can shift roles fepending on polypeptides the RER covered with bound ribosomes, is abundant with cells that secrete proteins. as the polypeptide is sysnthesized on a ribsome attached to the RER, its theraded into the cisternal space. as it enters the spcae the new protein folds into its conformation secretory proteins are packaged in transport vesicles and carried to the golgi app the protein is received by the golgi app to be modified, identified, packeaged, and transported to where its supposed to go.
Determine which way water will move by osmosis and whether the cell will shrink, stay the same shape, or swell, when given the concentration of solutes in the cell and in the environment.
from an area of lower concentration solution If isotonic water doesn't mover hypertonic water moves out cell and it shrinks hypotonic water moves into cell and it swells
Define the term atom
The smallest particle of an element which can combine to form compounds
Interpret a simple chemical reaction, identifying reactants, products, and enzyme involved.
https://quizlet.com/283424759/ap-assess-water-acids-bases-ph-and-buffers-chemical-reactions-flash-cards/?i=5y1i3&x=1jqY
Write a simple chemical reaction using proper chemical notation (Note: See "Rules of Chemical Notation posted on the Biology Department website, www.austincc.edu/biology .)
https://quizlet.com/283424759/ap-assess-water-acids-bases-ph-and-buffers-chemical-reactions-flash-cards/?i=5y1i3&x=1jqY
Compare and contrast the relative amount of ATP production in glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
https://quizlet.com/298151598/energy-and-cells-flash-cards/
Identify the energy needs of simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport/solute pumping, endocytosis, and exocytosis.
https://quizlet.com/305932121/the-plasma-membrane-flash-cards/
Describe the polarity of water.
The two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom within water molecules (H 2O) form polar covalent bonds. While there is no net charge to a water molecule, the polarity of water creates a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a slightly negative charge on oxygen, contributing to water's properties of attraction.
Identify genes as pieces of DNA with the instructions for making a specific protein.
Thymine pairs up with Adenine(DNA) or Uracil(RNA) and Guanune pairs up with Cytosine.
Explain the characteristics of enzymes, including their specificity and that enzymes are not altered or used up in a reaction.
Enzymes exhibit four fundamental characteristics. First, enzymes do not make a reaction occur that would not occur on its own, they just make it happen much faster. Second, the enzyme molecule is not permanently altered by the reaction. It may be changed transiently, but the enzyme at the end of the reaction is the same molecule it was at the beginning. Therefore, a single enzyme molecule can be used over and over to catalyze the same reaction. Third, an enzyme can catalyze both the forward and the reverse reaction. One direction may be more favorable than the other, but the unfavorable direction of the reaction can occur. Fourth, enzymes are highly specific for the substrates they bind, meaning they catalyze only one reaction.
Identify the factors that affect enzyme activity (pH and temperature).
Enzymes have an optimum pH range within which the enzyme function is at its peak. If the substrate shows deviations larger than the optimum temperature or pH, required by the enzyme to work, the enzymes do not function such conditions
Define the term element.
is a substance that cannot be separated into simpler substances through chemistry
Combine the prefixes above with a metric unit and know the correct abbreviation of the combined prefix and unit.
Ex: km-kilometer; mg-milligram; ns-nanosecond; µl-microliter
Describe the location of intracellular and extracellular fluids and the relationship between the two.
Exrtracellular fluid- fluid that is not contained in cells. it is found in blood, lymph, body cavities, channels of brain/spinal cord, and in muscular body tissues.
Define the term gamete and explain why meiosis is necessary to maintain proper chromosome number after fertilization
Gametes: Produced in cells located in the germ line, either sperm or egg cells. *Meiosis is a special type of nuclear division which segregates one copy of each homologous chromosome into each new gamete. Meiosis thus makes it possible to maintain a constant number of chromosomes in a species that reproduces sexually by halving the number of chromosomes in the reproductive cells.
Define and describe the relationship between genes, DNA, and chromosomes.
Genes are a segment of DNA, and DNA are tightly wound structures that form chromosomes. Chromosomes look like beads. We can use the analogy of a city to better understand the relationship between DNA molecules, genes and chromosomes. One DNA molecule (one DNA 'letter' - A, T, G or C ) would be represented by one house on a street. A gene would equal a whole street of houses. A chromosome is all the streets in a neighbourhood. A set of chromosomes (for example all of the human chromosomes) would be represented by a city made up of all different neighbourhoods.
Explain how denaturation affects the function of a protein.
If proteins in a living cell are denatured, this results in disruption of cell activity and possibly cell death. Denatured proteins can exhibit a wide range of characteristics, from loss of solubility to communal aggregation.Some proteins can return to their functional shape after denaturation, but others cannot, especially in the crowded environment of the cell.
Describe the effects on cell volume when cells are exposed to isotonic, hypotonic, and hypertonic solutions.
isotonic- cell is balanced hypotonic- cell gets bigger and could burst hypertonic- cell shrinks
Describe the relationships between temperature, pressure and volume in a closed system.
