Adolescence
Kohlberg's Stages of Morality
-6 Stages -Child takes view, becomes confused by discrepant info, then resolves confusion by forming more advanced and comprehensive position
Social Dominance Hierarchy
-Ability of individual to control resources in his/her peer group -Influenced through behavior of peer group
Growth in intimacy in adolescence
-Adolescence more likely to consider trust, self-disclosure, shared attitudes, and loyalty as defining features of friendship
Media Saturation
-Adolescents spend less time on phone than with other activities -Uses media 8hrs/day -Worry about addiction
Structured and Unstructured Leisure in Rural Settings
-Adolescents with lots of structured activity also have lots of unstructured leisure time -Structured activity=better development -Positive outcomes
Ethnic Differences in Identity and Self-Esteem
-Black girls have higher self esteem -Asian Americans have lowest self esteem -Ethnic minorities in school where mostly white=more self-esteem problem
Development of Leisure Boredom
-Boredom increases slightly each year due to family structure and loneliness -Not fully developed--ndon't know how to implement unstructured time with activities
Effects of Discrimination
-Conduct issues associated with discrimination and depression, alienation -Positive belief about one's race helps deflect effects of discrimination
Peer Group Rejection Study
-Deviance from peer groups can encourage peer rejection
Changes in Self-Conceptions
-Distinguish between opinions of self and views of others -Ability to organize traits into categories (multifaceted personality) -False self-behavior: behavior that intentionally presents false impression
Self-Esteem Changes Throughout Adolescence
-Early adolescent girls have lower self confidence -Less self esteem and vulnerability in black girls
Conflict Resolutions in Development
-Early conflict res. occurs by coercion and power -Later conflict res. based on reputation or disengagement
Uses & Gratification Approach
-Emphasizes that adolescents choose the media they're exposed to
James Marcia
-Exploration theory -Not everyone goes through all 4 stages -Goal: identity achievement -Identity Diffusion: sense of apathy, not exploration & no commitment -Identity Foreclosure: Not exploring--keep with what you know and have been thought--likely with authoritarian parents -Moratorium: Career exploration--explore a lot of things, but no commitment -Identity Achievement: Has idea and is willing to commit
Structured Leisure Activities
-Extracurricular activities -Associated with better school performance, social well-being, and social status, better confidence -Little to no participation has increased risk of dropping out of school, unprotected sex, delinquent activities -No empirical support for the idea that extracurricular over scheduling of youth has negative effects -Increased contact with teachers and other school personnel who may reinforce value of school -Bonds students and parents to school--greater student success
Dimensions of Personality
-Extraversion -Agreeableness -Conscientiousness -Neuroticism -Openness to experience
Intimacy
-Formation, maintenance, and termination of close relationships; self-disclosure, trust, concern -Includes metacognition, self identity, peer groups, and brain changes
Standards-Based Reform
-Hold schools and students to predetermined set of standards -Disagreement about standards -Procedure when large amounts of students don't pass exams--students can't graduate and drop out -Common Core--problems are that politicians and test companies create these exams
Changes in Adolescents Decision Making Abilities
-Improvements: consider risks and benefits, decision based on potential immediate reward; better ability to control impulses -Legal Decision making: adolescents less likely to think about long-term implications
Deidealization
-Increasingly more realistic view of parents -Emotional autonomy & staying with parents=good outcome -Triggers: puberty & social cognitive development -Adolescents who feel most autonomous have been given enough freedom by parents
Attachment in Adolescence
-Individuals more securely attached during infancy have a more positive and healthy internal working model of relationships -Ind. insecurely attached are more sensitive to rejection by others in romantic encounters--depressive and anxious symptoms
Peer Relationships in Normal Development
-Influences self-image -Assists development of autonomy -Provides context for decision making skills -Intimate relations -Influence achievement
Students with Poor Peer Relationships More likely to:
-Low Achievers -Drop out -Higher rates of delinquent behavior -Emotional and mental health problems
No Child Left Behind
-Mandates all states ensure all students achieve academic proficiency -Problems: -Not enough resources -Taught to the test -No common set of standards -Encouraged poor-performing students to be absent on test days to have better scores -Pushing low-achieving students out of schools -Attempts to fix Problems: -High standards for all students -Common core -Race to the top
Moral Development
-Moral changes linked to onset of Piaget's formal operations -Relatively little shift in moral reasoning after two stages; significant shift in cognitive abilities -Formal Operations=abstract thinking -Combine/classify more mature -Higher order reasoning
Adolescent Workplace and Adolescent Development
-Most adolescents in retail and service -Adolescents can't do much independently -Working during adolescence negatively affects development: misconduct, lying happens on the job -Even though teens receive money, they don't manage it appropriately (Premature affluence) -Working over 20hrs/week hurts student performance and engagement and increases chance of dropping out -Employment doesn't decrease delinquent activity -May possibly benefit poor youth
Healthy Identity is....