In a closed system where volume is held constant, there is a direct relationship between Pressure and Temperature. In a direct relationship, one variable follows the same change when it comes to increasing and decreasing. For example, when the pressure increases then the temperature also increases. When the pressure decreases, then the temperature decreases
Describe the structure and function of lysosomes.
lysomes- digestive compartments that carry out intracellular digestion in a variety of circumstances. They recycle the cells organized and renew the cell giving it nutrients and repair cells. is a membrane bound sac of hydrolytic enzymes. that an animal cell uses to digest macromolecules. can hydrolyze proteins, fats polysacharides and nucleic acids. lysomal enzymes and membrane are synthesized by RER and sent to Golgi app for further modification they place a critical role in the programmed destruction of cells in multicellular organisms
Explain how organisms use chemical reactions to capture and release energy and to make new compounds and break down compounds
In a living cell, chemical reactions are carried out to store chemical energy by forming bonds or to release energy by breaking them. -Your body digests carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins in food. Chemical energy is released when covalent bonds in these molecules are broken. -Your cells are building molecules like fats, nucleic acids, and proteins. The covalent bonds that form to build these molecules store chemical energy
Name the location in the cell where the citric acid cycle occurs
In and across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion
Identify crossing over and independent assortment as two processes that contribute to genetic variation.
In crossing over, DNA molecules in nonsister chromatids break at corresponding places and then rejoin the other chromatid.
Describe the reactions (dehydration/synthesis or condensation/hydrolysis) used to make and break down polymers.
In dehydration synthesis reactions, a water molecule is formed as a result of generating a covalent bond between two monomeric components in a larger polymer. In hydrolysis reactions, a water molecule is consumed as a result of breaking the covalent bond holding together two components of a polymer
Briefly describe the role of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA in translation.
mRNA- messenger RNA is the copy of the DNA and gets translated to a sequence of amino acids that turns into protein synthesis. tRNA- interprets the nucleotide sequence of mRNA to build the corresponding amino acids. rRNA- associates with a set of proteins to form ribosomes.
Convert quantities between the metric units.
King Henry Died Drinking Chocolate Milk From left to right multiply by 10^ however many spaces over for example kilo to centi is 10^5 by the kilo amount from right to left divide by 10^ however many spaces over for example centi to deca divide centi amount by 10^3 (1,000)
State the basic units of the metric system for length, mass, time and volume.
Length- meter(m); Mass- gram(g); Time- second(s); Volume- liter(l)
Identify and describe the properties of the 3 states of matter.
Liquid - Assumes the shape of the container it occupies, particles slide past each other, little free space between, not easily compressible, flows easily. Solid - retains fixed volume, particles locked in place, does not flow easily. Gas - Assumes shape and volume of container, easily compressible, flows easily, particles move past each other.
Define the terms matter and mass.
matter - anything that occupies space and has mass mass - a measure of the quantity of matter in a sample of any material
Name the location in the cell where oxidative phosphorylation occurs, including the specific structure (electron transport chain).
mitochondria
Compare when mitosis occurs (during growth and repair) and when meiosis occurs (during gamete production
mitosis- crates 2 identical daughter cells that are genetically identical to each other and the parent cells. meiosis= creates 4 non identical daughter cells. genetically distinct from each other parents cells.
Explain how the size, electric charge, and lipid solubility of molecules affects their movement across the plasma membrane.
molecules have to be small enough to slip through the lipid tails. the lipid tails will not let charged or polarized molecules through the cell membrane, only uncharged molecules. Uncharged molecules dissolve in lipids, that's why uncharged molecules can come through the lipid tails.
Describe, in general terms, how negative and positive feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to maintain homeostasis.
negative feedback loops that counteract changes of various properties from their target values, known as set points. In contrast to negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops amplify their initiating stimuli, in other words, they move the system away from its starting state.
Define the term meiosis.
occurs only to eggs and gametes- the meiosis yields 4 non identical daughter cells. each with 2 chromosomes of the parent. a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each with half the chromosome number as the parent
Describe the structure of the mitochondrion and its role in energy capture in the cell.
Mitochordria- the sites of cellular resp. generating ATP from the catabolism of sugars, fats, and other fuels in the presence of oxygen. They are the organelles that converts energy to forms that cells can use for work they are mobile and move around the cell along tracks of the cytoskeleton have small quantites of DNA tha tdirect the synthesis of polypeptides produced by these internal ribosomes have smooth outer memebrane and a convoulted inner membrane with infoldings called CRISTAE
State the function of mitosis and distinguish it from cell division.
Mitosis is a type of cellular reproduction where a cell will produce an identical replica of itself with the same number and patterns of genes and chromosomes. Cell division is the division of a cell in reproduction or growth.The process by which a cell divides to form two daughter cells. Upon completion of the process, each daughter cell contains the same genetic material as the original cell and roughly half of its cytoplasm
Define the terms molecule and ion. Explain the role of electrons in chemical bonding.
Molecule - Two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds. Ion - When an atom gains or loses electrons, which is an atom with a charge. Valence electrons want a partner, so for every unpaired electron, a bond can be formed
List examples of the functions of proteins in cells.
Movement(myosin allows your cells to contract) Transportation(Hemoglobin transports oxygen) Buffers(protiens that maintain the PH) Allow cells to communicate(hormones) Defense(antibodies) Enzymes(Speed up a reaction WITHOUT being changed)
Describe the overall functions of the circulatory, digestive, nervous, endocrine, reproductive, integumentary, skeletal, respiratory, muscular, urinary, and immune systems.
Musculoskeletal system Mechanical support, posture and locomotion Cardiovascular system Transportation of oxygen, nutrients and hormones throughout the body and elimination of cellular metabolic waste Respiratory system Exchange of oxygen and carbon-dioxide between the body and air, acid-base balance regulation, phonation. Nervous system Initiation and regulation of vital body functions, sensation and body movements. Digestive system Mechanical and chemical degradation of food with purpose of absorbing into the body and using as energy. Urinary system Filtration of blood and eliminating unnecessary compounds and waste by producing and excreting urine. Endocrine system Production of hormones in order to regulate a wide variety of bodily functions (e.g. menstrual cycle, sugar levels, etc) Lymphatic system Draining of excess tissue fluid, immune defense of the body. Reproductive system Production of reproductive cells and contribution towards the reproduction process. Integumentary system Physical protection of the body surface, sensory reception, vitamin synthesis.
Define pH and relate pH to the concentration of hydrogen ions/protons.
pH: The measure of hydrogen ion concentration; a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution.
Define the term isotope
an atom with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons
Describe the levels of organization in multicellular organisms starting with atoms and ending with organisms.
atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms
Define the term mutation. Understand that mutations to a gene (piece of DNA) can change the structure and function of the protein that the gene codes for.
permanent alteration in the nucleotide sequence of one or more genes or in the number or structure of one or more chromosomes
Name the location in the cell where glycolysis occurs.
cytoplasm
Define each of the following terms: cellular respiration, glycolysis, citric acid cycle (also called Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle), oxidative phosphorylation, and electron transport chain.
Cellular Respiration-The process in which a cell breaks down sugar or other organic compounds to release energy used for cellular work Glycolysis-first step in releasing the energy of glucose, in which a molecule of glucose is broken into two molecules of pyruvic acid Citric Acid Cycle-A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration. oxidative phosphorylation-The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration. electron transport chain-a series of proteins in which the high-energy electrons from the Krebs cycle are used to convert ADP into ATP
Name the parts of an amino acid: (central carbon, amino group, carboxyl group, R group, and H atom).
Central carbon atom that is surrounded by a hydrogen (H) atom, Carboxyl group, Amino group, and R group (side chain).
Identify the characteristics of a neutralization reaction.
Chemical reaction in which a strong acid and a strong base come together to form water and salt
Define the term buffer.
Chemical system that resists changes in pH
Identify the products of the citric acid cycle.
carbon dioxide and ATP
Describe the structure and function of cilia and flagella.
Cilia and flagella- these can extend from cells with in a tissue layer, beating to move fluid over the surface of the tissue. both have a core of mictubules sheathed by the plasma membrane. 9 dobulets of microtubules are arranged in a ring around a pair in the center. "9+Z" pattern is found in most all eukaryotic cilia and flagella they are anchored to the cell by a basal body.
Describe the structure and function of the cytoskeleton of the cell. (Note: You do NOT need to differentiate between microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.)
Cytoskeleton of the cell- is a network of fibers extending throughout the cytoplasm. it organizes the sturcutres and activites of the cell. provides support, motility, and regulation. maintains cell shape. can be dismantled and reassembled to change the shape of cell. 3 main fibers that make up: micro-tubules, micro filaments, intermediate fliaments.
Describe how two DNA strands are complementary to each other.
One strand of DNA will run parallel and contain a sequence of nitrogenous bases (A,T,C, and G). The other strand is complementary to this one in that it contains the nitrogenous bases which pair with the bases of the first strand. A pairs with T and C pairs with G. The second strand runs anti-parallel to the first one. This just means they run in opposite direction of each other.
Describe the structure of the plasma membrane (phospholipid bilayer, cholesterol, proteins, and carbohydrates) and its overall functions.
plasma membrane- made of 2 layer of phosholipids w/ embedded proteins. structure- phosholipid bilayer- composed of a double layer of lipids(phospholipids) Proteins= diff kinds present. EX> Glycoprotiens- proteins with carbs attached carbs cholesterol separated contents from the cell to the outside environment and regulates what goes in /out of cells
Explain the role of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and ADP (adenosine diphosphate) in energy transfer.