-One where adolescents experiment and explore
Detachment
-Process where adolescents sever emotional attachments to parents and other authority figures -Families get along with adolescents; adolescents can be emotionally autonomous, but not detached
Ethnic Socialization
-Process where individuals develop understanding ethnic or racial background -Best adolescents come from homes where mom's provided much of racial socialization messages
Individuation
-Progressive sharpening of an individual's sense of being an autonomous, independent person -Doesn't have to be all stress and turmoil
Carol Gilligan's Moral Development
-Said Kohlberg was gender biased 1. Preconventional (Selfish) transition from selfish to responsibility 2. Conventional (social self sacrifice=goodness) selfless 3. Post-conventional (Principled) don't hurt self or others
Moral Reasoning & Cyberbullying Study
-Self-enhancement & Self-transcendence moderately predicted cyber & trad. bullying -Immoral & disengaged behaviors predicted cyber & trad. -Indirect effects showed self-enhancement & openness to changes predicted both bullying forms through immoral behavior -Morality issues similar for trad & cyber (lack of guilt, absence of moral aspects) -Cyberbullies predicted by self-enhancement, ability to use electronic, anonymous, to be center of attention
Erik Erikson
-Series of crises in search for identity--way in which person resolves crisis dictates personal identity and future development -8 Stages of Development -identity development begins at birth -2 crisis: identity vs. identity & intimacy vs. isolation
Impact of Adolescents' Exposure to Controversial Content
-Sexual content decreases with reality TV -Absence of safe sex and consequences, more permissible attitude -Violence -Conflict between behavior causes personality -Personality causes behavior through influence
Elementary School Classroom Climate
-Simplistic material -Happy, Warm designs
Jean Phinney's Ethnic Identity Study
-Study based on the work of Erikson & Marcia -3 Stages 1. Unexamined identity (identity diffusion and foreclosure) 2. Ethnic Identity Search (moratorium) 3. Achieved Ethnic Identity
Simpson's Moral Development
-Suggested Kohlberg's stage model based on Western philosophy and used model with non-Western cultures without considering the extent to which they have potential different moral outlooks
Secondary School Classroom Climate
-Teachers less likely to trust students are more likely to emphasize discipline; more likely to believe students' abilities are fixed; less likely than other teachers to feel confident about teaching abilities; best teachers=authoritative style; -School Size: ideal size is 600-900 students; especially important for students with poor grades
Sense of Morality Changes in Adolescence
-Teens become more aware that taking other person's perspective that includes views of self and other -Grows in cognitive perspective taking -Changes in social structures -Changes in prefrontal cortex--influences executive functioning which influences response to social stimuli
Consequences of High Self-Esteem
-Too high=risk of dropping self esteem -Academic success leads to higher self-esteem, not other way
Why Identity is Important in Adolescence
-Where do I fit in? (Who am I?) -Future orientation -Gender/Sexual orientation and body changes
Conflict Changes
-Younger ad focus on public disrespect -Older ad focus on private matters
William Cross' Research & Theory of Ethnic Identity
1. Pre-encounter 2. Encounter 3. Immersion 4. Internalization -Ethnic & racial formation in adolescence related to positive mental health outcomes
Themes of Ethnic Socialization
1. Understanding & Valuing one's culture 2. Dealing with prejudice 3. Succeeding in mainstream society
Piaget's 2 Stages of Moral Development
1. Younger children (10-11) think about moral dilemmas as fixed and absolute; solutions handed down by authority figure 2. Older children more relative; rules not sacred, but can be changed if everyone desires
Multiethnic
2 parents of different ethnic or racial backgrounds
Types of Unpopular Adolescents
Ad. with problems controlling aggression (reactive)--fights with other students and bullies others; Withdrawn--very shy, anxious, and inhibited, victims of bullying; Aggressive & withdrawn--hostile, nervous about initiating friendships
Immigrant Paradox
Adolescents who immigrate to the US score higher on measures of adjustment than adolescents from same ethnic group who has already lived in US
Perceived Popularity
Amount of status or prestige
Ethnic Identity
Aspect of sense of identity concerning ancestry or racial group membership -Process of ethnic identity development 1. Individual encounters prejudice 2. Period of learning about heritage--increases self-esteem -Feelings of connection or belonging to a race or ethnicity -Identifying with racial or ethnic group through shared commitment or common values
Characteristics of "Popular" Students