• Cells harvest the chemical energy stored in organic molecules and use it to regenerate ATP, the molecule that drives most cellular work. • Some ATP is also formed directly during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level phosphorylation. Here an enzyme transfers a phosphate group from an organic substrate to ADP, forming ATP.
Identify the three main parts of a nucleotide.
• Each nucleotide consists of three parts: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group.
Compare the structure of triglycerides, phospholipids. and steroids
• In a fat, three fatty acids are joined to glycerol by an ester linkage, creating a triacylglycerol, or triglyceride. • Phospholipids have two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a phosphate group at the third position. • Steroids are lipids with a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings.
Identify the reactants and products of glycolysis.
Reactants of glycolysis. Glucose NAD+ ATP. Products of glycolysis. Pyruvate NADH ATP
Explain how protein receptors in the plasma membrane allow cells to communicate with each other.
Receptors are generally transmembrane proteins, which bind to signaling molecules outside the cell and subsequently transmit the signal through a sequence of molecular switches to internal signaling pathways.
Describe the processes of transcription and translation in the making of proteins. (Note: You do NOT need to know the enzymes involved in transcription and translation).
Cell uses the genes to synthesize proteins. This is a two-step process. The first step is transcription in which the sequence of one gene is replicated in an RNA molecule. The second step is translation in which the RNA molecule serves as a code for the formation of an amino-acid chain (a polypeptide)
Define each of the following terms: isotonic solution, hypotonic solution, and hypertonic solution.
(i) Hypertonic Solution: A solution having higher concentration of solute with respect to another solution, is called hypertonic solution. (ii) Hypotonic Solution: A solution having higher concentration of solvent with respect to another solution, is called hypotonic solution. (iii) Isotonic Solution: A solution that have exactly the same water concentration with respect to another solution, is called isotonic solution.
Identify the fraction or multiple associated with each of the following prefixes: kilo, deci, centi, milli, micro, and nano.
(k)kilo- 1000; 10^3 (d)deci- 1/10; 0.1; 10^-1 (c)centi- 1/100; 0.01; 10^-2 (m)milli- 1/1000; 0.001; 10^-3 (µ)micro- 1/1000,000; 0.000,001; 10^-6 (n)nano- 1/1000,000,000; 0.000,000,001; 10^-9
Recognize examples of kinetic energy and potential energy
-Potential energy convert to kinetic energy - example: coal has lots of energy burning coil releases kinetic energy and allows us to run our power plants. -Kinetic energy convert to potential energy - example: plants take the light energy from the sun to build sugars and other molecules locking in potential energy.
Define the terms transcription and translation and state where in the cell transcription and translation occur.
-transcription is the first step in gene expression, in which information from the gene is used to construct a functional product such as a protein. The goal is for an RNA to make a copy of a gene's DNA sequence. The RNA copy (transcript) will carry the information needed to build polypeptides. Transcription takes place in the cell's nucleus. -translation is the process of translating the sequence of the mRNA (messenger RNA) molecules to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis. The genetic code describes the relationship between the sequence of base pairs in a gene and the corresponding amino acid sequence that it encodes. In the cell cytoplasm, the ribosome reads the sequence of the mRNA in groups of three bases to assemble the protein.
Describe how DNA is replicated using complementary base pairing. (Note: You do NOT need to know the enzymes involved in DNA replication.)
The base pairing rules make DNA replication possible because it allows DNA polymerase to create a new strand based on the template stand. During DNA replication the parent molecule of DNA unzips to reveal the bases on either stand.
Define the terms crossing over and independent assortment.
The crossing over is the process of exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes whereas the independent assortment is the process in which the chromosome pairs align themeselves at the equator of the cell . Crossing over takes place in Prophase I of meiosis I whereas the independent assortment takes place in metaphase I of meiosis I.the process of exchange of DNA between homologous chromosomes. during prophase 1 of meiosis The Law of Independent Assortment speaks of alleles of a gene separating independently from alleles of another gene. Hence, the inheritance pattern of one trait will not affect the inheritance pattern of another.the process in which the chromosome pairs align themselves at the equator of the cell. During metaphase of 1 or meiosis 1
Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.
The nucleus is a spherical-shaped organelle present in every eukaryotic cell. It is the control center of eukaryotic cells, responsible for the coordination of genes and gene expression. The structure of a nucleus encompasses nuclear membrane, nucleoplasm, chromosomes and nucleolus. The cell nucleus consists of a nuclear membrane (nuclear envelope), nucleoplasm, nucleolus and chromosomes. Nucleoplasm, also known as karyoplasm, is the matrix present inside the nucleus. functions of a cell nucleus, it controls the hereditary characteristics of an organism. This organelle is also responsible for the protein synthesis, cell division, growth and differentiation.
Identify the charge and the location in an atom of protons, neutrons and electrons.
The protons (+) and neutrons (0) reside in the center of the atom, called the nucleus, while the electrons (-) circle around them
Describe the basic structure of an atom (protons, neutrons, and electrons).
The protons and neutrons reside in the center of the atom, called the nucleus, while the electrons circle around them
Describe the purpose of glycolysis and its benefit to cells
The purpose of Glycolysis is to break down one molecule glucose into two molecules of pyruvate. The pyruvate molecules are than individually sent to the transition reactions.
Describe how buffers work to keep the pH within a narrow range to maintain homeostasis.
When an acid is added to a buffered solution, the buffer binds to the H+ preventing these ions from causing a decrease in pH of the solution. The survival of an organism depends on its ability to maintain homeostasis by keeping body fluid pH within a narrow range.
Define the term dissociation
When atoms separate or split into smaller particles such as atoms, ions or radicals, usually in a reversible manner.
Describe the outcome of meiosis in terms of the number of daughter cells that result and in terms of the number of chromosomes in each of the resulting daughter cells. (Note: You do NOT need to know each of the phases of meiosis.)
the resulting reproductive cells, or gametes, each have 23 genetically unique chromosomes. The overall process of meiosis produces four daughter cells from one single parent cell.
Define the term homeostasis.
the state of steady internal, physical, and chemical conditions maintained by living systems
State the three tenets of the cell theory
the three tenets of the cell theory: 1. all organisms are made of cells 2. the cell is simplest collection of matter that can live 3. All cells are related to their decent by earlier cells
Distinguish between the four nucleotides used to make RNA and the four nucleotides used to make DNA.
Both DNA and RNA are made up of : cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G). DNA also has adenine (A) where as RNA has uracil (U).
Compare how covalent and ionic bonds hold atoms together and how each type of bond is shown in a diagram.
IONIC BONDS- forms when one atom donates an electron to another atom. -The electrical attraction between a negative ion and a positive ion. (metal to nonmetal) (results from the transfer of electrons). COVALENT BONDS- forms when two atoms share electrons. Covalent bonds can be nonpolar or polar. - A pair of electrons shared by two atoms. usually nonmetal-nonmetal.
Identify lipids as molecules that are hydrophobic or at least partially hydrophobic.
A diverse group of hydrophobic molecules the unifying features is that they have little or no attraction for water.
Define the terms monomer (also called subunit or building block) and polymer.
A polymer is a long molecule consisting of many similar or identical building blocks linked by covalent bonds. The repeated units are small molecules called monomers.
Describe the importance of shape to protein function
A proteins shape determines its function-many proteins are globular,while others are fiborous. • A polypeptide chain of a given amino acid sequence can spontaneously arrange itself into a 3D shape determined and maintained by the interactions responsible for secondary and tertiary structure. The folding occurs as the protein is being synthesized within the cell.
Compare the properties of salts, acids, and bases.
Acid is a compound which yields hydrogen ion (H+), when dissolved in water. Acid is sour to the taste and it is corrosive in nature. The pH of acids is less than 7. All acids react with metal to release hydrogen gas. For example, zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid to form zinc chloride and hydrogen gas. When acids react with limestone (CaCO₃), it produces carbon dioxide. For example,HCl reacts with limestone to produce carbonic acid and calcium chloride. Acids are classified into organic and inorganic acids. The best example of organic acid is acetic acid CH₃COOH, and inorganic acids are those which are produced from minerals; for example, sulphuric acid H₂SO₄, and hydrochloric acid, etc. Acids have a tendency to quickly corrode the metal surfaces Bases are compounds that yield hydroxide ion (OH−) , when it is dissolved in water. Bases react with oils and grease to form molecules of soap. Bases convert red litmus paper to blue litmus paper. Bases also have the tendency to corrode the surface of metals Salts are formed by the combination of acid and base through the neutralization reaction. The acidic and basic nature of salts usually depends on the acid and base from which the salt evolved in a neutralization reaction. The pH of a solution of salt also depends on the strength of acids and bases which are combined in the neutralization reaction. 5. Define the term buffer. a solution that resists changes in pH when acid or alkali is added to it. Buffers typically involve a weak acid or alkali together with one of its salts 6. Describe how buffers work to keep the pH within a narrow range to maintain homeostasis. When an acid is added to a buffered solution, the buffer binds to the H+ preventing these ions from causing a decrease in pH of the solution.
Read a pH scale and determine whether the solution is acid, basic, or neutral.
Acids: ph < 7 , base: ph > 7, neutral ph = 7
Describe how pH and temperature affect protein function.
Alterations in pH, salt concentration, temperature, or other factors can unravel or denature a protein.