Athletic, high SES, smart, indulgent parenting; dating/romantic
Insecure Attachment
Babies don't develop trust
Intimacy & Autonomy
Both important constructs Seem contradictory
Identity Development over Time
Coherent sense of identity not established until 18 (more clear with boys)
Sense of Identity
Conception and expression of who one is
Self Esteem
Confidence in one's self
Crowds as Reference Groups
Contribute to definition of norms and standards; provides basis for adolescents' identity; crowds establish & reinforce social norms; determines adolescents' self esteem through crowd identity
New Media
Digital media accessed via computer, smartphone, and other internet-based devices
Autonomy
Emotional, cognitive, and behavioral components of self
Emotional Autonomy
Establish more adult-like and less childish close relationships with family members and peers; transformation of family relationships
Cognitive Autonomy
Establishment of independent set of values, opinions, and beliefs
Ideal Self
Goal of who you want to be
Peer Groups
Groups of people around same age
Racial Centrality
How important race is in defining identity (one of three dimensions of racial identity that influences effects of discrimination)
Self Conception
How one sees themselves
Social Self
How self is perceived by others
Classroom Climate
How teachers interact with students, use class time, & Expectations they hold for students influence learning and academic achievement -Students achieve more when attending schools that are responsive and demanding -Students achieve more in classrooms that promote cooperation, not competition
Things that Go into Popularity
How well liked; social skills; aggression (sometimes) used to get something
Sociometric Popularity
How well-liked someone is by peers
Private Regard
How you feel about being a member of your race (one of three dimensions of racial identity that influences effects of discrimination)
Public Regard
How you think others view your race (one of three dimensions of racial identity that influences effects of discrimination)
How Peer Groups Become More Important
Industrialization & modernization
Intimacy in Preadolescence
Interpersonal need for intimacy emerges; same-sex friendships & close platonic friendships -One of main challenges in adolescence is moving from nonsexual to sexual relationships
Crowd
Large group, male and female, similar activities; usually stereotyped "Jocks" "Brains"'; based on reputation
Behavioral Autonomy
Make and follow through with independent decisions
Stability of Friendships over Time
Moderate stability; composition of cliques may shift, but defining characteristics don't
Crowd Structure Over Time
More differentiated & less hierarchal; allow freedom for adolescents to move crowds and change status
Assimilation
New experiences interpreted to fit in with old models
Accommodation
Old models restructured to include new experiences
Old and New Models to Prevent Bullying
Old: -Target "victim:--create better social skills -Target Bully--teach individual good behavior New -Create opportunities for interaction -Change in-group -All inclusion--work together
Psychological Control
Parenting that controls adolescents' emotions and opinions. Effect: depression and anxiety
Parental Influence on Cliques
Parents socialize and predispose teens to certain crowds
Cultivation Theory
Perspective that explains the impact that media exposure has on people -Video games=bad behavior
Identity Status
Point in identity development process that characterizes an adolescent at any given time
Gender Intensification Hypothesis
Pressures to behave in sex-apropriate ways intensifies during adolescence
Morality
Principles concerning distinction between right & wrong, or good & bad behavior
Moral Judgment
Reasoning about hypothetical or "real life" moral dilemmas & how youth justify moral decisions
Adult Attachment
Retrospective measure of internal working model (how relationships work)
Unstructured Leisure Time
Routine Activity Theory: Combination of lack of structure, socializing with peers and absents of adults supervision leads to delinquency and problem behaviors
Agency
Sense that one has an impact on the world
Clique
Small group of 2-12 people, within a larger crowd; more intimate relationships
Attachment
Strong & enduring emotional bond between infant and his/her caretaker
Secure Attachment
Strong emotional bond--trusts caretaker
Co-rumination
Talking with friends about one's problems can make them depressed
Consequences of Rejection
Unpopularity--negative mental health and psychological development (depression, behavioral, academic problems)
Self Conscious
Way individual is preoccupied with self-image
Self-Image Stability
Way individual self-image changes per day
Self Concept
Way you want to interact with others
Pygmalion Effect
When teachers told that some students have higher potential than others, they are warmer and kinder, and teach more and more responsive to students; better feedback and praise