Define the terms acid, base, and hydrogen ion (also called a proton)
An acid is a substance that donates hydrogen ions. Because of this, when an acid is dissolved in water, the balance between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions is shifted. Now there are more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions in the solution. This kind of solution is acidic. A base is a substance that accepts hydrogen ions. When a base is dissolved in water, the balance between hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions shifts the opposite way. Because the base "soaks up" hydrogen ions, the result is a solution with more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions. This kind of solution is alkaline. ionized hydrogen of the form H +, found in aqueous solutions of all acids The positively charged ion of hydrogen, H+, formed by removal of the electron from atomic hydrogen and found in the form of hydronium ion in all aqueous solutions of acids
Identify the chemical formulas for carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, water, hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, glucose, and sodium bicarbonate (also known as sodium hydrogen carbonate).
Carbon Dioxide- CO2 Carbon Monoxide- CO Water- H2O Hydrochloric Acid- HCl Sodium Chloride- NaCl Glucose- C6H12O6 Sodium Bicarbonate-NaHCO3
Describe why carbon is a versatile element and found in the structure of all biomolecules.
Carbon is tetravalent and can therefore bond with up to 4 different atoms and can form large complex molecules with polar and/or non-polar bonds.Having 4 outer electrons, it shares electrons with other atoms to form 4 covalent bonds with a variety of bond angles.
Define the following terms: catalyst, enzyme, substrate, products, activation energy, and active site.
Catalyst =A substance which speeds up a chemical reaction without being used up in the reaction Enzyme =Biological catalysts that speed up a chemical reaction. Substrate Products =The starting material in a chemical reaction, or reactants Activation Energy = The energy required to start a chemical reaction. Active Site = In biology, the active site is the region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction. The active site consists of residues that form temporary bonds with the substrate (binding site) and residues that catalyse a reaction of that substrate (catalytic site).
Describe the function of each of the common carbohydrates listed above.
Glucose- is stored in the body and glycogen and it provides energy for the human body. Fructose- same chemical formula as glucose but different molecular structure. Found in fruit and honey. Also provides energy. Galactose- is hydrolyzed from the disaccharide lactose, like milk. Major energy source. Ribose- the backbone of RNA. contains the alcohol group. Deoxyribose- the building block of DNA. Sucrose- provides energy for physical and mental function. Lactose- made up of glucose and galactose and the galactose is converted into glucose to create energy. Glycogen- a storage form of glucose in the body. biomolecule that provides energy in cells that spread throughout the entire body. Starch- converts glucose to energy. when eaten, turns into maltose. Cellulose- makes up 30% of plant wall. Connects cells to form tissues, signaling cells to grow and divide, controlling the shape of plant cells, and allowing cells to withstand the turgor pressure of the fluids inside them.
Name and classify the following common carbohydrates as either monosaccharides, disaccharides, or polysaccharides: glucose, fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose, sucrose, lactose, glycogen, starch, and cellulose.
Glucose- monosaccharide Fructose- monosaccharide Galactose- monosaccharide Ribose- monosaccharide Deoxyribose- monosaccharide Sucrose- disaccharide Lactose- disaccharide Glycogen- polysaccharide Starch- polysaccharide Cellulose- polysaccharide
Identify how hydrogen bonds are shown in a diagram.
H2O for example ---partially - charge--- O / \ H H----partial +charge----partially - charge---- O / \ H H
Define the term hydrogen bond. Describe the characteristics of hydrogen bonds.
HYDROGEN BOND- - weak attractive force between slightly positive hydrogen of one molecule and slightly negative atom in another (3-7 kcal/mol) a heat will readily break hydrogen bonds. Structure of hydrogen bond = 1. Stabilizes protein structure, 2. Holds DNA strands together, 3. Impart structure to liquid water.
Determine whether a cell's environment is hypotonic, hypertonic, or isotonic with respect to the cell when given the concentration of solutes in the environment and in the cell.
Hypertonic- if there's a high concentration of solutes outside of the cell, H2o will diffuse out of the cell and the cell shrinks. Hypotonic- water diffuses into the cell and it grows Isotonic same concentration of solutes inside and outside cell
Discuss the relative strengths of covalent and ionic bonds (how easily the bonds can be broken).
IONIC BONDS- Formed when one atom gives up an electron(s) to form another atom (ex:NaCl) Opposite charges, attract each other; they are not very stable They dissociate water from forming electrolytes COVALENT BONDS- Form when atoms share electrons; energy levels overlap Bonds represent bars-,=, or triple Bonds are strong and will not dissociate in water
Recognize that isotopes are used in diagnosis and treatment in medicine
Radioisotopes (half-life) Fluorine-18 is used in nuclear imaging Erbium-169 is used for relieving arthritis pain in synovial joints. Iodine-123 is used for diagnosis in thyroid function
Describe the basic structure of eukaryotic cells: plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
Plasma membrane- functions as a selective barrier that allows the passage of oxygen, nutrients , and wastes for the whole cell. all cells are surrounded by a plasma membrane. cytosol is with in membrane. Nucleus- is a enclosed membrane organelle contains the chromosomes of the cell. chromosomes are contained in a nucleus envelope. Cytoplasm- the region b/w the nucleus and the plasma membrane. There are a variety of membrane bound organelles of specialized form and function. Prokaryotic cells store chromosomes here.
Identify the type of bond (polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, or ionic) found in the following molecules: carbon dioxide, water, hydrochloric acid, sodium chloride, oxygen gas, and sodium bicarbonate.
Polar covalent- sodium bicarbonate, water, Nonpolar covalent- oxygen gas, carbon dioxide Ionic- sodium chloride, hydrochloric acid
Compare polar and nonpolar bonds. Compare and contrast the characteristics of polar and nonpolar molecules.
Polar molecules occur when there is an electronegativity difference between the bonded atoms. Nonpolar molecules occur when electrons are shared equal between atoms of a diatomic molecule or when polar bonds in a larger molecule cancel each other out. Polar compounds can exist as solids due to greater force of interactions. Melting and boiling points: These have greater melting and boiling point than non-polar compounds. Conductivity: They conduct electricity in the solution state due to the mobility of ions. Nonpolar bonds Physical State: These are mainly existing as gases and less existence as liquids 2. Nature: These are very soft in nature. 3. Solubility: These are insoluble in water or less soluble in water. But these are more soluble in non-polar solvents like CCl4, CHCl3 etc. 4. Conductivity: These are insulators since they have no chargeable particles. 5. Boiling And Melting Points: since they don't have any interaction or polarity they have very low boiling and melting points, 6. Dipole moment: Since the bond is no more polar they have zero dipole moment.
Differentiate between kinetic energy and potential energy and know their characteristics.
Potential energy is the stored energy in an object due of its position or its configuration whereas Kinetic energy is the energy which a body possesses because of its motion.
Describe the four levels of a protein's structure, including at which level of structure covalent bonds are important and at which level of structure hydrogen bonds are important.
Primary structure - consists of covalent peptide bonds between amino acids. This is also known as the sequence of the protein. Secondary structure - consists mostly of hydrogen bonds between local areas of a protein sequence. The hydrogen bonds frequently occur between backbone carbonyl and amino groups and usually form structures like alfa helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure - this is the overall 3 dimensional structure of the protein, which includes how the beta sheets and alfa helices interact in 3 dimensions. Noncovalent bonds and interactions involving the amino acid side chains are frequently observed - these include hydrophobic interactions, salt bridges, and hydrogen bonds. However, there are covalent bonds in the case of disulfide bridges. Quaternary structure - this involves interactions between different (not covalently connected) polypeptide chains or protein subunits to "build" a multimeric protein. The same types of noncovalent bonds and interactions in tertiary structure are important for quaternary structure, although these interactions are between different polypeptide chains.
Describe the outcome of mitosis in terms of the number of daughter cells that result after the parent cell divides and in terms of the number of chromosomes in each of the resulting daughter cells. (Note: You do NOT need to know each of the phases of mitosis.)
Process starts with one cell and prodce 2 cells that are genetically identical to the original parent cells. each duaghter cell gets 46 chromosomes 23 from each parent.
Identify the products of oxidative phosphorylation.
Products: 2 pyruvate + 2 water molecules + 2 ATP + 2 molecules of NADH + 2 Hydrogen ions (H+)
Describe the structure and function of ribosomes, the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and the Golgi apparatus (also called Golgi body or Golgi complex).
Ribosomes- build cells proteins. Ribosomes, containing rRna and protein, are the organelles that carry out protein synthesis. The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)- looks rough b/c bound ribosomes are attached to the outside. especially abundant in cells that secrete proteins (polypeptide is sythsized on a ribosome attached to the RER and threaded into the cisternal space through a pore and turned into a new protein. is a membrane factory. Golgi apparatus= shipping/receiving center for all cell products. is the center of manufacturing, warehousing, sorting, and shipping. transport vesicles from the ER travel to the golgi apparatus for modification of their contents. sorts and packs materials into transport vesicles.
Describe the structure and function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
Smooth endoplacmic reticulum- is rich in enxymes and plays a role in a variety of metabolic processes. looks smooth b/c it lacks ribosomes enzymes of SER synthesize lipids, including oils, phospholipids, and steroids in the SER of the liver, enzymes help detox poisons SER stores calcium ions
Compare and contrast the random motion of particles in a liquid, solid, and gas and the effect of temperature on the motion.
Solid- holds shape, fixed volume Liquid- shape of container, free surface, fixed volume Gas- shape and volume of container Temperature for example- Solid- Ice Liquid- water Gas- Steam
Distinguish between hydrophilic & hydrophobic substances and describe their interactions.
Something defined as hydrophilic is actually attracted to water, while something that is hydrophobic resists water. This means when hydrophobic items come in contact with liquids, water is encouraged to bead up and roll off the surface- almost pushing it away like a magnet pushes away metal objects. hydrophilic surfaces tend to spread out the water over their surface and do not allow the formation of water droplets.
Compare the function of triglycerides, phospholipids and the steroid cholesterol, including the role of cholesterol as a precursor to other steroids.
Triglycerides - store energy for later use. the food you eat contains calories and proteins and triglycerides store those for later use. Phopholipids - they form a bilayer of the plasma membrane. the head is facing out and the tails are facing in allowing the plasma membrane to be selectively permeable to solutes such as ions, proteins and water. Steroid cholesterol - most common steroid that is synthesized in the liver and precursor for vitamin D. It's the precursor to bile salts, which help the emulsification of fats and their absorption by cells. It is a component of the plasma membrane of animal cells and the phospholipid bilayer.
Explain the biological importance of hydrogen bonds between water molecules and between other polar covalent molecules.
Water makes up to 60-70% of the human body as well as most other things are mostly made of water. Without hydrogen bonding none of it would exist, including us.
Compare how substances are moved into and out of the cell by each of the following: simple diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, active transport/solute pumping, endocytosis, and exocytosis
simple diffusion- process by which a molecule/substance can pass through the cell membrane without aid from an intermediary such as an integral membrane protein. osmosis- the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to equalize the solutes on the two sides. facilitated diffusion- spontaneous movement of molecuse and ions through cell membrane via specific integral proteins. facilitated transport does not require energy from ATP hydrolisis in the transport step because ions and molecules move down their own concentration gradient. active transport/solute pumping- solute pumping is a form of active transport of a solute through a cell membrane. solute pumping allows a molecule that cannot cross a phospholipid bilayer to enter the cell by way of a protein channel. Unlike diffusion, solute pumping requires energy from ATP to change the shape of the protein channel to allow the molecule to pass through, which is why it is an active transport mechanism. endocytosis- a form of active transport by which a cell transports molecules into a cell by engulfing them in an energy-using process. the process by which the contents of a cell vacuole are released to the exterior through fusion of the vacuole membrane through the cell membrane. exocytosis-
Define the term denaturation
the alteration of the basic nature or structure of a substance.
Define the term mitosis.
the formation of the 2 daughter nuclei- usually followed by division of cytoplasm (cytokinesis) a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each the same as the parent nucleus
Identify the following functional groups and describe their properties: hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amine, phosphate, and sulfhydryl.
• In a hydroxyl group (—OH), a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen atom, which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton. • A carbonyl group (>CO) consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond. • A carboxyl group (—COOH) consists of a carbon atom with a double bond to an oxygen atom and a single bond to the oxygen of a hydroxyl group. • An amino group (—NH2) consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton. • A phosphate group (—OPO32−) consists of a phosphorus atom bound to four oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double bond). • A sulfhydryl group (—SH) consists of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone.
Identify nucleotides as the monomers/subunits joined to make nucleic acids.
• Nucleic acids are polymers made of nucleotide monomers.
List and describe the properties of water (high heat capacity, essential reactant, excellent solvent, cohesion (also called surface tension) and how they benefit organisms.
• Surface Tension: Cohesion allows water to pull together & forn droplets; or form an interface between it & other surfaces. the mesaure of how hard it is to break this interface is its SURFACE TENSION. • Adhesion: Sticking of one substance to another. Water is a good adhesive. It clings to many things such as glue. • Imbibition: The process of soaking into a substance that likes water such as a sponge or paper towels • High specific Heat: The heat needed to change the temp of a substance • Cohesion: Sticking together of similar molecules • High heat vaporization: Water must absorb a certain amount of additional heat to change from a liquid to a gas. • Freezing and Expansion of Water: Water is most dense at 4 degrees Celcius. Ice floats because maximum Hydrogen bonding occurs at 0 degrees Celcius. • Versatile Solvent: It is a major solvent in nature and it mixes well with other substances causing an aqueous solution.
Describe how the R group in each of the 20 different amino acids determines each amino acid's characteristics.
• The physical and chemical properties of the R group determine the unique characteristics of a particular amino acid. One group of amino acids has hydrophobic R groups. Another group of amino acids has polar R groups that are hydrophilic. A third group of amino acids includes those with functional groups that are charged (ionized) at cellular pH. Some acidic R groups are negative in charge due to the presence of a carboxyl group. Basic R groups have amino groups that are positive in charge. Note that all amino acids have carboxyl and amino groups. The terms acidic and basic in this context refer only to these groups in the R groups.
Define the terms monosaccharide, disaccharide, and polysaccharide. Identify monosaccharides as the monomers/subunits joined to make disaccharides and polysaccharides.
• The simplest carbohydrates are monosaccharides, or simple sugars. • Disaccharides, or double sugars, consist of two monosaccharides joined by a condensation reaction. • Polysaccharides are polymers of many monosaccharides.
Name the two major nucleic acids found in cells
• There are two types of nucleic acids: ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). These are the molecules that allow living organisms to reproduce their complex components from generation to generation.
